annotate doc/lispref/objects.texi @ 99746:07389f46a9e0

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author Martin Rudalics <rudalics@gmx.at>
date Thu, 20 Nov 2008 10:13:40 +0000
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2001,
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4 @c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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6 @setfilename ../../info/objects
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7 @node Lisp Data Types, Numbers, Introduction, Top
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8 @chapter Lisp Data Types
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9 @cindex object
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10 @cindex Lisp object
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11 @cindex type
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12 @cindex data type
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13
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14 A Lisp @dfn{object} is a piece of data used and manipulated by Lisp
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15 programs. For our purposes, a @dfn{type} or @dfn{data type} is a set of
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16 possible objects.
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17
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18 Every object belongs to at least one type. Objects of the same type
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19 have similar structures and may usually be used in the same contexts.
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20 Types can overlap, and objects can belong to two or more types.
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21 Consequently, we can ask whether an object belongs to a particular type,
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22 but not for ``the'' type of an object.
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23
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24 @cindex primitive type
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25 A few fundamental object types are built into Emacs. These, from
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26 which all other types are constructed, are called @dfn{primitive types}.
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27 Each object belongs to one and only one primitive type. These types
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28 include @dfn{integer}, @dfn{float}, @dfn{cons}, @dfn{symbol},
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29 @dfn{string}, @dfn{vector}, @dfn{hash-table}, @dfn{subr}, and
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30 @dfn{byte-code function}, plus several special types, such as
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31 @dfn{buffer}, that are related to editing. (@xref{Editing Types}.)
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32
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33 Each primitive type has a corresponding Lisp function that checks
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34 whether an object is a member of that type.
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35
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36 Note that Lisp is unlike many other languages in that Lisp objects are
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37 @dfn{self-typing}: the primitive type of the object is implicit in the
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38 object itself. For example, if an object is a vector, nothing can treat
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39 it as a number; Lisp knows it is a vector, not a number.
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40
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41 In most languages, the programmer must declare the data type of each
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42 variable, and the type is known by the compiler but not represented in
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43 the data. Such type declarations do not exist in Emacs Lisp. A Lisp
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44 variable can have any type of value, and it remembers whatever value
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45 you store in it, type and all. (Actually, a small number of Emacs
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46 Lisp variables can only take on values of a certain type.
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47 @xref{Variables with Restricted Values}.)
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48
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49 This chapter describes the purpose, printed representation, and read
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50 syntax of each of the standard types in GNU Emacs Lisp. Details on how
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51 to use these types can be found in later chapters.
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52
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53 @menu
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54 * Printed Representation:: How Lisp objects are represented as text.
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55 * Comments:: Comments and their formatting conventions.
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56 * Programming Types:: Types found in all Lisp systems.
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57 * Editing Types:: Types specific to Emacs.
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58 * Circular Objects:: Read syntax for circular structure.
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59 * Type Predicates:: Tests related to types.
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60 * Equality Predicates:: Tests of equality between any two objects.
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61 @end menu
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62
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63 @node Printed Representation
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64 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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65 @section Printed Representation and Read Syntax
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66 @cindex printed representation
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67 @cindex read syntax
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68
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69 The @dfn{printed representation} of an object is the format of the
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70 output generated by the Lisp printer (the function @code{prin1}) for
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71 that object. Every data type has a unique printed representation.
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72 The @dfn{read syntax} of an object is the format of the input accepted
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73 by the Lisp reader (the function @code{read}) for that object. This
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74 is not necessarily unique; many kinds of object have more than one
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75 syntax. @xref{Read and Print}.
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76
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77 @cindex hash notation
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78 In most cases, an object's printed representation is also a read
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79 syntax for the object. However, some types have no read syntax, since
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80 it does not make sense to enter objects of these types as constants in
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81 a Lisp program. These objects are printed in @dfn{hash notation},
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82 which consists of the characters @samp{#<}, a descriptive string
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83 (typically the type name followed by the name of the object), and a
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84 closing @samp{>}. For example:
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85
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86 @example
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87 (current-buffer)
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88 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi>
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89 @end example
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90
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91 @noindent
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92 Hash notation cannot be read at all, so the Lisp reader signals the
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93 error @code{invalid-read-syntax} whenever it encounters @samp{#<}.
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94 @kindex invalid-read-syntax
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95
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96 In other languages, an expression is text; it has no other form. In
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97 Lisp, an expression is primarily a Lisp object and only secondarily the
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98 text that is the object's read syntax. Often there is no need to
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99 emphasize this distinction, but you must keep it in the back of your
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100 mind, or you will occasionally be very confused.
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101
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102 When you evaluate an expression interactively, the Lisp interpreter
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103 first reads the textual representation of it, producing a Lisp object,
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104 and then evaluates that object (@pxref{Evaluation}). However,
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105 evaluation and reading are separate activities. Reading returns the
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106 Lisp object represented by the text that is read; the object may or may
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107 not be evaluated later. @xref{Input Functions}, for a description of
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108 @code{read}, the basic function for reading objects.
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109
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110 @node Comments
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111 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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112 @section Comments
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113 @cindex comments
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114 @cindex @samp{;} in comment
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115
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116 A @dfn{comment} is text that is written in a program only for the sake
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117 of humans that read the program, and that has no effect on the meaning
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118 of the program. In Lisp, a semicolon (@samp{;}) starts a comment if it
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119 is not within a string or character constant. The comment continues to
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120 the end of line. The Lisp reader discards comments; they do not become
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121 part of the Lisp objects which represent the program within the Lisp
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122 system.
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123
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124 The @samp{#@@@var{count}} construct, which skips the next @var{count}
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125 characters, is useful for program-generated comments containing binary
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126 data. The Emacs Lisp byte compiler uses this in its output files
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127 (@pxref{Byte Compilation}). It isn't meant for source files, however.
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128
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129 @xref{Comment Tips}, for conventions for formatting comments.
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130
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131 @node Programming Types
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132 @section Programming Types
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133 @cindex programming types
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134
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135 There are two general categories of types in Emacs Lisp: those having
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136 to do with Lisp programming, and those having to do with editing. The
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137 former exist in many Lisp implementations, in one form or another. The
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138 latter are unique to Emacs Lisp.
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139
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140 @menu
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141 * Integer Type:: Numbers without fractional parts.
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142 * Floating Point Type:: Numbers with fractional parts and with a large range.
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143 * Character Type:: The representation of letters, numbers and
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144 control characters.
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145 * Symbol Type:: A multi-use object that refers to a function,
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146 variable, or property list, and has a unique identity.
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147 * Sequence Type:: Both lists and arrays are classified as sequences.
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148 * Cons Cell Type:: Cons cells, and lists (which are made from cons cells).
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149 * Array Type:: Arrays include strings and vectors.
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150 * String Type:: An (efficient) array of characters.
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151 * Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays.
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152 * Char-Table Type:: One-dimensional sparse arrays indexed by characters.
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153 * Bool-Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays of @code{t} or @code{nil}.
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154 * Hash Table Type:: Super-fast lookup tables.
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155 * Function Type:: A piece of executable code you can call from elsewhere.
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156 * Macro Type:: A method of expanding an expression into another
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157 expression, more fundamental but less pretty.
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158 * Primitive Function Type:: A function written in C, callable from Lisp.
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159 * Byte-Code Type:: A function written in Lisp, then compiled.
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160 * Autoload Type:: A type used for automatically loading seldom-used
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161 functions.
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162 @end menu
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163
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164 @node Integer Type
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165 @subsection Integer Type
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166
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167 The range of values for integers in Emacs Lisp is @minus{}268435456 to
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168 268435455 (29 bits; i.e.,
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169 @ifnottex
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170 -2**28
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171 @end ifnottex
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172 @tex
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173 @math{-2^{28}}
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174 @end tex
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175 to
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176 @ifnottex
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177 2**28 - 1)
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178 @end ifnottex
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179 @tex
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180 @math{2^{28}-1})
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181 @end tex
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182 on most machines. (Some machines may provide a wider range.) It is
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183 important to note that the Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions do not check
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184 for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 268435455)} is @minus{}268435456 on most
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185 machines.
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186
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187 The read syntax for integers is a sequence of (base ten) digits with an
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188 optional sign at the beginning and an optional period at the end. The
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189 printed representation produced by the Lisp interpreter never has a
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190 leading @samp{+} or a final @samp{.}.
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191
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192 @example
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193 @group
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194 -1 ; @r{The integer -1.}
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195 1 ; @r{The integer 1.}
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196 1. ; @r{Also the integer 1.}
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197 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.}
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198 536870913 ; @r{Also the integer 1 on a 29-bit implementation.}
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199 @end group
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200 @end example
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201
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202 @xref{Numbers}, for more information.
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203
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204 @node Floating Point Type
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205 @subsection Floating Point Type
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206
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207 Floating point numbers are the computer equivalent of scientific
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208 notation; you can think of a floating point number as a fraction
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209 together with a power of ten. The precise number of significant
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210 figures and the range of possible exponents is machine-specific; Emacs
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211 uses the C data type @code{double} to store the value, and internally
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212 this records a power of 2 rather than a power of 10.
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213
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214 The printed representation for floating point numbers requires either
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215 a decimal point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or
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216 both. For example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2},
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217 @samp{1.5e3}, and @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point
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218 number whose value is 1500. They are all equivalent.
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219
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220 @xref{Numbers}, for more information.
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221
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222 @node Character Type
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223 @subsection Character Type
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224 @cindex @acronym{ASCII} character codes
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225
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226 A @dfn{character} in Emacs Lisp is nothing more than an integer. In
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227 other words, characters are represented by their character codes. For
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228 example, the character @kbd{A} is represented as the @w{integer 65}.
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229
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230 Individual characters are used occasionally in programs, but it is
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231 more common to work with @emph{strings}, which are sequences composed
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232 of characters. @xref{String Type}.
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233
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234 Characters in strings, buffers, and files are currently limited to
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235 the range of 0 to 524287---nineteen bits. But not all values in that
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236 range are valid character codes. Codes 0 through 127 are
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237 @acronym{ASCII} codes; the rest are non-@acronym{ASCII}
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238 (@pxref{Non-ASCII Characters}). Characters that represent keyboard
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239 input have a much wider range, to encode modifier keys such as
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240 Control, Meta and Shift.
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241
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242 There are special functions for producing a human-readable textual
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243 description of a character for the sake of messages. @xref{Describing
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244 Characters}.
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245
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246 @menu
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247 * Basic Char Syntax::
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248 * General Escape Syntax::
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249 * Ctl-Char Syntax::
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250 * Meta-Char Syntax::
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251 * Other Char Bits::
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252 @end menu
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253
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254 @node Basic Char Syntax
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255 @subsubsection Basic Char Syntax
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256 @cindex read syntax for characters
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257 @cindex printed representation for characters
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258 @cindex syntax for characters
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259 @cindex @samp{?} in character constant
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260 @cindex question mark in character constant
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261
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262 Since characters are really integers, the printed representation of
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263 a character is a decimal number. This is also a possible read syntax
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264 for a character, but writing characters that way in Lisp programs is
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265 not clear programming. You should @emph{always} use the special read
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266 syntax formats that Emacs Lisp provides for characters. These syntax
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267 formats start with a question mark.
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268
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269 The usual read syntax for alphanumeric characters is a question mark
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270 followed by the character; thus, @samp{?A} for the character
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271 @kbd{A}, @samp{?B} for the character @kbd{B}, and @samp{?a} for the
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272 character @kbd{a}.
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273
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274 For example:
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275
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276 @example
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277 ?Q @result{} 81 ?q @result{} 113
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278 @end example
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279
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280 You can use the same syntax for punctuation characters, but it is
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281 often a good idea to add a @samp{\} so that the Emacs commands for
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282 editing Lisp code don't get confused. For example, @samp{?\(} is the
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283 way to write the open-paren character. If the character is @samp{\},
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284 you @emph{must} use a second @samp{\} to quote it: @samp{?\\}.
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285
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286 @cindex whitespace
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287 @cindex bell character
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288 @cindex @samp{\a}
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289 @cindex backspace
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290 @cindex @samp{\b}
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291 @cindex tab (ASCII character)
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292 @cindex @samp{\t}
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293 @cindex vertical tab
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294 @cindex @samp{\v}
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295 @cindex formfeed
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296 @cindex @samp{\f}
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297 @cindex newline
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298 @cindex @samp{\n}
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299 @cindex return (ASCII character)
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300 @cindex @samp{\r}
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301 @cindex escape (ASCII character)
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302 @cindex @samp{\e}
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303 @cindex space (ASCII character)
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304 @cindex @samp{\s}
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305 You can express the characters control-g, backspace, tab, newline,
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306 vertical tab, formfeed, space, return, del, and escape as @samp{?\a},
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307 @samp{?\b}, @samp{?\t}, @samp{?\n}, @samp{?\v}, @samp{?\f},
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308 @samp{?\s}, @samp{?\r}, @samp{?\d}, and @samp{?\e}, respectively.
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309 (@samp{?\s} followed by a dash has a different meaning---it applies
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310 the ``super'' modifier to the following character.) Thus,
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311
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312 @example
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313 ?\a @result{} 7 ; @r{control-g, @kbd{C-g}}
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314 ?\b @result{} 8 ; @r{backspace, @key{BS}, @kbd{C-h}}
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315 ?\t @result{} 9 ; @r{tab, @key{TAB}, @kbd{C-i}}
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316 ?\n @result{} 10 ; @r{newline, @kbd{C-j}}
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317 ?\v @result{} 11 ; @r{vertical tab, @kbd{C-k}}
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318 ?\f @result{} 12 ; @r{formfeed character, @kbd{C-l}}
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319 ?\r @result{} 13 ; @r{carriage return, @key{RET}, @kbd{C-m}}
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320 ?\e @result{} 27 ; @r{escape character, @key{ESC}, @kbd{C-[}}
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321 ?\s @result{} 32 ; @r{space character, @key{SPC}}
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322 ?\\ @result{} 92 ; @r{backslash character, @kbd{\}}
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323 ?\d @result{} 127 ; @r{delete character, @key{DEL}}
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324 @end example
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325
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326 @cindex escape sequence
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327 These sequences which start with backslash are also known as
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328 @dfn{escape sequences}, because backslash plays the role of an
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329 ``escape character''; this terminology has nothing to do with the
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330 character @key{ESC}. @samp{\s} is meant for use in character
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331 constants; in string constants, just write the space.
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332
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333 A backslash is allowed, and harmless, preceding any character without
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334 a special escape meaning; thus, @samp{?\+} is equivalent to @samp{?+}.
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335 There is no reason to add a backslash before most characters. However,
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336 you should add a backslash before any of the characters
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337 @samp{()\|;'`"#.,} to avoid confusing the Emacs commands for editing
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338 Lisp code. You can also add a backslash before whitespace characters such as
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339 space, tab, newline and formfeed. However, it is cleaner to use one of
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340 the easily readable escape sequences, such as @samp{\t} or @samp{\s},
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341 instead of an actual whitespace character such as a tab or a space.
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342 (If you do write backslash followed by a space, you should write
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343 an extra space after the character constant to separate it from the
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344 following text.)
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345
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346 @node General Escape Syntax
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347 @subsubsection General Escape Syntax
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348
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349 In addition to the specific excape sequences for special important
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350 control characters, Emacs provides general categories of escape syntax
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351 that you can use to specify non-ASCII text characters.
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352
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353 @cindex unicode character escape
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354 For instance, you can specify characters by their Unicode values.
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355 @code{?\u@var{nnnn}} represents a character that maps to the Unicode
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356 code point @samp{U+@var{nnnn}}. There is a slightly different syntax
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357 for specifying characters with code points above @code{#xFFFF};
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358 @code{\U00@var{nnnnnn}} represents the character whose Unicode code
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359 point is @samp{U+@var{nnnnnn}}, if such a character is supported by
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360 Emacs. If the corresponding character is not supported, Emacs signals
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361 an error.
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362
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363 This peculiar and inconvenient syntax was adopted for compatibility
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364 with other programming languages. Unlike some other languages, Emacs
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365 Lisp supports this syntax in only character literals and strings.
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366
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367 @cindex @samp{\} in character constant
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368 @cindex backslash in character constant
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369 @cindex octal character code
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370 The most general read syntax for a character represents the
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371 character code in either octal or hex. To use octal, write a question
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372 mark followed by a backslash and the octal character code (up to three
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373 octal digits); thus, @samp{?\101} for the character @kbd{A},
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374 @samp{?\001} for the character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\002} for the
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375 character @kbd{C-b}. Although this syntax can represent any
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376 @acronym{ASCII} character, it is preferred only when the precise octal
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377 value is more important than the @acronym{ASCII} representation.
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378
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379 @example
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380 @group
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381 ?\012 @result{} 10 ?\n @result{} 10 ?\C-j @result{} 10
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382 ?\101 @result{} 65 ?A @result{} 65
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383 @end group
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384 @end example
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385
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386 To use hex, write a question mark followed by a backslash, @samp{x},
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387 and the hexadecimal character code. You can use any number of hex
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388 digits, so you can represent any character code in this way.
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389 Thus, @samp{?\x41} for the character @kbd{A}, @samp{?\x1} for the
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390 character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\x8e0} for the Latin-1 character
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391 @iftex
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392 @samp{@`a}.
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393 @end iftex
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394 @ifnottex
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395 @samp{a} with grave accent.
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396 @end ifnottex
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397
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398 @node Ctl-Char Syntax
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399 @subsubsection Control-Character Syntax
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400
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401 @cindex control characters
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402 Control characters can be represented using yet another read syntax.
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403 This consists of a question mark followed by a backslash, caret, and the
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404 corresponding non-control character, in either upper or lower case. For
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405 example, both @samp{?\^I} and @samp{?\^i} are valid read syntax for the
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406 character @kbd{C-i}, the character whose value is 9.
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407
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408 Instead of the @samp{^}, you can use @samp{C-}; thus, @samp{?\C-i} is
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409 equivalent to @samp{?\^I} and to @samp{?\^i}:
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410
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411 @example
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412 ?\^I @result{} 9 ?\C-I @result{} 9
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413 @end example
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414
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415 In strings and buffers, the only control characters allowed are those
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416 that exist in @acronym{ASCII}; but for keyboard input purposes, you can turn
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417 any character into a control character with @samp{C-}. The character
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418 codes for these non-@acronym{ASCII} control characters include the
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419 @tex
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420 @math{2^{26}}
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421 @end tex
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422 @ifnottex
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423 2**26
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424 @end ifnottex
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425 bit as well as the code for the corresponding non-control
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426 character. Ordinary terminals have no way of generating non-@acronym{ASCII}
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427 control characters, but you can generate them straightforwardly using X
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428 and other window systems.
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429
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430 For historical reasons, Emacs treats the @key{DEL} character as
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431 the control equivalent of @kbd{?}:
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432
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433 @example
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434 ?\^? @result{} 127 ?\C-? @result{} 127
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435 @end example
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436
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437 @noindent
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438 As a result, it is currently not possible to represent the character
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439 @kbd{Control-?}, which is a meaningful input character under X, using
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440 @samp{\C-}. It is not easy to change this, as various Lisp files refer
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441 to @key{DEL} in this way.
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442
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443 For representing control characters to be found in files or strings,
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444 we recommend the @samp{^} syntax; for control characters in keyboard
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445 input, we prefer the @samp{C-} syntax. Which one you use does not
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446 affect the meaning of the program, but may guide the understanding of
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447 people who read it.
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448
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449 @node Meta-Char Syntax
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450 @subsubsection Meta-Character Syntax
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451
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452 @cindex meta characters
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453 A @dfn{meta character} is a character typed with the @key{META}
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454 modifier key. The integer that represents such a character has the
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455 @tex
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456 @math{2^{27}}
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457 @end tex
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458 @ifnottex
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459 2**27
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460 @end ifnottex
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461 bit set. We use high bits for this and other modifiers to make
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462 possible a wide range of basic character codes.
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463
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464 In a string, the
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465 @tex
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466 @math{2^{7}}
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467 @end tex
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468 @ifnottex
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469 2**7
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470 @end ifnottex
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471 bit attached to an @acronym{ASCII} character indicates a meta
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472 character; thus, the meta characters that can fit in a string have
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473 codes in the range from 128 to 255, and are the meta versions of the
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474 ordinary @acronym{ASCII} characters. (In Emacs versions 18 and older,
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diff changeset
475 this convention was used for characters outside of strings as well.)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
476
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
477 The read syntax for meta characters uses @samp{\M-}. For example,
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
478 @samp{?\M-A} stands for @kbd{M-A}. You can use @samp{\M-} together with
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parents:
diff changeset
479 octal character codes (see below), with @samp{\C-}, or with any other
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
480 syntax for a character. Thus, you can write @kbd{M-A} as @samp{?\M-A},
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parents:
diff changeset
481 or as @samp{?\M-\101}. Likewise, you can write @kbd{C-M-b} as
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parents:
diff changeset
482 @samp{?\M-\C-b}, @samp{?\C-\M-b}, or @samp{?\M-\002}.
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parents:
diff changeset
483
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
484 @node Other Char Bits
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parents:
diff changeset
485 @subsubsection Other Character Modifier Bits
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parents:
diff changeset
486
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
487 The case of a graphic character is indicated by its character code;
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parents:
diff changeset
488 for example, @acronym{ASCII} distinguishes between the characters @samp{a}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
489 and @samp{A}. But @acronym{ASCII} has no way to represent whether a control
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
490 character is upper case or lower case. Emacs uses the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
491 @tex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
492 @math{2^{25}}
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parents:
diff changeset
493 @end tex
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parents:
diff changeset
494 @ifnottex
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parents:
diff changeset
495 2**25
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parents:
diff changeset
496 @end ifnottex
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parents:
diff changeset
497 bit to indicate that the shift key was used in typing a control
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parents:
diff changeset
498 character. This distinction is possible only when you use X terminals
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parents:
diff changeset
499 or other special terminals; ordinary terminals do not report the
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parents:
diff changeset
500 distinction to the computer in any way. The Lisp syntax for
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
501 the shift bit is @samp{\S-}; thus, @samp{?\C-\S-o} or @samp{?\C-\S-O}
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parents:
diff changeset
502 represents the shifted-control-o character.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
503
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
504 @cindex hyper characters
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parents:
diff changeset
505 @cindex super characters
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
506 @cindex alt characters
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parents:
diff changeset
507 The X Window System defines three other
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
508 @anchor{modifier bits}modifier bits that can be set
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
509 in a character: @dfn{hyper}, @dfn{super} and @dfn{alt}. The syntaxes
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parents:
diff changeset
510 for these bits are @samp{\H-}, @samp{\s-} and @samp{\A-}. (Case is
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parents:
diff changeset
511 significant in these prefixes.) Thus, @samp{?\H-\M-\A-x} represents
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parents:
diff changeset
512 @kbd{Alt-Hyper-Meta-x}. (Note that @samp{\s} with no following @samp{-}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
513 represents the space character.)
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parents:
diff changeset
514 @tex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
515 Numerically, the bit values are @math{2^{22}} for alt, @math{2^{23}}
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parents:
diff changeset
516 for super and @math{2^{24}} for hyper.
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diff changeset
517 @end tex
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parents:
diff changeset
518 @ifnottex
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parents:
diff changeset
519 Numerically, the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
520 bit values are 2**22 for alt, 2**23 for super and 2**24 for hyper.
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parents:
diff changeset
521 @end ifnottex
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diff changeset
522
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parents:
diff changeset
523 @node Symbol Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
524 @subsection Symbol Type
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parents:
diff changeset
525
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
526 A @dfn{symbol} in GNU Emacs Lisp is an object with a name. The
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
527 symbol name serves as the printed representation of the symbol. In
87098
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Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 85663
diff changeset
528 ordinary Lisp use, with one single obarray (@pxref{Creating Symbols}),
84092
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parents:
diff changeset
529 a symbol's name is unique---no two symbols have the same name.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
530
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
531 A symbol can serve as a variable, as a function name, or to hold a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
532 property list. Or it may serve only to be distinct from all other Lisp
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
533 objects, so that its presence in a data structure may be recognized
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
534 reliably. In a given context, usually only one of these uses is
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
535 intended. But you can use one symbol in all of these ways,
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
536 independently.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
537
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
538 A symbol whose name starts with a colon (@samp{:}) is called a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
539 @dfn{keyword symbol}. These symbols automatically act as constants, and
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
540 are normally used only by comparing an unknown symbol with a few
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
541 specific alternatives.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
542
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
543 @cindex @samp{\} in symbols
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
544 @cindex backslash in symbols
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
545 A symbol name can contain any characters whatever. Most symbol names
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
546 are written with letters, digits, and the punctuation characters
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
547 @samp{-+=*/}. Such names require no special punctuation; the characters
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
548 of the name suffice as long as the name does not look like a number.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
549 (If it does, write a @samp{\} at the beginning of the name to force
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
550 interpretation as a symbol.) The characters @samp{_~!@@$%^&:<>@{@}?} are
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
551 less often used but also require no special punctuation. Any other
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
552 characters may be included in a symbol's name by escaping them with a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
553 backslash. In contrast to its use in strings, however, a backslash in
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
554 the name of a symbol simply quotes the single character that follows the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
555 backslash. For example, in a string, @samp{\t} represents a tab
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
556 character; in the name of a symbol, however, @samp{\t} merely quotes the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
557 letter @samp{t}. To have a symbol with a tab character in its name, you
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
558 must actually use a tab (preceded with a backslash). But it's rare to
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
559 do such a thing.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
560
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
561 @cindex CL note---case of letters
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
562 @quotation
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
563 @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, lower case letters are always
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
564 ``folded'' to upper case, unless they are explicitly escaped. In Emacs
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
565 Lisp, upper case and lower case letters are distinct.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
566 @end quotation
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
567
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
568 Here are several examples of symbol names. Note that the @samp{+} in
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
569 the fifth example is escaped to prevent it from being read as a number.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
570 This is not necessary in the fourth example because the rest of the name
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
571 makes it invalid as a number.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
572
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
573 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
574 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
575 foo ; @r{A symbol named @samp{foo}.}
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parents:
diff changeset
576 FOO ; @r{A symbol named @samp{FOO}, different from @samp{foo}.}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
577 char-to-string ; @r{A symbol named @samp{char-to-string}.}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
578 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
579 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
580 1+ ; @r{A symbol named @samp{1+}}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
581 ; @r{(not @samp{+1}, which is an integer).}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
582 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
583 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
584 \+1 ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+1}}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
585 ; @r{(not a very readable name).}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
586 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
587 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
588 \(*\ 1\ 2\) ; @r{A symbol named @samp{(* 1 2)} (a worse name).}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
589 @c the @'s in this next line use up three characters, hence the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
590 @c apparent misalignment of the comment.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
591 +-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@} ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@}}.}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
592 ; @r{These characters need not be escaped.}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
593 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
594 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
595
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
596 @ifinfo
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
597 @c This uses ``colon'' instead of a literal `:' because Info cannot
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
598 @c cope with a `:' in a menu
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
599 @cindex @samp{#@var{colon}} read syntax
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
600 @end ifinfo
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
601 @ifnotinfo
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
602 @cindex @samp{#:} read syntax
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
603 @end ifnotinfo
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
604 Normally the Lisp reader interns all symbols (@pxref{Creating
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
605 Symbols}). To prevent interning, you can write @samp{#:} before the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
606 name of the symbol.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
607
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
608 @node Sequence Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
609 @subsection Sequence Types
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
610
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
611 A @dfn{sequence} is a Lisp object that represents an ordered set of
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
612 elements. There are two kinds of sequence in Emacs Lisp, lists and
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parents:
diff changeset
613 arrays. Thus, an object of type list or of type array is also
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
614 considered a sequence.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
615
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
616 Arrays are further subdivided into strings, vectors, char-tables and
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
617 bool-vectors. Vectors can hold elements of any type, but string
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
618 elements must be characters, and bool-vector elements must be @code{t}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
619 or @code{nil}. Char-tables are like vectors except that they are
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
620 indexed by any valid character code. The characters in a string can
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
621 have text properties like characters in a buffer (@pxref{Text
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
622 Properties}), but vectors do not support text properties, even when
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
623 their elements happen to be characters.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
624
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
625 Lists, strings and the other array types are different, but they have
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
626 important similarities. For example, all have a length @var{l}, and all
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
627 have elements which can be indexed from zero to @var{l} minus one.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
628 Several functions, called sequence functions, accept any kind of
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
629 sequence. For example, the function @code{elt} can be used to extract
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
630 an element of a sequence, given its index. @xref{Sequences Arrays
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parents:
diff changeset
631 Vectors}.
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parents:
diff changeset
632
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parents:
diff changeset
633 It is generally impossible to read the same sequence twice, since
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parents:
diff changeset
634 sequences are always created anew upon reading. If you read the read
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parents:
diff changeset
635 syntax for a sequence twice, you get two sequences with equal contents.
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parents:
diff changeset
636 There is one exception: the empty list @code{()} always stands for the
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parents:
diff changeset
637 same object, @code{nil}.
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parents:
diff changeset
638
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parents:
diff changeset
639 @node Cons Cell Type
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parents:
diff changeset
640 @subsection Cons Cell and List Types
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
641 @cindex address field of register
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parents:
diff changeset
642 @cindex decrement field of register
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
643 @cindex pointers
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parents:
diff changeset
644
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parents:
diff changeset
645 A @dfn{cons cell} is an object that consists of two slots, called the
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parents:
diff changeset
646 @sc{car} slot and the @sc{cdr} slot. Each slot can @dfn{hold} or
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parents:
diff changeset
647 @dfn{refer to} any Lisp object. We also say that ``the @sc{car} of
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parents:
diff changeset
648 this cons cell is'' whatever object its @sc{car} slot currently holds,
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parents:
diff changeset
649 and likewise for the @sc{cdr}.
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parents:
diff changeset
650
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diff changeset
651 @quotation
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parents:
diff changeset
652 A note to C programmers: in Lisp, we do not distinguish between
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parents:
diff changeset
653 ``holding'' a value and ``pointing to'' the value, because pointers in
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parents:
diff changeset
654 Lisp are implicit.
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parents:
diff changeset
655 @end quotation
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parents:
diff changeset
656
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diff changeset
657 A @dfn{list} is a series of cons cells, linked together so that the
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parents:
diff changeset
658 @sc{cdr} slot of each cons cell holds either the next cons cell or the
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parents:
diff changeset
659 empty list. The empty list is actually the symbol @code{nil}.
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parents:
diff changeset
660 @xref{Lists}, for functions that work on lists. Because most cons
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parents:
diff changeset
661 cells are used as part of lists, the phrase @dfn{list structure} has
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parents:
diff changeset
662 come to refer to any structure made out of cons cells.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
663
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
664 @cindex atoms
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parents:
diff changeset
665 Because cons cells are so central to Lisp, we also have a word for
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parents:
diff changeset
666 ``an object which is not a cons cell.'' These objects are called
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parents:
diff changeset
667 @dfn{atoms}.
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parents:
diff changeset
668
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parents:
diff changeset
669 @cindex parenthesis
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parents:
diff changeset
670 @cindex @samp{(@dots{})} in lists
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parents:
diff changeset
671 The read syntax and printed representation for lists are identical, and
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parents:
diff changeset
672 consist of a left parenthesis, an arbitrary number of elements, and a
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parents:
diff changeset
673 right parenthesis. Here are examples of lists:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
674
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parents:
diff changeset
675 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
676 (A 2 "A") ; @r{A list of three elements.}
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parents:
diff changeset
677 () ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).}
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parents:
diff changeset
678 nil ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).}
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parents:
diff changeset
679 ("A ()") ; @r{A list of one element: the string @code{"A ()"}.}
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parents:
diff changeset
680 (A ()) ; @r{A list of two elements: @code{A} and the empty list.}
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parents:
diff changeset
681 (A nil) ; @r{Equivalent to the previous.}
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parents:
diff changeset
682 ((A B C)) ; @r{A list of one element}
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parents:
diff changeset
683 ; @r{(which is a list of three elements).}
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parents:
diff changeset
684 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
685
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
686 Upon reading, each object inside the parentheses becomes an element
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
687 of the list. That is, a cons cell is made for each element. The
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
688 @sc{car} slot of the cons cell holds the element, and its @sc{cdr}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
689 slot refers to the next cons cell of the list, which holds the next
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
690 element in the list. The @sc{cdr} slot of the last cons cell is set to
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
691 hold @code{nil}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
692
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
693 The names @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} derive from the history of Lisp. The
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
694 original Lisp implementation ran on an @w{IBM 704} computer which
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
695 divided words into two parts, called the ``address'' part and the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
696 ``decrement''; @sc{car} was an instruction to extract the contents of
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
697 the address part of a register, and @sc{cdr} an instruction to extract
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
698 the contents of the decrement. By contrast, ``cons cells'' are named
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
699 for the function @code{cons} that creates them, which in turn was named
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
700 for its purpose, the construction of cells.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
701
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
702 @menu
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
703 * Box Diagrams:: Drawing pictures of lists.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
704 * Dotted Pair Notation:: A general syntax for cons cells.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
705 * Association List Type:: A specially constructed list.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
706 @end menu
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
707
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
708 @node Box Diagrams
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
709 @subsubsection Drawing Lists as Box Diagrams
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
710 @cindex box diagrams, for lists
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
711 @cindex diagrams, boxed, for lists
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
712
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
713 A list can be illustrated by a diagram in which the cons cells are
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
714 shown as pairs of boxes, like dominoes. (The Lisp reader cannot read
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
715 such an illustration; unlike the textual notation, which can be
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
716 understood by both humans and computers, the box illustrations can be
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
717 understood only by humans.) This picture represents the three-element
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
718 list @code{(rose violet buttercup)}:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
719
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
720 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
721 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
722 --- --- --- --- --- ---
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
723 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
724 --- --- --- --- --- ---
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
725 | | |
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
726 | | |
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
727 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
728 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
729 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
730
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
731 In this diagram, each box represents a slot that can hold or refer to
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
732 any Lisp object. Each pair of boxes represents a cons cell. Each arrow
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
733 represents a reference to a Lisp object, either an atom or another cons
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
734 cell.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
735
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
736 In this example, the first box, which holds the @sc{car} of the first
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
737 cons cell, refers to or ``holds'' @code{rose} (a symbol). The second
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
738 box, holding the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell, refers to the next
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
739 pair of boxes, the second cons cell. The @sc{car} of the second cons
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
740 cell is @code{violet}, and its @sc{cdr} is the third cons cell. The
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
741 @sc{cdr} of the third (and last) cons cell is @code{nil}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
742
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
743 Here is another diagram of the same list, @code{(rose violet
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
744 buttercup)}, sketched in a different manner:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
745
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
746 @smallexample
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
747 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
748 --------------- ---------------- -------------------
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
749 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr |
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parents:
diff changeset
750 | rose | o-------->| violet | o-------->| buttercup | nil |
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
751 | | | | | | | | |
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
752 --------------- ---------------- -------------------
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parents:
diff changeset
753 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
754 @end smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
755
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parents:
diff changeset
756 @cindex @code{nil} as a list
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
757 @cindex empty list
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parents:
diff changeset
758 A list with no elements in it is the @dfn{empty list}; it is identical
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
759 to the symbol @code{nil}. In other words, @code{nil} is both a symbol
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
760 and a list.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
761
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
762 Here is the list @code{(A ())}, or equivalently @code{(A nil)},
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
763 depicted with boxes and arrows:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
764
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
765 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
766 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
767 --- --- --- ---
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
768 | | |--> | | |--> nil
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
769 --- --- --- ---
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
770 | |
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
771 | |
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
772 --> A --> nil
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
773 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
774 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
775
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
776 Here is a more complex illustration, showing the three-element list,
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
777 @code{((pine needles) oak maple)}, the first element of which is a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
778 two-element list:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
779
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
780 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
781 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
782 --- --- --- --- --- ---
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
783 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
784 --- --- --- --- --- ---
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
785 | | |
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
786 | | |
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
787 | --> oak --> maple
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
788 |
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
789 | --- --- --- ---
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
790 --> | | |--> | | |--> nil
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
791 --- --- --- ---
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
792 | |
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
793 | |
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
794 --> pine --> needles
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
795 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
796 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
797
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parents:
diff changeset
798 The same list represented in the second box notation looks like this:
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parents:
diff changeset
799
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
800 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
801 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
802 -------------- -------------- --------------
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parents:
diff changeset
803 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr |
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
804 | o | o------->| oak | o------->| maple | nil |
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
805 | | | | | | | | | |
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
806 -- | --------- -------------- --------------
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
807 |
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
808 |
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
809 | -------------- ----------------
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parents:
diff changeset
810 | | car | cdr | | car | cdr |
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parents:
diff changeset
811 ------>| pine | o------->| needles | nil |
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
812 | | | | | |
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
813 -------------- ----------------
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parents:
diff changeset
814 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
815 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
816
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parents:
diff changeset
817 @node Dotted Pair Notation
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parents:
diff changeset
818 @subsubsection Dotted Pair Notation
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parents:
diff changeset
819 @cindex dotted pair notation
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
820 @cindex @samp{.} in lists
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
821
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parents:
diff changeset
822 @dfn{Dotted pair notation} is a general syntax for cons cells that
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
823 represents the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} explicitly. In this syntax,
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
824 @code{(@var{a} .@: @var{b})} stands for a cons cell whose @sc{car} is
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parents:
diff changeset
825 the object @var{a} and whose @sc{cdr} is the object @var{b}. Dotted
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
826 pair notation is more general than list syntax because the @sc{cdr}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
827 does not have to be a list. However, it is more cumbersome in cases
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
828 where list syntax would work. In dotted pair notation, the list
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
829 @samp{(1 2 3)} is written as @samp{(1 . (2 . (3 . nil)))}. For
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
830 @code{nil}-terminated lists, you can use either notation, but list
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parents:
diff changeset
831 notation is usually clearer and more convenient. When printing a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
832 list, the dotted pair notation is only used if the @sc{cdr} of a cons
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
833 cell is not a list.
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parents:
diff changeset
834
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parents:
diff changeset
835 Here's an example using boxes to illustrate dotted pair notation.
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parents:
diff changeset
836 This example shows the pair @code{(rose . violet)}:
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parents:
diff changeset
837
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
838 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
839 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
840 --- ---
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
841 | | |--> violet
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parents:
diff changeset
842 --- ---
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
843 |
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
844 |
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parents:
diff changeset
845 --> rose
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
846 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
847 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
848
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parents:
diff changeset
849 You can combine dotted pair notation with list notation to represent
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parents:
diff changeset
850 conveniently a chain of cons cells with a non-@code{nil} final @sc{cdr}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
851 You write a dot after the last element of the list, followed by the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
852 @sc{cdr} of the final cons cell. For example, @code{(rose violet
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
853 . buttercup)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . buttercup))}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
854 The object looks like this:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
855
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
856 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
857 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
858 --- --- --- ---
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
859 | | |--> | | |--> buttercup
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
860 --- --- --- ---
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
861 | |
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
862 | |
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
863 --> rose --> violet
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
864 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
865 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
866
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
867 The syntax @code{(rose .@: violet .@: buttercup)} is invalid because
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
868 there is nothing that it could mean. If anything, it would say to put
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
869 @code{buttercup} in the @sc{cdr} of a cons cell whose @sc{cdr} is already
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
870 used for @code{violet}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
871
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
872 The list @code{(rose violet)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet))},
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
873 and looks like this:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
874
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
875 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
876 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
877 --- --- --- ---
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
878 | | |--> | | |--> nil
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
879 --- --- --- ---
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
880 | |
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
881 | |
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
882 --> rose --> violet
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
883 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
884 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
885
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
886 Similarly, the three-element list @code{(rose violet buttercup)}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
887 is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . (buttercup)))}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
888 @ifnottex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
889 It looks like this:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
890
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
891 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
892 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
893 --- --- --- --- --- ---
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
894 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
895 --- --- --- --- --- ---
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
896 | | |
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
897 | | |
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
898 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
899 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
900 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
901 @end ifnottex
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parents:
diff changeset
902
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parents:
diff changeset
903 @node Association List Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
904 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
905 @subsubsection Association List Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
906
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
907 An @dfn{association list} or @dfn{alist} is a specially-constructed
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
908 list whose elements are cons cells. In each element, the @sc{car} is
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
909 considered a @dfn{key}, and the @sc{cdr} is considered an
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
910 @dfn{associated value}. (In some cases, the associated value is stored
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
911 in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr}.) Association lists are often used as
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
912 stacks, since it is easy to add or remove associations at the front of
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
913 the list.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
914
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
915 For example,
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
916
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
917 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
918 (setq alist-of-colors
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
919 '((rose . red) (lily . white) (buttercup . yellow)))
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parents:
diff changeset
920 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
921
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parents:
diff changeset
922 @noindent
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
923 sets the variable @code{alist-of-colors} to an alist of three elements. In the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
924 first element, @code{rose} is the key and @code{red} is the value.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
925
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parents:
diff changeset
926 @xref{Association Lists}, for a further explanation of alists and for
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
927 functions that work on alists. @xref{Hash Tables}, for another kind of
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
928 lookup table, which is much faster for handling a large number of keys.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
929
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
930 @node Array Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
931 @subsection Array Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
932
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parents:
diff changeset
933 An @dfn{array} is composed of an arbitrary number of slots for
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
934 holding or referring to other Lisp objects, arranged in a contiguous block of
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
935 memory. Accessing any element of an array takes approximately the same
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
936 amount of time. In contrast, accessing an element of a list requires
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
937 time proportional to the position of the element in the list. (Elements
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
938 at the end of a list take longer to access than elements at the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
939 beginning of a list.)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
940
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parents:
diff changeset
941 Emacs defines four types of array: strings, vectors, bool-vectors, and
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
942 char-tables.
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parents:
diff changeset
943
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
944 A string is an array of characters and a vector is an array of
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
945 arbitrary objects. A bool-vector can hold only @code{t} or @code{nil}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
946 These kinds of array may have any length up to the largest integer.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
947 Char-tables are sparse arrays indexed by any valid character code; they
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
948 can hold arbitrary objects.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
949
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parents:
diff changeset
950 The first element of an array has index zero, the second element has
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parents:
diff changeset
951 index 1, and so on. This is called @dfn{zero-origin} indexing. For
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parents:
diff changeset
952 example, an array of four elements has indices 0, 1, 2, @w{and 3}. The
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parents:
diff changeset
953 largest possible index value is one less than the length of the array.
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parents:
diff changeset
954 Once an array is created, its length is fixed.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
955
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parents:
diff changeset
956 All Emacs Lisp arrays are one-dimensional. (Most other programming
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parents:
diff changeset
957 languages support multidimensional arrays, but they are not essential;
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
958 you can get the same effect with nested one-dimensional arrays.) Each
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
959 type of array has its own read syntax; see the following sections for
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
960 details.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
961
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
962 The array type is a subset of the sequence type, and contains the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
963 string type, the vector type, the bool-vector type, and the char-table
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
964 type.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
965
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
966 @node String Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
967 @subsection String Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
968
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
969 A @dfn{string} is an array of characters. Strings are used for many
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
970 purposes in Emacs, as can be expected in a text editor; for example, as
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
971 the names of Lisp symbols, as messages for the user, and to represent
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
972 text extracted from buffers. Strings in Lisp are constants: evaluation
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
973 of a string returns the same string.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
974
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
975 @xref{Strings and Characters}, for functions that operate on strings.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
976
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
977 @menu
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
978 * Syntax for Strings::
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
979 * Non-ASCII in Strings::
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
980 * Nonprinting Characters::
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
981 * Text Props and Strings::
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
982 @end menu
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
983
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
984 @node Syntax for Strings
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
985 @subsubsection Syntax for Strings
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
986
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
987 @cindex @samp{"} in strings
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
988 @cindex double-quote in strings
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
989 @cindex @samp{\} in strings
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
990 @cindex backslash in strings
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
991 The read syntax for strings is a double-quote, an arbitrary number of
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
992 characters, and another double-quote, @code{"like this"}. To include a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
993 double-quote in a string, precede it with a backslash; thus, @code{"\""}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
994 is a string containing just a single double-quote character. Likewise,
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
995 you can include a backslash by preceding it with another backslash, like
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
996 this: @code{"this \\ is a single embedded backslash"}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
997
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
998 @cindex newline in strings
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
999 The newline character is not special in the read syntax for strings;
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1000 if you write a new line between the double-quotes, it becomes a
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1001 character in the string. But an escaped newline---one that is preceded
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1002 by @samp{\}---does not become part of the string; i.e., the Lisp reader
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1003 ignores an escaped newline while reading a string. An escaped space
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1004 @w{@samp{\ }} is likewise ignored.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1005
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1006 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1007 "It is useful to include newlines
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1008 in documentation strings,
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1009 but the newline is \
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1010 ignored if escaped."
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1011 @result{} "It is useful to include newlines
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1012 in documentation strings,
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1013 but the newline is ignored if escaped."
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1014 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1015
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1016 @node Non-ASCII in Strings
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1017 @subsubsection Non-@acronym{ASCII} Characters in Strings
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1018
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1019 You can include a non-@acronym{ASCII} international character in a string
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1020 constant by writing it literally. There are two text representations
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1021 for non-@acronym{ASCII} characters in Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1022 and multibyte. If the string constant is read from a multibyte source,
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1023 such as a multibyte buffer or string, or a file that would be visited as
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1024 multibyte, then the character is read as a multibyte character, and that
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1025 makes the string multibyte. If the string constant is read from a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1026 unibyte source, then the character is read as unibyte and that makes the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1027 string unibyte.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1028
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1029 You can also represent a multibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character with its
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1030 character code: use a hex escape, @samp{\x@var{nnnnnnn}}, with as many
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1031 digits as necessary. (Multibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character codes are all
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1032 greater than 256.) Any character which is not a valid hex digit
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1033 terminates this construct. If the next character in the string could be
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1034 interpreted as a hex digit, write @w{@samp{\ }} (backslash and space) to
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1035 terminate the hex escape---for example, @w{@samp{\x8e0\ }} represents
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1036 one character, @samp{a} with grave accent. @w{@samp{\ }} in a string
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1037 constant is just like backslash-newline; it does not contribute any
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1038 character to the string, but it does terminate the preceding hex escape.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1039
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1040 You can represent a unibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character with its
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1041 character code, which must be in the range from 128 (0200 octal) to
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1042 255 (0377 octal). If you write all such character codes in octal and
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1043 the string contains no other characters forcing it to be multibyte,
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1044 this produces a unibyte string. However, using any hex escape in a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1045 string (even for an @acronym{ASCII} character) forces the string to be
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1046 multibyte.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1047
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1048 You can also specify characters in a string by their numeric values
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1049 in Unicode, using @samp{\u} and @samp{\U} (@pxref{Character Type}).
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1050
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1051 @xref{Text Representations}, for more information about the two
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1052 text representations.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1053
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1054 @node Nonprinting Characters
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1055 @subsubsection Nonprinting Characters in Strings
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1056
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1057 You can use the same backslash escape-sequences in a string constant
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1058 as in character literals (but do not use the question mark that begins a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1059 character constant). For example, you can write a string containing the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1060 nonprinting characters tab and @kbd{C-a}, with commas and spaces between
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1061 them, like this: @code{"\t, \C-a"}. @xref{Character Type}, for a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1062 description of the read syntax for characters.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1063
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1064 However, not all of the characters you can write with backslash
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1065 escape-sequences are valid in strings. The only control characters that
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1066 a string can hold are the @acronym{ASCII} control characters. Strings do not
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1067 distinguish case in @acronym{ASCII} control characters.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1068
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1069 Properly speaking, strings cannot hold meta characters; but when a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1070 string is to be used as a key sequence, there is a special convention
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1071 that provides a way to represent meta versions of @acronym{ASCII}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1072 characters in a string. If you use the @samp{\M-} syntax to indicate
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1073 a meta character in a string constant, this sets the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1074 @tex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1075 @math{2^{7}}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1076 @end tex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1077 @ifnottex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1078 2**7
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1079 @end ifnottex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1080 bit of the character in the string. If the string is used in
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1081 @code{define-key} or @code{lookup-key}, this numeric code is translated
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1082 into the equivalent meta character. @xref{Character Type}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1083
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1084 Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super, or alt
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1085 modifiers.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1086
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1087 @node Text Props and Strings
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1088 @subsubsection Text Properties in Strings
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1089
93702
a5c47241cca8 (Text Props and Strings): Add indexing for read syntax of text properties.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents: 91742
diff changeset
1090 @cindex @samp{#(} read syntax
a5c47241cca8 (Text Props and Strings): Add indexing for read syntax of text properties.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents: 91742
diff changeset
1091 @cindex text properties, read syntax
84092
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1092 A string can hold properties for the characters it contains, in
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1093 addition to the characters themselves. This enables programs that copy
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1094 text between strings and buffers to copy the text's properties with no
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1095 special effort. @xref{Text Properties}, for an explanation of what text
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1096 properties mean. Strings with text properties use a special read and
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1097 print syntax:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1098
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1099 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
1100 #("@var{characters}" @var{property-data}...)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1101 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1102
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1103 @noindent
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parents:
diff changeset
1104 where @var{property-data} consists of zero or more elements, in groups
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1105 of three as follows:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1106
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1107 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1108 @var{beg} @var{end} @var{plist}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1109 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1110
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1111 @noindent
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1112 The elements @var{beg} and @var{end} are integers, and together specify
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1113 a range of indices in the string; @var{plist} is the property list for
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parents:
diff changeset
1114 that range. For example,
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parents:
diff changeset
1115
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parents:
diff changeset
1116 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
1117 #("foo bar" 0 3 (face bold) 3 4 nil 4 7 (face italic))
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parents:
diff changeset
1118 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
1119
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parents:
diff changeset
1120 @noindent
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parents:
diff changeset
1121 represents a string whose textual contents are @samp{foo bar}, in which
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parents:
diff changeset
1122 the first three characters have a @code{face} property with value
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parents:
diff changeset
1123 @code{bold}, and the last three have a @code{face} property with value
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parents:
diff changeset
1124 @code{italic}. (The fourth character has no text properties, so its
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parents:
diff changeset
1125 property list is @code{nil}. It is not actually necessary to mention
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parents:
diff changeset
1126 ranges with @code{nil} as the property list, since any characters not
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parents:
diff changeset
1127 mentioned in any range will default to having no properties.)
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parents:
diff changeset
1128
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parents:
diff changeset
1129 @node Vector Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1130 @subsection Vector Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1131
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parents:
diff changeset
1132 A @dfn{vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type. It
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parents:
diff changeset
1133 takes a constant amount of time to access any element of a vector. (In
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parents:
diff changeset
1134 a list, the access time of an element is proportional to the distance of
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parents:
diff changeset
1135 the element from the beginning of the list.)
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parents:
diff changeset
1136
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parents:
diff changeset
1137 The printed representation of a vector consists of a left square
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parents:
diff changeset
1138 bracket, the elements, and a right square bracket. This is also the
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parents:
diff changeset
1139 read syntax. Like numbers and strings, vectors are considered constants
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parents:
diff changeset
1140 for evaluation.
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parents:
diff changeset
1141
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parents:
diff changeset
1142 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
1143 [1 "two" (three)] ; @r{A vector of three elements.}
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parents:
diff changeset
1144 @result{} [1 "two" (three)]
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parents:
diff changeset
1145 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
1146
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parents:
diff changeset
1147 @xref{Vectors}, for functions that work with vectors.
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parents:
diff changeset
1148
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parents:
diff changeset
1149 @node Char-Table Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1150 @subsection Char-Table Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1151
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parents:
diff changeset
1152 A @dfn{char-table} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type,
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parents:
diff changeset
1153 indexed by character codes. Char-tables have certain extra features to
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parents:
diff changeset
1154 make them more useful for many jobs that involve assigning information
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parents:
diff changeset
1155 to character codes---for example, a char-table can have a parent to
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parents:
diff changeset
1156 inherit from, a default value, and a small number of extra slots to use for
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parents:
diff changeset
1157 special purposes. A char-table can also specify a single value for
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1158 a whole character set.
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parents:
diff changeset
1159
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parents:
diff changeset
1160 The printed representation of a char-table is like a vector
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parents:
diff changeset
1161 except that there is an extra @samp{#^} at the beginning.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1162
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parents:
diff changeset
1163 @xref{Char-Tables}, for special functions to operate on char-tables.
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parents:
diff changeset
1164 Uses of char-tables include:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1165
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parents:
diff changeset
1166 @itemize @bullet
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parents:
diff changeset
1167 @item
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parents:
diff changeset
1168 Case tables (@pxref{Case Tables}).
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1169
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parents:
diff changeset
1170 @item
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parents:
diff changeset
1171 Character category tables (@pxref{Categories}).
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parents:
diff changeset
1172
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parents:
diff changeset
1173 @item
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parents:
diff changeset
1174 Display tables (@pxref{Display Tables}).
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parents:
diff changeset
1175
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parents:
diff changeset
1176 @item
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parents:
diff changeset
1177 Syntax tables (@pxref{Syntax Tables}).
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parents:
diff changeset
1178 @end itemize
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parents:
diff changeset
1179
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parents:
diff changeset
1180 @node Bool-Vector Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1181 @subsection Bool-Vector Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1182
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1183 A @dfn{bool-vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements that
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1184 must be @code{t} or @code{nil}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1185
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parents:
diff changeset
1186 The printed representation of a bool-vector is like a string, except
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1187 that it begins with @samp{#&} followed by the length. The string
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1188 constant that follows actually specifies the contents of the bool-vector
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1189 as a bitmap---each ``character'' in the string contains 8 bits, which
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1190 specify the next 8 elements of the bool-vector (1 stands for @code{t},
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1191 and 0 for @code{nil}). The least significant bits of the character
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1192 correspond to the lowest indices in the bool-vector.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1193
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parents:
diff changeset
1194 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
1195 (make-bool-vector 3 t)
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parents:
diff changeset
1196 @result{} #&3"^G"
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parents:
diff changeset
1197 (make-bool-vector 3 nil)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1198 @result{} #&3"^@@"
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1199 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
1200
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parents:
diff changeset
1201 @noindent
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parents:
diff changeset
1202 These results make sense, because the binary code for @samp{C-g} is
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1203 111 and @samp{C-@@} is the character with code 0.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1204
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parents:
diff changeset
1205 If the length is not a multiple of 8, the printed representation
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1206 shows extra elements, but these extras really make no difference. For
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1207 instance, in the next example, the two bool-vectors are equal, because
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1208 only the first 3 bits are used:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1209
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1210 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1211 (equal #&3"\377" #&3"\007")
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1212 @result{} t
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1213 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1214
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1215 @node Hash Table Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1216 @subsection Hash Table Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1217
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1218 A hash table is a very fast kind of lookup table, somewhat like an
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1219 alist in that it maps keys to corresponding values, but much faster.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1220 Hash tables have no read syntax, and print using hash notation.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1221 @xref{Hash Tables}, for functions that operate on hash tables.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1222
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1223 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1224 (make-hash-table)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1225 @result{} #<hash-table 'eql nil 0/65 0x83af980>
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1226 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1227
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parents:
diff changeset
1228 @node Function Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1229 @subsection Function Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1230
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1231 Lisp functions are executable code, just like functions in other
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1232 programming languages. In Lisp, unlike most languages, functions are
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1233 also Lisp objects. A non-compiled function in Lisp is a lambda
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1234 expression: that is, a list whose first element is the symbol
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1235 @code{lambda} (@pxref{Lambda Expressions}).
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1236
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1237 In most programming languages, it is impossible to have a function
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1238 without a name. In Lisp, a function has no intrinsic name. A lambda
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1239 expression can be called as a function even though it has no name; to
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1240 emphasize this, we also call it an @dfn{anonymous function}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1241 (@pxref{Anonymous Functions}). A named function in Lisp is just a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1242 symbol with a valid function in its function cell (@pxref{Defining
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1243 Functions}).
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1244
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1245 Most of the time, functions are called when their names are written in
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1246 Lisp expressions in Lisp programs. However, you can construct or obtain
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1247 a function object at run time and then call it with the primitive
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1248 functions @code{funcall} and @code{apply}. @xref{Calling Functions}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1249
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parents:
diff changeset
1250 @node Macro Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1251 @subsection Macro Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1252
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1253 A @dfn{Lisp macro} is a user-defined construct that extends the Lisp
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1254 language. It is represented as an object much like a function, but with
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1255 different argument-passing semantics. A Lisp macro has the form of a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1256 list whose first element is the symbol @code{macro} and whose @sc{cdr}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1257 is a Lisp function object, including the @code{lambda} symbol.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1258
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1259 Lisp macro objects are usually defined with the built-in
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1260 @code{defmacro} function, but any list that begins with @code{macro} is
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1261 a macro as far as Emacs is concerned. @xref{Macros}, for an explanation
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1262 of how to write a macro.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1263
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1264 @strong{Warning}: Lisp macros and keyboard macros (@pxref{Keyboard
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1265 Macros}) are entirely different things. When we use the word ``macro''
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1266 without qualification, we mean a Lisp macro, not a keyboard macro.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1267
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1268 @node Primitive Function Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1269 @subsection Primitive Function Type
98686
2a93b311de33 * objects.texi (Primitive Function Type): Move "@cindex special forms" from here...
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents: 93702
diff changeset
1270 @cindex primitive function
84092
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1271
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1272 A @dfn{primitive function} is a function callable from Lisp but
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1273 written in the C programming language. Primitive functions are also
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1274 called @dfn{subrs} or @dfn{built-in functions}. (The word ``subr'' is
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parents:
diff changeset
1275 derived from ``subroutine.'') Most primitive functions evaluate all
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1276 their arguments when they are called. A primitive function that does
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1277 not evaluate all its arguments is called a @dfn{special form}
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parents:
diff changeset
1278 (@pxref{Special Forms}).@refill
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1279
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1280 It does not matter to the caller of a function whether the function is
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1281 primitive. However, this does matter if you try to redefine a primitive
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parents:
diff changeset
1282 with a function written in Lisp. The reason is that the primitive
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parents:
diff changeset
1283 function may be called directly from C code. Calls to the redefined
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1284 function from Lisp will use the new definition, but calls from C code
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parents:
diff changeset
1285 may still use the built-in definition. Therefore, @strong{we discourage
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1286 redefinition of primitive functions}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1287
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parents:
diff changeset
1288 The term @dfn{function} refers to all Emacs functions, whether written
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parents:
diff changeset
1289 in Lisp or C. @xref{Function Type}, for information about the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1290 functions written in Lisp.
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parents:
diff changeset
1291
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parents:
diff changeset
1292 Primitive functions have no read syntax and print in hash notation
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parents:
diff changeset
1293 with the name of the subroutine.
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parents:
diff changeset
1294
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parents:
diff changeset
1295 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
1296 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1297 (symbol-function 'car) ; @r{Access the function cell}
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parents:
diff changeset
1298 ; @r{of the symbol.}
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parents:
diff changeset
1299 @result{} #<subr car>
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parents:
diff changeset
1300 (subrp (symbol-function 'car)) ; @r{Is this a primitive function?}
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parents:
diff changeset
1301 @result{} t ; @r{Yes.}
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parents:
diff changeset
1302 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
1303 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
1304
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parents:
diff changeset
1305 @node Byte-Code Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1306 @subsection Byte-Code Function Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1307
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parents:
diff changeset
1308 The byte compiler produces @dfn{byte-code function objects}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1309 Internally, a byte-code function object is much like a vector; however,
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parents:
diff changeset
1310 the evaluator handles this data type specially when it appears as a
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parents:
diff changeset
1311 function to be called. @xref{Byte Compilation}, for information about
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parents:
diff changeset
1312 the byte compiler.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1313
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parents:
diff changeset
1314 The printed representation and read syntax for a byte-code function
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parents:
diff changeset
1315 object is like that for a vector, with an additional @samp{#} before the
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parents:
diff changeset
1316 opening @samp{[}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1317
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parents:
diff changeset
1318 @node Autoload Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1319 @subsection Autoload Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1320
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parents:
diff changeset
1321 An @dfn{autoload object} is a list whose first element is the symbol
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parents:
diff changeset
1322 @code{autoload}. It is stored as the function definition of a symbol,
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parents:
diff changeset
1323 where it serves as a placeholder for the real definition. The autoload
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parents:
diff changeset
1324 object says that the real definition is found in a file of Lisp code
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parents:
diff changeset
1325 that should be loaded when necessary. It contains the name of the file,
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1326 plus some other information about the real definition.
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parents:
diff changeset
1327
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parents:
diff changeset
1328 After the file has been loaded, the symbol should have a new function
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parents:
diff changeset
1329 definition that is not an autoload object. The new definition is then
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1330 called as if it had been there to begin with. From the user's point of
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parents:
diff changeset
1331 view, the function call works as expected, using the function definition
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parents:
diff changeset
1332 in the loaded file.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1333
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parents:
diff changeset
1334 An autoload object is usually created with the function
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parents:
diff changeset
1335 @code{autoload}, which stores the object in the function cell of a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1336 symbol. @xref{Autoload}, for more details.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1337
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parents:
diff changeset
1338 @node Editing Types
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1339 @section Editing Types
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1340 @cindex editing types
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1341
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parents:
diff changeset
1342 The types in the previous section are used for general programming
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1343 purposes, and most of them are common to most Lisp dialects. Emacs Lisp
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1344 provides several additional data types for purposes connected with
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1345 editing.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1346
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1347 @menu
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parents:
diff changeset
1348 * Buffer Type:: The basic object of editing.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1349 * Marker Type:: A position in a buffer.
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parents:
diff changeset
1350 * Window Type:: Buffers are displayed in windows.
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parents:
diff changeset
1351 * Frame Type:: Windows subdivide frames.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1352 * Window Configuration Type:: Recording the way a frame is subdivided.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1353 * Frame Configuration Type:: Recording the status of all frames.
98720
254d97560963 (Editing Types): A `process' is a subprocess of Emacs, not just any process
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents: 98686
diff changeset
1354 * Process Type:: A subprocess of Emacs running on the underlying OS.
84092
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1355 * Stream Type:: Receive or send characters.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1356 * Keymap Type:: What function a keystroke invokes.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1357 * Overlay Type:: How an overlay is represented.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1358 @end menu
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1359
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1360 @node Buffer Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1361 @subsection Buffer Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1362
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parents:
diff changeset
1363 A @dfn{buffer} is an object that holds text that can be edited
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1364 (@pxref{Buffers}). Most buffers hold the contents of a disk file
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parents:
diff changeset
1365 (@pxref{Files}) so they can be edited, but some are used for other
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1366 purposes. Most buffers are also meant to be seen by the user, and
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parents:
diff changeset
1367 therefore displayed, at some time, in a window (@pxref{Windows}). But a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1368 buffer need not be displayed in any window.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1369
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1370 The contents of a buffer are much like a string, but buffers are not
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1371 used like strings in Emacs Lisp, and the available operations are
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1372 different. For example, you can insert text efficiently into an
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1373 existing buffer, altering the buffer's contents, whereas ``inserting''
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1374 text into a string requires concatenating substrings, and the result is
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1375 an entirely new string object.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1376
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1377 Each buffer has a designated position called @dfn{point}
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1378 (@pxref{Positions}). At any time, one buffer is the @dfn{current
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1379 buffer}. Most editing commands act on the contents of the current
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
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parents:
diff changeset
1380 buffer in the neighborhood of point. Many of the standard Emacs
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parents:
diff changeset
1381 functions manipulate or test the characters in the current buffer; a
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parents:
diff changeset
1382 whole chapter in this manual is devoted to describing these functions
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
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parents:
diff changeset
1383 (@pxref{Text}).
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1384
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parents:
diff changeset
1385 Several other data structures are associated with each buffer:
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1386
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parents:
diff changeset
1387 @itemize @bullet
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1388 @item
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1389 a local syntax table (@pxref{Syntax Tables});
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parents:
diff changeset
1390
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parents:
diff changeset
1391 @item
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parents:
diff changeset
1392 a local keymap (@pxref{Keymaps}); and,
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parents:
diff changeset
1393
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parents:
diff changeset
1394 @item
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parents:
diff changeset
1395 a list of buffer-local variable bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local Variables}).
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parents:
diff changeset
1396
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parents:
diff changeset
1397 @item
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parents:
diff changeset
1398 overlays (@pxref{Overlays}).
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parents:
diff changeset
1399
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parents:
diff changeset
1400 @item
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parents:
diff changeset
1401 text properties for the text in the buffer (@pxref{Text Properties}).
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
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parents:
diff changeset
1402 @end itemize
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parents:
diff changeset
1403
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parents:
diff changeset
1404 @noindent
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parents:
diff changeset
1405 The local keymap and variable list contain entries that individually
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parents:
diff changeset
1406 override global bindings or values. These are used to customize the
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
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parents:
diff changeset
1407 behavior of programs in different buffers, without actually changing the
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parents:
diff changeset
1408 programs.
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parents:
diff changeset
1409
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parents:
diff changeset
1410 A buffer may be @dfn{indirect}, which means it shares the text
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parents:
diff changeset
1411 of another buffer, but presents it differently. @xref{Indirect Buffers}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1412
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diff changeset
1413 Buffers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, showing the
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parents:
diff changeset
1414 buffer name.
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parents:
diff changeset
1415
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parents:
diff changeset
1416 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
1417 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1418 (current-buffer)
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parents:
diff changeset
1419 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi>
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parents:
diff changeset
1420 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
1421 @end example
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diff changeset
1422
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parents:
diff changeset
1423 @node Marker Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1424 @subsection Marker Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1425
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parents:
diff changeset
1426 A @dfn{marker} denotes a position in a specific buffer. Markers
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parents:
diff changeset
1427 therefore have two components: one for the buffer, and one for the
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parents:
diff changeset
1428 position. Changes in the buffer's text automatically relocate the
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parents:
diff changeset
1429 position value as necessary to ensure that the marker always points
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parents:
diff changeset
1430 between the same two characters in the buffer.
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parents:
diff changeset
1431
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diff changeset
1432 Markers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the
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parents:
diff changeset
1433 current character position and the name of the buffer.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1434
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1435 @example
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1436 @group
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1437 (point-marker)
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1438 @result{} #<marker at 10779 in objects.texi>
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1439 @end group
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1440 @end example
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1441
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1442 @xref{Markers}, for information on how to test, create, copy, and move
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1443 markers.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1444
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1445 @node Window Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1446 @subsection Window Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1447
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1448 A @dfn{window} describes the portion of the terminal screen that Emacs
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1449 uses to display a buffer. Every window has one associated buffer, whose
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1450 contents appear in the window. By contrast, a given buffer may appear
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1451 in one window, no window, or several windows.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1452
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1453 Though many windows may exist simultaneously, at any time one window
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1454 is designated the @dfn{selected window}. This is the window where the
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1455 cursor is (usually) displayed when Emacs is ready for a command. The
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1456 selected window usually displays the current buffer, but this is not
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1457 necessarily the case.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1458
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1459 Windows are grouped on the screen into frames; each window belongs to
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1460 one and only one frame. @xref{Frame Type}.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1461
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1462 Windows have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1463 window number and the name of the buffer being displayed. The window
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1464 numbers exist to identify windows uniquely, since the buffer displayed
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1465 in any given window can change frequently.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1466
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1467 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1468 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1469 (selected-window)
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1470 @result{} #<window 1 on objects.texi>
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1471 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1472 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1473
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1474 @xref{Windows}, for a description of the functions that work on windows.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1475
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1476 @node Frame Type
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1477 @subsection Frame Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1478
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1479 A @dfn{frame} is a screen area that contains one or more Emacs
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1480 windows; we also use the term ``frame'' to refer to the Lisp object
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1481 that Emacs uses to refer to the screen area.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1482
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1483 Frames have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1484 frame's title, plus its address in core (useful to identify the frame
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1485 uniquely).
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1486
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1487 @example
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1488 @group
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1489 (selected-frame)
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1490 @result{} #<frame emacs@@psilocin.gnu.org 0xdac80>
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1491 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1492 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1493
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1494 @xref{Frames}, for a description of the functions that work on frames.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1495
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1496 @node Window Configuration Type
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1497 @subsection Window Configuration Type
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1498 @cindex window layout in a frame
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1499
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1500 A @dfn{window configuration} stores information about the positions,
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1501 sizes, and contents of the windows in a frame, so you can recreate the
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1502 same arrangement of windows later.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1503
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1504 Window configurations do not have a read syntax; their print syntax
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1505 looks like @samp{#<window-configuration>}. @xref{Window
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1506 Configurations}, for a description of several functions related to
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1507 window configurations.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1508
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1509 @node Frame Configuration Type
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1510 @subsection Frame Configuration Type
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1511 @cindex screen layout
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1512 @cindex window layout, all frames
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1513
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1514 A @dfn{frame configuration} stores information about the positions,
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1515 sizes, and contents of the windows in all frames. It is actually
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1516 a list whose @sc{car} is @code{frame-configuration} and whose
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1517 @sc{cdr} is an alist. Each alist element describes one frame,
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1518 which appears as the @sc{car} of that element.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1519
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1520 @xref{Frame Configurations}, for a description of several functions
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1521 related to frame configurations.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1522
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1523 @node Process Type
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1524 @subsection Process Type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1525
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1526 The word @dfn{process} usually means a running program. Emacs itself
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1527 runs in a process of this sort. However, in Emacs Lisp, a process is a
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1528 Lisp object that designates a subprocess created by the Emacs process.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1529 Programs such as shells, GDB, ftp, and compilers, running in
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1530 subprocesses of Emacs, extend the capabilities of Emacs.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1531
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1532 An Emacs subprocess takes textual input from Emacs and returns textual
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1533 output to Emacs for further manipulation. Emacs can also send signals
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1534 to the subprocess.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1535
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1536 Process objects have no read syntax. They print in hash notation,
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1537 giving the name of the process:
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1538
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1539 @example
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1540 @group
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1541 (process-list)
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1542 @result{} (#<process shell>)
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1543 @end group
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1544 @end example
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1545
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1546 @xref{Processes}, for information about functions that create, delete,
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1547 return information about, send input or signals to, and receive output
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1548 from processes.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1549
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1550 @node Stream Type
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1551 @subsection Stream Type
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1552
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1553 A @dfn{stream} is an object that can be used as a source or sink for
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1554 characters---either to supply characters for input or to accept them as
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1555 output. Many different types can be used this way: markers, buffers,
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1556 strings, and functions. Most often, input streams (character sources)
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1557 obtain characters from the keyboard, a buffer, or a file, and output
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1558 streams (character sinks) send characters to a buffer, such as a
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1559 @file{*Help*} buffer, or to the echo area.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1560
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1561 The object @code{nil}, in addition to its other meanings, may be used
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1562 as a stream. It stands for the value of the variable
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1563 @code{standard-input} or @code{standard-output}. Also, the object
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1564 @code{t} as a stream specifies input using the minibuffer
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1565 (@pxref{Minibuffers}) or output in the echo area (@pxref{The Echo
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1566 Area}).
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1567
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1568 Streams have no special printed representation or read syntax, and
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1569 print as whatever primitive type they are.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1570
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1571 @xref{Read and Print}, for a description of functions
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1572 related to streams, including parsing and printing functions.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1573
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1574 @node Keymap Type
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1575 @subsection Keymap Type
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1576
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1577 A @dfn{keymap} maps keys typed by the user to commands. This mapping
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1578 controls how the user's command input is executed. A keymap is actually
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1579 a list whose @sc{car} is the symbol @code{keymap}.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1580
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1581 @xref{Keymaps}, for information about creating keymaps, handling prefix
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1582 keys, local as well as global keymaps, and changing key bindings.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1583
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1584 @node Overlay Type
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1585 @subsection Overlay Type
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1586
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1587 An @dfn{overlay} specifies properties that apply to a part of a
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1588 buffer. Each overlay applies to a specified range of the buffer, and
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1589 contains a property list (a list whose elements are alternating property
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1590 names and values). Overlay properties are used to present parts of the
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1591 buffer temporarily in a different display style. Overlays have no read
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1592 syntax, and print in hash notation, giving the buffer name and range of
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1593 positions.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1594
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1595 @xref{Overlays}, for how to create and use overlays.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1596
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1597 @node Circular Objects
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1598 @section Read Syntax for Circular Objects
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1599 @cindex circular structure, read syntax
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1600 @cindex shared structure, read syntax
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1601 @cindex @samp{#@var{n}=} read syntax
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1602 @cindex @samp{#@var{n}#} read syntax
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1603
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1604 To represent shared or circular structures within a complex of Lisp
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1605 objects, you can use the reader constructs @samp{#@var{n}=} and
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1606 @samp{#@var{n}#}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1607
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1608 Use @code{#@var{n}=} before an object to label it for later reference;
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1609 subsequently, you can use @code{#@var{n}#} to refer the same object in
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1610 another place. Here, @var{n} is some integer. For example, here is how
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1611 to make a list in which the first element recurs as the third element:
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1612
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1613 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1614 (#1=(a) b #1#)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1615 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1616
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1617 @noindent
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1618 This differs from ordinary syntax such as this
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1619
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1620 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1621 ((a) b (a))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1622 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1623
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1624 @noindent
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1625 which would result in a list whose first and third elements
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1626 look alike but are not the same Lisp object. This shows the difference:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1627
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1628 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1629 (prog1 nil
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1630 (setq x '(#1=(a) b #1#)))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1631 (eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1632 @result{} t
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1633 (setq x '((a) b (a)))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1634 (eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1635 @result{} nil
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1636 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1637
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1638 You can also use the same syntax to make a circular structure, which
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1639 appears as an ``element'' within itself. Here is an example:
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1640
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1641 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1642 #1=(a #1#)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1643 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1644
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1645 @noindent
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1646 This makes a list whose second element is the list itself.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1647 Here's how you can see that it really works:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1648
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1649 @example
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1650 (prog1 nil
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1651 (setq x '#1=(a #1#)))
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1652 (eq x (cadr x))
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1653 @result{} t
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1654 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1655
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1656 The Lisp printer can produce this syntax to record circular and shared
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1657 structure in a Lisp object, if you bind the variable @code{print-circle}
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1658 to a non-@code{nil} value. @xref{Output Variables}.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1659
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1660 @node Type Predicates
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1661 @section Type Predicates
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1662 @cindex type checking
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1663 @kindex wrong-type-argument
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1664
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1665 The Emacs Lisp interpreter itself does not perform type checking on
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1666 the actual arguments passed to functions when they are called. It could
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1667 not do so, since function arguments in Lisp do not have declared data
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1668 types, as they do in other programming languages. It is therefore up to
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1669 the individual function to test whether each actual argument belongs to
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1670 a type that the function can use.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1671
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1672 All built-in functions do check the types of their actual arguments
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1673 when appropriate, and signal a @code{wrong-type-argument} error if an
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1674 argument is of the wrong type. For example, here is what happens if you
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1675 pass an argument to @code{+} that it cannot handle:
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1676
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1677 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1678 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1679 (+ 2 'a)
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1680 @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1681 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1682 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1683
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1684 @cindex type predicates
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1685 @cindex testing types
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1686 If you want your program to handle different types differently, you
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1687 must do explicit type checking. The most common way to check the type
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1688 of an object is to call a @dfn{type predicate} function. Emacs has a
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1689 type predicate for each type, as well as some predicates for
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1690 combinations of types.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1691
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1692 A type predicate function takes one argument; it returns @code{t} if
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1693 the argument belongs to the appropriate type, and @code{nil} otherwise.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1694 Following a general Lisp convention for predicate functions, most type
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1695 predicates' names end with @samp{p}.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1696
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1697 Here is an example which uses the predicates @code{listp} to check for
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1698 a list and @code{symbolp} to check for a symbol.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1699
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1700 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1701 (defun add-on (x)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1702 (cond ((symbolp x)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1703 ;; If X is a symbol, put it on LIST.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1704 (setq list (cons x list)))
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1705 ((listp x)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1706 ;; If X is a list, add its elements to LIST.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1707 (setq list (append x list)))
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1708 (t
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1709 ;; We handle only symbols and lists.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1710 (error "Invalid argument %s in add-on" x))))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1711 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1712
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1713 Here is a table of predefined type predicates, in alphabetical order,
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1714 with references to further information.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1715
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1716 @table @code
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1717 @item atom
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1718 @xref{List-related Predicates, atom}.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1719
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1720 @item arrayp
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1721 @xref{Array Functions, arrayp}.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1722
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1723 @item bool-vector-p
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1724 @xref{Bool-Vectors, bool-vector-p}.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1725
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1726 @item bufferp
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1727 @xref{Buffer Basics, bufferp}.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1728
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1729 @item byte-code-function-p
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1730 @xref{Byte-Code Type, byte-code-function-p}.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1731
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1732 @item case-table-p
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1733 @xref{Case Tables, case-table-p}.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1734
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1735 @item char-or-string-p
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1736 @xref{Predicates for Strings, char-or-string-p}.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1737
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1738 @item char-table-p
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1739 @xref{Char-Tables, char-table-p}.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1740
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1741 @item commandp
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1742 @xref{Interactive Call, commandp}.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1743
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1744 @item consp
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1745 @xref{List-related Predicates, consp}.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1746
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1747 @item display-table-p
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1748 @xref{Display Tables, display-table-p}.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1749
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1750 @item floatp
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1751 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, floatp}.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1752
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1753 @item frame-configuration-p
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1754 @xref{Frame Configurations, frame-configuration-p}.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1755
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1756 @item frame-live-p
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1757 @xref{Deleting Frames, frame-live-p}.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1758
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1759 @item framep
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1760 @xref{Frames, framep}.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1761
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1762 @item functionp
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1763 @xref{Functions, functionp}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1764
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1765 @item hash-table-p
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1766 @xref{Other Hash, hash-table-p}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1767
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1768 @item integer-or-marker-p
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1769 @xref{Predicates on Markers, integer-or-marker-p}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1770
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1771 @item integerp
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1772 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, integerp}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1773
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1774 @item keymapp
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1775 @xref{Creating Keymaps, keymapp}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1776
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1777 @item keywordp
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1778 @xref{Constant Variables}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1779
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1780 @item listp
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1781 @xref{List-related Predicates, listp}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1782
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1783 @item markerp
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1784 @xref{Predicates on Markers, markerp}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1785
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1786 @item wholenump
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1787 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, wholenump}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1788
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1789 @item nlistp
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1790 @xref{List-related Predicates, nlistp}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1791
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1792 @item numberp
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1793 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, numberp}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1794
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1795 @item number-or-marker-p
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1796 @xref{Predicates on Markers, number-or-marker-p}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1797
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1798 @item overlayp
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1799 @xref{Overlays, overlayp}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1800
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parents:
diff changeset
1801 @item processp
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parents:
diff changeset
1802 @xref{Processes, processp}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1803
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parents:
diff changeset
1804 @item sequencep
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parents:
diff changeset
1805 @xref{Sequence Functions, sequencep}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1806
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parents:
diff changeset
1807 @item stringp
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parents:
diff changeset
1808 @xref{Predicates for Strings, stringp}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1809
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1810 @item subrp
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1811 @xref{Function Cells, subrp}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1812
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1813 @item symbolp
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1814 @xref{Symbols, symbolp}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1815
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parents:
diff changeset
1816 @item syntax-table-p
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1817 @xref{Syntax Tables, syntax-table-p}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1818
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1819 @item user-variable-p
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1820 @xref{Defining Variables, user-variable-p}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1821
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1822 @item vectorp
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1823 @xref{Vectors, vectorp}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1824
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1825 @item window-configuration-p
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1826 @xref{Window Configurations, window-configuration-p}.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1827
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1828 @item window-live-p
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1829 @xref{Deleting Windows, window-live-p}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1830
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1831 @item windowp
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1832 @xref{Basic Windows, windowp}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1833
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1834 @item booleanp
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1835 @xref{nil and t, booleanp}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1836
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1837 @item string-or-null-p
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1838 @xref{Predicates for Strings, string-or-null-p}.
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1839 @end table
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1840
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1841 The most general way to check the type of an object is to call the
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1842 function @code{type-of}. Recall that each object belongs to one and
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1843 only one primitive type; @code{type-of} tells you which one (@pxref{Lisp
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1844 Data Types}). But @code{type-of} knows nothing about non-primitive
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1845 types. In most cases, it is more convenient to use type predicates than
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1846 @code{type-of}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1847
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1848 @defun type-of object
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1849 This function returns a symbol naming the primitive type of
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1850 @var{object}. The value is one of the symbols @code{symbol},
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1851 @code{integer}, @code{float}, @code{string}, @code{cons}, @code{vector},
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1852 @code{char-table}, @code{bool-vector}, @code{hash-table}, @code{subr},
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1853 @code{compiled-function}, @code{marker}, @code{overlay}, @code{window},
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1854 @code{buffer}, @code{frame}, @code{process}, or
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1855 @code{window-configuration}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1856
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1857 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1858 (type-of 1)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1859 @result{} integer
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1860 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1861 (type-of 'nil)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1862 @result{} symbol
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1863 (type-of '()) ; @r{@code{()} is @code{nil}.}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1864 @result{} symbol
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1865 (type-of '(x))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1866 @result{} cons
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1867 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1868 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1869 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
1870
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1871 @node Equality Predicates
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1872 @section Equality Predicates
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1873 @cindex equality
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1874
91742
9c8fbf324b59 (Equality Predicates): No longer talk about "two" functions.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 91741
diff changeset
1875 Here we describe functions that test for equality between any two
85663
6969c5ba7fd1 (Equality Predicates): Null strings are uniquified.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 84116
diff changeset
1876 objects. Other functions test equality of contents between objects of specific
84092
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1877 types, e.g., strings. For these predicates, see the appropriate chapter
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1878 describing the data type.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1879
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1880 @defun eq object1 object2
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1881 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1882 the same object, @code{nil} otherwise.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1883
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1884 @code{eq} returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1885 integers with the same value. Also, since symbol names are normally
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1886 unique, if the arguments are symbols with the same name, they are
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1887 @code{eq}. For other types (e.g., lists, vectors, strings), two
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1888 arguments with the same contents or elements are not necessarily
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1889 @code{eq} to each other: they are @code{eq} only if they are the same
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1890 object, meaning that a change in the contents of one will be reflected
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1891 by the same change in the contents of the other.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1892
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parents:
diff changeset
1893 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1894 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1895 (eq 'foo 'foo)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1896 @result{} t
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1897 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1898
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parents:
diff changeset
1899 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1900 (eq 456 456)
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parents:
diff changeset
1901 @result{} t
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1902 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
1903
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parents:
diff changeset
1904 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1905 (eq "asdf" "asdf")
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parents:
diff changeset
1906 @result{} nil
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parents:
diff changeset
1907 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1908
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1909 @group
85663
6969c5ba7fd1 (Equality Predicates): Null strings are uniquified.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 84116
diff changeset
1910 (eq "" "")
6969c5ba7fd1 (Equality Predicates): Null strings are uniquified.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 84116
diff changeset
1911 @result{} t
6969c5ba7fd1 (Equality Predicates): Null strings are uniquified.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 84116
diff changeset
1912 ;; @r{This exception occurs because Emacs Lisp}
6969c5ba7fd1 (Equality Predicates): Null strings are uniquified.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 84116
diff changeset
1913 ;; @r{makes just one multibyte empty string, to save space.}
6969c5ba7fd1 (Equality Predicates): Null strings are uniquified.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 84116
diff changeset
1914 @end group
6969c5ba7fd1 (Equality Predicates): Null strings are uniquified.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 84116
diff changeset
1915
6969c5ba7fd1 (Equality Predicates): Null strings are uniquified.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 84116
diff changeset
1916 @group
84092
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parents:
diff changeset
1917 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3))))
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parents:
diff changeset
1918 @result{} nil
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parents:
diff changeset
1919 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
1920
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parents:
diff changeset
1921 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1922 (setq foo '(1 (2 (3))))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1923 @result{} (1 (2 (3)))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1924 (eq foo foo)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1925 @result{} t
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1926 (eq foo '(1 (2 (3))))
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diff changeset
1927 @result{} nil
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diff changeset
1928 @end group
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diff changeset
1929
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1930 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1931 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3])
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1932 @result{} nil
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1933 @end group
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1934
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1935 @group
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diff changeset
1936 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker))
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1937 @result{} nil
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diff changeset
1938 @end group
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diff changeset
1939 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
1940
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diff changeset
1941 The @code{make-symbol} function returns an uninterned symbol, distinct
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parents:
diff changeset
1942 from the symbol that is used if you write the name in a Lisp expression.
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parents:
diff changeset
1943 Distinct symbols with the same name are not @code{eq}. @xref{Creating
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diff changeset
1944 Symbols}.
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1945
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1946 @example
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1947 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1948 (eq (make-symbol "foo") 'foo)
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diff changeset
1949 @result{} nil
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diff changeset
1950 @end group
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diff changeset
1951 @end example
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diff changeset
1952 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
1953
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parents:
diff changeset
1954 @defun equal object1 object2
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parents:
diff changeset
1955 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} have
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parents:
diff changeset
1956 equal components, @code{nil} otherwise. Whereas @code{eq} tests if its
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parents:
diff changeset
1957 arguments are the same object, @code{equal} looks inside nonidentical
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diff changeset
1958 arguments to see if their elements or contents are the same. So, if two
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parents:
diff changeset
1959 objects are @code{eq}, they are @code{equal}, but the converse is not
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parents:
diff changeset
1960 always true.
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diff changeset
1961
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diff changeset
1962 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
1963 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1964 (equal 'foo 'foo)
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diff changeset
1965 @result{} t
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parents:
diff changeset
1966 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
1967
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parents:
diff changeset
1968 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1969 (equal 456 456)
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parents:
diff changeset
1970 @result{} t
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parents:
diff changeset
1971 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
1972
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parents:
diff changeset
1973 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1974 (equal "asdf" "asdf")
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parents:
diff changeset
1975 @result{} t
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parents:
diff changeset
1976 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
1977 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1978 (eq "asdf" "asdf")
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parents:
diff changeset
1979 @result{} nil
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parents:
diff changeset
1980 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
1981
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parents:
diff changeset
1982 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1983 (equal '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3))))
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parents:
diff changeset
1984 @result{} t
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parents:
diff changeset
1985 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1986 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1987 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3))))
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parents:
diff changeset
1988 @result{} nil
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parents:
diff changeset
1989 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1990
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1991 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1992 (equal [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3])
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parents:
diff changeset
1993 @result{} t
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parents:
diff changeset
1994 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
1995 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1996 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3])
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parents:
diff changeset
1997 @result{} nil
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parents:
diff changeset
1998 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1999
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2000 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
2001 (equal (point-marker) (point-marker))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2002 @result{} t
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2003 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2004
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2005 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
2006 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker))
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parents:
diff changeset
2007 @result{} nil
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2008 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2009 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2010
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2011 Comparison of strings is case-sensitive, but does not take account of
91713
aaee11161def (Equality Predicates): Mention equal-including-properties.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 87649
diff changeset
2012 text properties---it compares only the characters in the strings. Use
aaee11161def (Equality Predicates): Mention equal-including-properties.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 87649
diff changeset
2013 @code{equal-including-properties} to also compare text properties. For
84092
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2014 technical reasons, a unibyte string and a multibyte string are
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2015 @code{equal} if and only if they contain the same sequence of
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2016 character codes and all these codes are either in the range 0 through
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2017 127 (@acronym{ASCII}) or 160 through 255 (@code{eight-bit-graphic}).
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2018 (@pxref{Text Representations}).
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2019
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2020 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2021 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2022 (equal "asdf" "ASDF")
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2023 @result{} nil
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2024 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2025 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2026
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2027 However, two distinct buffers are never considered @code{equal}, even if
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2028 their textual contents are the same.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2029 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2030
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2031 The test for equality is implemented recursively; for example, given
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2032 two cons cells @var{x} and @var{y}, @code{(equal @var{x} @var{y})}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2033 returns @code{t} if and only if both the expressions below return
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2034 @code{t}:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2035
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2036 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2037 (equal (car @var{x}) (car @var{y}))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2038 (equal (cdr @var{x}) (cdr @var{y}))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2039 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2040
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2041 Because of this recursive method, circular lists may therefore cause
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2042 infinite recursion (leading to an error).
e2f141bee28a Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2043
91741
4e73f4d4b3d1 Lawrence Mitchell <wence at gmx.li> (tiny change)
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 91713
diff changeset
2044 @defun equal-including-properties object1 object2
4e73f4d4b3d1 Lawrence Mitchell <wence at gmx.li> (tiny change)
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 91713
diff changeset
2045 This function behaves like @code{equal} in all cases but also requires
4e73f4d4b3d1 Lawrence Mitchell <wence at gmx.li> (tiny change)
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 91713
diff changeset
2046 that for two strings to be equal, they have the same text properties.
4e73f4d4b3d1 Lawrence Mitchell <wence at gmx.li> (tiny change)
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 91713
diff changeset
2047
4e73f4d4b3d1 Lawrence Mitchell <wence at gmx.li> (tiny change)
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 91713
diff changeset
2048 @example
4e73f4d4b3d1 Lawrence Mitchell <wence at gmx.li> (tiny change)
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 91713
diff changeset
2049 @group
4e73f4d4b3d1 Lawrence Mitchell <wence at gmx.li> (tiny change)
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 91713
diff changeset
2050 (equal "asdf" (propertize "asdf" '(asdf t)))
4e73f4d4b3d1 Lawrence Mitchell <wence at gmx.li> (tiny change)
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 91713
diff changeset
2051 @result{} t
4e73f4d4b3d1 Lawrence Mitchell <wence at gmx.li> (tiny change)
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 91713
diff changeset
2052 @end group
4e73f4d4b3d1 Lawrence Mitchell <wence at gmx.li> (tiny change)
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 91713
diff changeset
2053 @group
4e73f4d4b3d1 Lawrence Mitchell <wence at gmx.li> (tiny change)
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 91713
diff changeset
2054 (equal-including-properties "asdf"
4e73f4d4b3d1 Lawrence Mitchell <wence at gmx.li> (tiny change)
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 91713
diff changeset
2055 (propertize "asdf" '(asdf t)))
4e73f4d4b3d1 Lawrence Mitchell <wence at gmx.li> (tiny change)
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 91713
diff changeset
2056 @result{} nil
4e73f4d4b3d1 Lawrence Mitchell <wence at gmx.li> (tiny change)
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 91713
diff changeset
2057 @end group
4e73f4d4b3d1 Lawrence Mitchell <wence at gmx.li> (tiny change)
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 91713
diff changeset
2058 @end example
4e73f4d4b3d1 Lawrence Mitchell <wence at gmx.li> (tiny change)
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 91713
diff changeset
2059 @end defun
4e73f4d4b3d1 Lawrence Mitchell <wence at gmx.li> (tiny change)
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 91713
diff changeset
2060
84092
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parents:
diff changeset
2061 @ignore
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2062 arch-tag: 9711a66e-4749-4265-9e8c-972d55b67096
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2063 @end ignore