Mercurial > emacs
annotate lispref/numbers.texi @ 59493:0b8e17ea69db
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author | Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org> |
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6510 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2003 |
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4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6510 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/numbers | |
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7 @node Numbers, Strings and Characters, Lisp Data Types, Top |
6510 | 8 @chapter Numbers |
9 @cindex integers | |
10 @cindex numbers | |
11 | |
12 GNU Emacs supports two numeric data types: @dfn{integers} and | |
13 @dfn{floating point numbers}. Integers are whole numbers such as | |
14 @minus{}3, 0, 7, 13, and 511. Their values are exact. Floating point | |
15 numbers are numbers with fractional parts, such as @minus{}4.5, 0.0, or | |
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16 2.71828. They can also be expressed in exponential notation: 1.5e2 |
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17 equals 150; in this example, @samp{e2} stands for ten to the second |
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18 power, and that is multiplied by 1.5. Floating point values are not |
6510 | 19 exact; they have a fixed, limited amount of precision. |
20 | |
21 @menu | |
22 * Integer Basics:: Representation and range of integers. | |
23 * Float Basics:: Representation and range of floating point. | |
24 * Predicates on Numbers:: Testing for numbers. | |
25 * Comparison of Numbers:: Equality and inequality predicates. | |
26 * Numeric Conversions:: Converting float to integer and vice versa. | |
27 * Arithmetic Operations:: How to add, subtract, multiply and divide. | |
28 * Rounding Operations:: Explicitly rounding floating point numbers. | |
29 * Bitwise Operations:: Logical and, or, not, shifting. | |
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30 * Math Functions:: Trig, exponential and logarithmic functions. |
6510 | 31 * Random Numbers:: Obtaining random integers, predictable or not. |
32 @end menu | |
33 | |
34 @node Integer Basics | |
35 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
36 @section Integer Basics | |
37 | |
38 The range of values for an integer depends on the machine. The | |
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39 minimum range is @minus{}268435456 to 268435455 (29 bits; i.e., |
27193 | 40 @ifnottex |
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41 -2**28 |
27193 | 42 @end ifnottex |
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43 @tex |
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44 @math{-2^{28}} |
6510 | 45 @end tex |
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46 to |
27193 | 47 @ifnottex |
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48 2**28 - 1), |
27193 | 49 @end ifnottex |
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50 @tex |
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51 @math{2^{28}-1}), |
6510 | 52 @end tex |
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53 but some machines may provide a wider range. Many examples in this |
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54 chapter assume an integer has 29 bits. |
6510 | 55 @cindex overflow |
56 | |
57 The Lisp reader reads an integer as a sequence of digits with optional | |
58 initial sign and optional final period. | |
59 | |
60 @example | |
61 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
62 1. ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
63 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} | |
64 -1 ; @r{The integer @minus{}1.} | |
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65 536870913 ; @r{Also the integer 1, due to overflow.} |
6510 | 66 0 ; @r{The integer 0.} |
67 -0 ; @r{The integer 0.} | |
68 @end example | |
69 | |
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70 @cindex integers in specific radix |
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71 @cindex radix for reading an integer |
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72 @cindex base for reading an integer |
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73 @cindex hex numbers |
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74 @cindex octal numbers |
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75 @cindex reading numbers in hex, octal, and binary |
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76 In addition, the Lisp reader recognizes a syntax for integers in |
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77 bases other than 10: @samp{#B@var{integer}} reads @var{integer} in |
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78 binary (radix 2), @samp{#O@var{integer}} reads @var{integer} in octal |
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79 (radix 8), @samp{#X@var{integer}} reads @var{integer} in hexadecimal |
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80 (radix 16), and @samp{#@var{radix}r@var{integer}} reads @var{integer} |
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81 in radix @var{radix} (where @var{radix} is between 2 and 36, |
48700 | 82 inclusively). Case is not significant for the letter after @samp{#} |
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83 (@samp{B}, @samp{O}, etc.) that denotes the radix. |
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84 |
6510 | 85 To understand how various functions work on integers, especially the |
86 bitwise operators (@pxref{Bitwise Operations}), it is often helpful to | |
87 view the numbers in their binary form. | |
88 | |
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89 In 29-bit binary, the decimal integer 5 looks like this: |
6510 | 90 |
91 @example | |
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92 0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101 |
6510 | 93 @end example |
94 | |
95 @noindent | |
96 (We have inserted spaces between groups of 4 bits, and two spaces | |
97 between groups of 8 bits, to make the binary integer easier to read.) | |
98 | |
99 The integer @minus{}1 looks like this: | |
100 | |
101 @example | |
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102 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 103 @end example |
104 | |
105 @noindent | |
106 @cindex two's complement | |
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107 @minus{}1 is represented as 29 ones. (This is called @dfn{two's |
6510 | 108 complement} notation.) |
109 | |
110 The negative integer, @minus{}5, is creating by subtracting 4 from | |
111 @minus{}1. In binary, the decimal integer 4 is 100. Consequently, | |
112 @minus{}5 looks like this: | |
113 | |
114 @example | |
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115 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011 |
6510 | 116 @end example |
117 | |
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118 In this implementation, the largest 29-bit binary integer value is |
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119 268,435,455 in decimal. In binary, it looks like this: |
6510 | 120 |
121 @example | |
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122 0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 123 @end example |
124 | |
125 Since the arithmetic functions do not check whether integers go | |
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126 outside their range, when you add 1 to 268,435,455, the value is the |
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127 negative integer @minus{}268,435,456: |
6510 | 128 |
129 @example | |
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130 (+ 1 268435455) |
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131 @result{} -268435456 |
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132 @result{} 1 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 |
6510 | 133 @end example |
134 | |
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135 Many of the functions described in this chapter accept markers for |
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136 arguments in place of numbers. (@xref{Markers}.) Since the actual |
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137 arguments to such functions may be either numbers or markers, we often |
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138 give these arguments the name @var{number-or-marker}. When the argument |
6510 | 139 value is a marker, its position value is used and its buffer is ignored. |
140 | |
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141 @defvar most-positive-fixnum |
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142 The value of this variable is the largest integer that Emacs Lisp |
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143 can handle. |
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144 @end defvar |
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145 |
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146 @defvar most-negative-fixnum |
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147 The value of this variable is the smallest integer that Emacs Lisp can |
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148 handle. It is negative. |
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149 @end defvar |
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150 |
6510 | 151 @node Float Basics |
152 @section Floating Point Basics | |
153 | |
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154 Floating point numbers are useful for representing numbers that are |
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155 not integral. The precise range of floating point numbers is |
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156 machine-specific; it is the same as the range of the C data type |
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157 @code{double} on the machine you are using. |
6510 | 158 |
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159 The read-syntax for floating point numbers requires either a decimal |
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160 point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or both. For |
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161 example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, @samp{1.5e3}, and |
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162 @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point number whose |
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163 value is 1500. They are all equivalent. You can also use a minus sign |
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164 to write negative floating point numbers, as in @samp{-1.0}. |
6510 | 165 |
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166 @cindex @acronym{IEEE} floating point |
6510 | 167 @cindex positive infinity |
168 @cindex negative infinity | |
169 @cindex infinity | |
170 @cindex NaN | |
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171 Most modern computers support the @acronym{IEEE} floating point standard, |
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172 which provides for positive infinity and negative infinity as floating point |
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173 values. It also provides for a class of values called NaN or |
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174 ``not-a-number''; numerical functions return such values in cases where |
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175 there is no correct answer. For example, @code{(/ 0.0 0.0)} returns a |
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176 NaN. For practical purposes, there's no significant difference between |
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177 different NaN values in Emacs Lisp, and there's no rule for precisely |
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178 which NaN value should be used in a particular case, so Emacs Lisp |
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179 doesn't try to distinguish them. Here are the read syntaxes for |
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180 these special floating point values: |
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181 |
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182 @table @asis |
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183 @item positive infinity |
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184 @samp{1.0e+INF} |
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185 @item negative infinity |
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186 @samp{-1.0e+INF} |
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187 @item Not-a-number |
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188 @samp{0.0e+NaN}. |
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189 @end table |
6510 | 190 |
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191 In addition, the value @code{-0.0} is distinguishable from ordinary |
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192 zero in @acronym{IEEE} floating point (although @code{equal} and |
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193 @code{=} consider them equal values). |
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194 |
6510 | 195 You can use @code{logb} to extract the binary exponent of a floating |
196 point number (or estimate the logarithm of an integer): | |
197 | |
198 @defun logb number | |
199 This function returns the binary exponent of @var{number}. More | |
200 precisely, the value is the logarithm of @var{number} base 2, rounded | |
201 down to an integer. | |
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202 |
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203 @example |
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204 (logb 10) |
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205 @result{} 3 |
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206 (logb 10.0e20) |
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207 @result{} 69 |
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208 @end example |
6510 | 209 @end defun |
210 | |
211 @node Predicates on Numbers | |
212 @section Type Predicates for Numbers | |
213 | |
214 The functions in this section test whether the argument is a number or | |
215 whether it is a certain sort of number. The functions @code{integerp} | |
216 and @code{floatp} can take any type of Lisp object as argument (the | |
217 predicates would not be of much use otherwise); but the @code{zerop} | |
218 predicate requires a number as its argument. See also | |
219 @code{integer-or-marker-p} and @code{number-or-marker-p}, in | |
220 @ref{Predicates on Markers}. | |
221 | |
222 @defun floatp object | |
223 This predicate tests whether its argument is a floating point | |
224 number and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
225 | |
226 @code{floatp} does not exist in Emacs versions 18 and earlier. | |
227 @end defun | |
228 | |
229 @defun integerp object | |
230 This predicate tests whether its argument is an integer, and returns | |
231 @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
232 @end defun | |
233 | |
234 @defun numberp object | |
235 This predicate tests whether its argument is a number (either integer or | |
236 floating point), and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
237 @end defun | |
238 | |
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239 @defun wholenump object |
6510 | 240 @cindex natural numbers |
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241 The @code{wholenump} predicate (whose name comes from the phrase |
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242 ``whole-number-p'') tests to see whether its argument is a nonnegative |
6510 | 243 integer, and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. 0 is |
244 considered non-negative. | |
245 | |
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246 @findex natnump |
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247 @code{natnump} is an obsolete synonym for @code{wholenump}. |
6510 | 248 @end defun |
249 | |
250 @defun zerop number | |
251 This predicate tests whether its argument is zero, and returns @code{t} | |
252 if so, @code{nil} otherwise. The argument must be a number. | |
253 | |
254 These two forms are equivalent: @code{(zerop x)} @equiv{} @code{(= x 0)}. | |
255 @end defun | |
256 | |
257 @node Comparison of Numbers | |
258 @section Comparison of Numbers | |
259 @cindex number equality | |
260 | |
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261 To test numbers for numerical equality, you should normally use |
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262 @code{=}, not @code{eq}. There can be many distinct floating point |
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263 number objects with the same numeric value. If you use @code{eq} to |
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264 compare them, then you test whether two values are the same |
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265 @emph{object}. By contrast, @code{=} compares only the numeric values |
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266 of the objects. |
6510 | 267 |
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268 At present, each integer value has a unique Lisp object in Emacs Lisp. |
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269 Therefore, @code{eq} is equivalent to @code{=} where integers are |
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270 concerned. It is sometimes convenient to use @code{eq} for comparing an |
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271 unknown value with an integer, because @code{eq} does not report an |
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272 error if the unknown value is not a number---it accepts arguments of any |
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273 type. By contrast, @code{=} signals an error if the arguments are not |
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274 numbers or markers. However, it is a good idea to use @code{=} if you |
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275 can, even for comparing integers, just in case we change the |
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276 representation of integers in a future Emacs version. |
6510 | 277 |
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278 Sometimes it is useful to compare numbers with @code{equal}; it treats |
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279 two numbers as equal if they have the same data type (both integers, or |
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280 both floating point) and the same value. By contrast, @code{=} can |
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281 treat an integer and a floating point number as equal. |
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282 |
6510 | 283 There is another wrinkle: because floating point arithmetic is not |
284 exact, it is often a bad idea to check for equality of two floating | |
285 point values. Usually it is better to test for approximate equality. | |
286 Here's a function to do this: | |
287 | |
288 @example | |
289 (defvar fuzz-factor 1.0e-6) | |
290 (defun approx-equal (x y) | |
12098 | 291 (or (and (= x 0) (= y 0)) |
292 (< (/ (abs (- x y)) | |
293 (max (abs x) (abs y))) | |
294 fuzz-factor))) | |
6510 | 295 @end example |
296 | |
297 @cindex CL note---integers vrs @code{eq} | |
298 @quotation | |
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299 @b{Common Lisp note:} Comparing numbers in Common Lisp always requires |
6510 | 300 @code{=} because Common Lisp implements multi-word integers, and two |
301 distinct integer objects can have the same numeric value. Emacs Lisp | |
302 can have just one integer object for any given value because it has a | |
303 limited range of integer values. | |
304 @end quotation | |
305 | |
306 @defun = number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
307 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and | |
308 returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
309 @end defun | |
310 | |
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311 @defun eql value1 value2 |
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312 This function compares two floating point numbers like @code{=}, and |
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313 compares two integers like @code{=}, and acts like @code{eq} in all |
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314 other cases. Thus, @code{(eql 1.0 1)} returns @code{nil}, but |
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315 @code{(eql 1.0 1.0)} and @code{(eql 1 1)} both return @code{t}. |
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316 @end defun |
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317 |
6510 | 318 @defun /= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 |
319 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and | |
320 returns @code{t} if they are not, and @code{nil} if they are. | |
321 @end defun | |
322 | |
323 @defun < number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
324 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly less than | |
325 its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
326 @end defun | |
327 | |
328 @defun <= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
329 This function tests whether its first argument is less than or equal | |
330 to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
331 otherwise. | |
332 @end defun | |
333 | |
334 @defun > number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
335 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly greater | |
336 than its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
337 otherwise. | |
338 @end defun | |
339 | |
340 @defun >= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
341 This function tests whether its first argument is greater than or | |
342 equal to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
343 otherwise. | |
344 @end defun | |
345 | |
346 @defun max number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers | |
347 This function returns the largest of its arguments. | |
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348 If any of the argument is floating-point, the value is returned |
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349 as floating point, even if it was given as an integer. |
6510 | 350 |
351 @example | |
352 (max 20) | |
353 @result{} 20 | |
354 (max 1 2.5) | |
355 @result{} 2.5 | |
356 (max 1 3 2.5) | |
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357 @result{} 3.0 |
6510 | 358 @end example |
359 @end defun | |
360 | |
361 @defun min number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers | |
362 This function returns the smallest of its arguments. | |
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363 If any of the argument is floating-point, the value is returned |
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364 as floating point, even if it was given as an integer. |
6510 | 365 |
366 @example | |
367 (min -4 1) | |
368 @result{} -4 | |
369 @end example | |
370 @end defun | |
371 | |
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372 @defun abs number |
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373 This function returns the absolute value of @var{number}. |
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374 @end defun |
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375 |
6510 | 376 @node Numeric Conversions |
377 @section Numeric Conversions | |
378 @cindex rounding in conversions | |
379 | |
380 To convert an integer to floating point, use the function @code{float}. | |
381 | |
382 @defun float number | |
383 This returns @var{number} converted to floating point. | |
384 If @var{number} is already a floating point number, @code{float} returns | |
385 it unchanged. | |
386 @end defun | |
387 | |
388 There are four functions to convert floating point numbers to integers; | |
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389 they differ in how they round. All accept an argument @var{number} |
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390 and an optional argument @var{divisor}. Both arguments may be |
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391 integers or floating point numbers. @var{divisor} may also be |
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392 @code{nil}. If @var{divisor} is @code{nil} or omitted, these |
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393 functions convert @var{number} to an integer, or return it unchanged |
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394 if it already is an integer. If @var{divisor} is non-@code{nil}, they |
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395 divide @var{number} by @var{divisor} and convert the result to an |
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396 integer. An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. |
6510 | 397 |
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398 @defun truncate number &optional divisor |
6510 | 399 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards |
400 zero. | |
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401 |
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402 @example |
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403 (truncate 1.2) |
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404 @result{} 1 |
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405 (truncate 1.7) |
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406 @result{} 1 |
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407 (truncate -1.2) |
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408 @result{} -1 |
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409 (truncate -1.7) |
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410 @result{} -1 |
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411 @end example |
6510 | 412 @end defun |
413 | |
414 @defun floor number &optional divisor | |
415 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding downward | |
416 (towards negative infinity). | |
417 | |
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418 If @var{divisor} is specified, this uses the kind of division |
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419 operation that corresponds to @code{mod}, rounding downward. |
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420 |
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421 @example |
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422 (floor 1.2) |
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423 @result{} 1 |
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424 (floor 1.7) |
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425 @result{} 1 |
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426 (floor -1.2) |
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427 @result{} -2 |
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428 (floor -1.7) |
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429 @result{} -2 |
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430 (floor 5.99 3) |
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431 @result{} 1 |
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432 @end example |
6510 | 433 @end defun |
434 | |
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435 @defun ceiling number &optional divisor |
6510 | 436 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding upward |
437 (towards positive infinity). | |
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438 |
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439 @example |
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440 (ceiling 1.2) |
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441 @result{} 2 |
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442 (ceiling 1.7) |
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443 @result{} 2 |
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444 (ceiling -1.2) |
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445 @result{} -1 |
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446 (ceiling -1.7) |
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447 @result{} -1 |
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448 @end example |
6510 | 449 @end defun |
450 | |
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451 @defun round number &optional divisor |
6510 | 452 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards the |
12098 | 453 nearest integer. Rounding a value equidistant between two integers |
454 may choose the integer closer to zero, or it may prefer an even integer, | |
455 depending on your machine. | |
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456 |
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457 @example |
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458 (round 1.2) |
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459 @result{} 1 |
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460 (round 1.7) |
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461 @result{} 2 |
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462 (round -1.2) |
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463 @result{} -1 |
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464 (round -1.7) |
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465 @result{} -2 |
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466 @end example |
6510 | 467 @end defun |
468 | |
469 @node Arithmetic Operations | |
470 @section Arithmetic Operations | |
471 | |
472 Emacs Lisp provides the traditional four arithmetic operations: | |
473 addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Remainder and modulus | |
474 functions supplement the division functions. The functions to | |
475 add or subtract 1 are provided because they are traditional in Lisp and | |
476 commonly used. | |
477 | |
478 All of these functions except @code{%} return a floating point value | |
479 if any argument is floating. | |
480 | |
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481 It is important to note that in Emacs Lisp, arithmetic functions |
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482 do not check for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 268435455)} may evaluate to |
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483 @minus{}268435456, depending on your hardware. |
6510 | 484 |
485 @defun 1+ number-or-marker | |
486 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} plus 1. | |
487 For example, | |
488 | |
489 @example | |
490 (setq foo 4) | |
491 @result{} 4 | |
492 (1+ foo) | |
493 @result{} 5 | |
494 @end example | |
495 | |
12098 | 496 This function is not analogous to the C operator @code{++}---it does not |
497 increment a variable. It just computes a sum. Thus, if we continue, | |
6510 | 498 |
499 @example | |
500 foo | |
501 @result{} 4 | |
502 @end example | |
503 | |
504 If you want to increment the variable, you must use @code{setq}, | |
505 like this: | |
506 | |
507 @example | |
508 (setq foo (1+ foo)) | |
509 @result{} 5 | |
510 @end example | |
511 @end defun | |
512 | |
513 @defun 1- number-or-marker | |
514 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} minus 1. | |
515 @end defun | |
516 | |
517 @defun + &rest numbers-or-markers | |
518 This function adds its arguments together. When given no arguments, | |
12098 | 519 @code{+} returns 0. |
6510 | 520 |
521 @example | |
522 (+) | |
523 @result{} 0 | |
524 (+ 1) | |
525 @result{} 1 | |
526 (+ 1 2 3 4) | |
527 @result{} 10 | |
528 @end example | |
529 @end defun | |
530 | |
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531 @defun - &optional number-or-marker &rest more-numbers-or-markers |
6510 | 532 The @code{-} function serves two purposes: negation and subtraction. |
533 When @code{-} has a single argument, the value is the negative of the | |
534 argument. When there are multiple arguments, @code{-} subtracts each of | |
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535 the @var{more-numbers-or-markers} from @var{number-or-marker}, |
12098 | 536 cumulatively. If there are no arguments, the result is 0. |
6510 | 537 |
538 @example | |
539 (- 10 1 2 3 4) | |
540 @result{} 0 | |
541 (- 10) | |
542 @result{} -10 | |
543 (-) | |
544 @result{} 0 | |
545 @end example | |
546 @end defun | |
547 | |
548 @defun * &rest numbers-or-markers | |
549 This function multiplies its arguments together, and returns the | |
12098 | 550 product. When given no arguments, @code{*} returns 1. |
6510 | 551 |
552 @example | |
553 (*) | |
554 @result{} 1 | |
555 (* 1) | |
556 @result{} 1 | |
557 (* 1 2 3 4) | |
558 @result{} 24 | |
559 @end example | |
560 @end defun | |
561 | |
562 @defun / dividend divisor &rest divisors | |
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563 This function divides @var{dividend} by @var{divisor} and returns the |
6510 | 564 quotient. If there are additional arguments @var{divisors}, then it |
565 divides @var{dividend} by each divisor in turn. Each argument may be a | |
566 number or a marker. | |
567 | |
568 If all the arguments are integers, then the result is an integer too. | |
569 This means the result has to be rounded. On most machines, the result | |
570 is rounded towards zero after each division, but some machines may round | |
571 differently with negative arguments. This is because the Lisp function | |
572 @code{/} is implemented using the C division operator, which also | |
573 permits machine-dependent rounding. As a practical matter, all known | |
574 machines round in the standard fashion. | |
575 | |
576 @cindex @code{arith-error} in division | |
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577 If you divide an integer by 0, an @code{arith-error} error is signaled. |
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578 (@xref{Errors}.) Floating point division by zero returns either |
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579 infinity or a NaN if your machine supports @acronym{IEEE} floating point; |
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580 otherwise, it signals an @code{arith-error} error. |
6510 | 581 |
582 @example | |
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583 @group |
6510 | 584 (/ 6 2) |
585 @result{} 3 | |
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586 @end group |
6510 | 587 (/ 5 2) |
588 @result{} 2 | |
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589 (/ 5.0 2) |
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590 @result{} 2.5 |
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591 (/ 5 2.0) |
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592 @result{} 2.5 |
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593 (/ 5.0 2.0) |
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594 @result{} 2.5 |
6510 | 595 (/ 25 3 2) |
596 @result{} 4 | |
597 (/ -17 6) | |
598 @result{} -2 | |
599 @end example | |
600 | |
601 The result of @code{(/ -17 6)} could in principle be -3 on some | |
602 machines. | |
603 @end defun | |
604 | |
605 @defun % dividend divisor | |
606 @cindex remainder | |
607 This function returns the integer remainder after division of @var{dividend} | |
608 by @var{divisor}. The arguments must be integers or markers. | |
609 | |
610 For negative arguments, the remainder is in principle machine-dependent | |
611 since the quotient is; but in practice, all known machines behave alike. | |
612 | |
613 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. | |
614 | |
615 @example | |
616 (% 9 4) | |
617 @result{} 1 | |
618 (% -9 4) | |
619 @result{} -1 | |
620 (% 9 -4) | |
621 @result{} 1 | |
622 (% -9 -4) | |
623 @result{} -1 | |
624 @end example | |
625 | |
626 For any two integers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor}, | |
627 | |
628 @example | |
629 @group | |
630 (+ (% @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) | |
631 (* (/ @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor})) | |
632 @end group | |
633 @end example | |
634 | |
635 @noindent | |
636 always equals @var{dividend}. | |
637 @end defun | |
638 | |
639 @defun mod dividend divisor | |
640 @cindex modulus | |
641 This function returns the value of @var{dividend} modulo @var{divisor}; | |
642 in other words, the remainder after division of @var{dividend} | |
643 by @var{divisor}, but with the same sign as @var{divisor}. | |
644 The arguments must be numbers or markers. | |
645 | |
646 Unlike @code{%}, @code{mod} returns a well-defined result for negative | |
647 arguments. It also permits floating point arguments; it rounds the | |
648 quotient downward (towards minus infinity) to an integer, and uses that | |
649 quotient to compute the remainder. | |
650 | |
651 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. | |
652 | |
653 @example | |
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654 @group |
6510 | 655 (mod 9 4) |
656 @result{} 1 | |
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657 @end group |
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658 @group |
6510 | 659 (mod -9 4) |
660 @result{} 3 | |
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661 @end group |
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662 @group |
6510 | 663 (mod 9 -4) |
664 @result{} -3 | |
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665 @end group |
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666 @group |
6510 | 667 (mod -9 -4) |
668 @result{} -1 | |
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669 @end group |
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670 @group |
6510 | 671 (mod 5.5 2.5) |
672 @result{} .5 | |
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673 @end group |
6510 | 674 @end example |
675 | |
676 For any two numbers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor}, | |
677 | |
678 @example | |
679 @group | |
680 (+ (mod @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) | |
681 (* (floor @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor})) | |
682 @end group | |
683 @end example | |
684 | |
685 @noindent | |
12098 | 686 always equals @var{dividend}, subject to rounding error if either |
687 argument is floating point. For @code{floor}, see @ref{Numeric | |
688 Conversions}. | |
6510 | 689 @end defun |
690 | |
691 @node Rounding Operations | |
692 @section Rounding Operations | |
693 @cindex rounding without conversion | |
694 | |
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695 The functions @code{ffloor}, @code{fceiling}, @code{fround}, and |
6510 | 696 @code{ftruncate} take a floating point argument and return a floating |
697 point result whose value is a nearby integer. @code{ffloor} returns the | |
8017 | 698 nearest integer below; @code{fceiling}, the nearest integer above; |
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699 @code{ftruncate}, the nearest integer in the direction towards zero; |
6510 | 700 @code{fround}, the nearest integer. |
701 | |
702 @defun ffloor float | |
703 This function rounds @var{float} to the next lower integral value, and | |
704 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
705 @end defun | |
706 | |
8017 | 707 @defun fceiling float |
6510 | 708 This function rounds @var{float} to the next higher integral value, and |
709 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
710 @end defun | |
711 | |
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712 @defun ftruncate float |
6510 | 713 This function rounds @var{float} towards zero to an integral value, and |
714 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
715 @end defun | |
716 | |
717 @defun fround float | |
718 This function rounds @var{float} to the nearest integral value, | |
719 and returns that value as a floating point number. | |
720 @end defun | |
721 | |
722 @node Bitwise Operations | |
723 @section Bitwise Operations on Integers | |
724 | |
725 In a computer, an integer is represented as a binary number, a | |
726 sequence of @dfn{bits} (digits which are either zero or one). A bitwise | |
727 operation acts on the individual bits of such a sequence. For example, | |
728 @dfn{shifting} moves the whole sequence left or right one or more places, | |
729 reproducing the same pattern ``moved over''. | |
730 | |
731 The bitwise operations in Emacs Lisp apply only to integers. | |
732 | |
733 @defun lsh integer1 count | |
734 @cindex logical shift | |
735 @code{lsh}, which is an abbreviation for @dfn{logical shift}, shifts the | |
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736 bits in @var{integer1} to the left @var{count} places, or to the right |
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737 if @var{count} is negative, bringing zeros into the vacated bits. If |
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738 @var{count} is negative, @code{lsh} shifts zeros into the leftmost |
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739 (most-significant) bit, producing a positive result even if |
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740 @var{integer1} is negative. Contrast this with @code{ash}, below. |
6510 | 741 |
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742 Here are two examples of @code{lsh}, shifting a pattern of bits one |
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743 place to the left. We show only the low-order eight bits of the binary |
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744 pattern; the rest are all zero. |
6510 | 745 |
746 @example | |
747 @group | |
748 (lsh 5 1) | |
749 @result{} 10 | |
750 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 10.} | |
751 00000101 @result{} 00001010 | |
752 | |
753 (lsh 7 1) | |
754 @result{} 14 | |
755 ;; @r{Decimal 7 becomes decimal 14.} | |
756 00000111 @result{} 00001110 | |
757 @end group | |
758 @end example | |
759 | |
760 @noindent | |
761 As the examples illustrate, shifting the pattern of bits one place to | |
762 the left produces a number that is twice the value of the previous | |
763 number. | |
764 | |
12098 | 765 Shifting a pattern of bits two places to the left produces results |
766 like this (with 8-bit binary numbers): | |
767 | |
768 @example | |
769 @group | |
770 (lsh 3 2) | |
771 @result{} 12 | |
772 ;; @r{Decimal 3 becomes decimal 12.} | |
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773 00000011 @result{} 00001100 |
12098 | 774 @end group |
775 @end example | |
776 | |
777 On the other hand, shifting one place to the right looks like this: | |
778 | |
779 @example | |
780 @group | |
781 (lsh 6 -1) | |
782 @result{} 3 | |
783 ;; @r{Decimal 6 becomes decimal 3.} | |
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784 00000110 @result{} 00000011 |
12098 | 785 @end group |
786 | |
787 @group | |
788 (lsh 5 -1) | |
789 @result{} 2 | |
790 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 2.} | |
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791 00000101 @result{} 00000010 |
12098 | 792 @end group |
793 @end example | |
794 | |
795 @noindent | |
796 As the example illustrates, shifting one place to the right divides the | |
797 value of a positive integer by two, rounding downward. | |
798 | |
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799 The function @code{lsh}, like all Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions, does |
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800 not check for overflow, so shifting left can discard significant bits |
12067 | 801 and change the sign of the number. For example, left shifting |
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802 268,435,455 produces @minus{}2 on a 29-bit machine: |
6510 | 803 |
804 @example | |
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805 (lsh 268435455 1) ; @r{left shift} |
6510 | 806 @result{} -2 |
807 @end example | |
808 | |
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809 In binary, in the 29-bit implementation, the argument looks like this: |
6510 | 810 |
811 @example | |
812 @group | |
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813 ;; @r{Decimal 268,435,455} |
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814 0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 815 @end group |
816 @end example | |
817 | |
818 @noindent | |
819 which becomes the following when left shifted: | |
820 | |
821 @example | |
822 @group | |
823 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}2} | |
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824 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 |
6510 | 825 @end group |
826 @end example | |
827 @end defun | |
828 | |
829 @defun ash integer1 count | |
830 @cindex arithmetic shift | |
831 @code{ash} (@dfn{arithmetic shift}) shifts the bits in @var{integer1} | |
832 to the left @var{count} places, or to the right if @var{count} | |
833 is negative. | |
834 | |
835 @code{ash} gives the same results as @code{lsh} except when | |
836 @var{integer1} and @var{count} are both negative. In that case, | |
12098 | 837 @code{ash} puts ones in the empty bit positions on the left, while |
838 @code{lsh} puts zeros in those bit positions. | |
6510 | 839 |
840 Thus, with @code{ash}, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right | |
841 looks like this: | |
842 | |
843 @example | |
844 @group | |
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|
845 (ash -6 -1) @result{} -3 |
6510 | 846 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal @minus{}3.} |
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847 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010 |
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|
848 @result{} |
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849 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101 |
6510 | 850 @end group |
851 @end example | |
852 | |
853 In contrast, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right with | |
854 @code{lsh} looks like this: | |
855 | |
856 @example | |
857 @group | |
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858 (lsh -6 -1) @result{} 268435453 |
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859 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal 268,435,453.} |
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860 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010 |
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|
861 @result{} |
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862 0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101 |
6510 | 863 @end group |
864 @end example | |
865 | |
866 Here are other examples: | |
867 | |
868 @c !!! Check if lined up in smallbook format! XDVI shows problem | |
869 @c with smallbook but not with regular book! --rjc 16mar92 | |
870 @smallexample | |
871 @group | |
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872 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values} |
6510 | 873 |
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874 (lsh 5 2) ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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875 @result{} 20 ; = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001 0100} |
6510 | 876 @end group |
877 @group | |
878 (ash 5 2) | |
879 @result{} 20 | |
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880 (lsh -5 2) ; -5 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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881 @result{} -20 ; = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 1100} |
6510 | 882 (ash -5 2) |
883 @result{} -20 | |
884 @end group | |
885 @group | |
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886 (lsh 5 -2) ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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887 @result{} 1 ; = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001} |
6510 | 888 @end group |
889 @group | |
890 (ash 5 -2) | |
891 @result{} 1 | |
892 @end group | |
893 @group | |
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894 (lsh -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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895 @result{} 134217726 ; = @r{0 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110} |
6510 | 896 @end group |
897 @group | |
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898 (ash -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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899 @result{} -2 ; = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110} |
6510 | 900 @end group |
901 @end smallexample | |
902 @end defun | |
903 | |
904 @defun logand &rest ints-or-markers | |
905 @cindex logical and | |
906 @cindex bitwise and | |
907 This function returns the ``logical and'' of the arguments: the | |
908 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is | |
909 set in all the arguments. (``Set'' means that the value of the bit is 1 | |
910 rather than 0.) | |
911 | |
912 For example, using 4-bit binary numbers, the ``logical and'' of 13 and | |
913 12 is 12: 1101 combined with 1100 produces 1100. | |
914 In both the binary numbers, the leftmost two bits are set (i.e., they | |
915 are 1's), so the leftmost two bits of the returned value are set. | |
916 However, for the rightmost two bits, each is zero in at least one of | |
917 the arguments, so the rightmost two bits of the returned value are 0's. | |
918 | |
919 @noindent | |
920 Therefore, | |
921 | |
922 @example | |
923 @group | |
924 (logand 13 12) | |
925 @result{} 12 | |
926 @end group | |
927 @end example | |
928 | |
929 If @code{logand} is not passed any argument, it returns a value of | |
930 @minus{}1. This number is an identity element for @code{logand} | |
931 because its binary representation consists entirely of ones. If | |
932 @code{logand} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument. | |
933 | |
934 @smallexample | |
935 @group | |
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936 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values} |
6510 | 937 |
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938 (logand 14 13) ; 14 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
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939 ; 13 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
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940 @result{} 12 ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
6510 | 941 @end group |
942 | |
943 @group | |
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944 (logand 14 13 4) ; 14 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
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945 ; 13 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
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946 ; 4 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100} |
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947 @result{} 4 ; 4 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100} |
6510 | 948 @end group |
949 | |
950 @group | |
951 (logand) | |
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952 @result{} -1 ; -1 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111} |
6510 | 953 @end group |
954 @end smallexample | |
955 @end defun | |
956 | |
957 @defun logior &rest ints-or-markers | |
958 @cindex logical inclusive or | |
959 @cindex bitwise or | |
960 This function returns the ``inclusive or'' of its arguments: the @var{n}th bit | |
961 is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is set in at least | |
962 one of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the result is zero, | |
963 which is an identity element for this operation. If @code{logior} is | |
964 passed just one argument, it returns that argument. | |
965 | |
966 @smallexample | |
967 @group | |
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968 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values} |
6510 | 969 |
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970 (logior 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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971 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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972 @result{} 13 ; 13 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
6510 | 973 @end group |
974 | |
975 @group | |
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976 (logior 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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977 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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|
978 ; 7 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111} |
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979 @result{} 15 ; 15 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111} |
6510 | 980 @end group |
981 @end smallexample | |
982 @end defun | |
983 | |
984 @defun logxor &rest ints-or-markers | |
985 @cindex bitwise exclusive or | |
986 @cindex logical exclusive or | |
987 This function returns the ``exclusive or'' of its arguments: the | |
7115
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|
988 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is |
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989 set in an odd number of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the |
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|
990 result is 0, which is an identity element for this operation. If |
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|
991 @code{logxor} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument. |
6510 | 992 |
993 @smallexample | |
994 @group | |
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|
995 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values} |
6510 | 996 |
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997 (logxor 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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998 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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|
999 @result{} 9 ; 9 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1001} |
6510 | 1000 @end group |
1001 | |
1002 @group | |
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1003 (logxor 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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|
1004 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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1005 ; 7 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111} |
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|
1006 @result{} 14 ; 14 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
6510 | 1007 @end group |
1008 @end smallexample | |
1009 @end defun | |
1010 | |
1011 @defun lognot integer | |
1012 @cindex logical not | |
1013 @cindex bitwise not | |
1014 This function returns the logical complement of its argument: the @var{n}th | |
1015 bit is one in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is zero in | |
1016 @var{integer}, and vice-versa. | |
1017 | |
1018 @example | |
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1019 (lognot 5) |
6510 | 1020 @result{} -6 |
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|
1021 ;; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
6510 | 1022 ;; @r{becomes} |
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|
1023 ;; -6 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010} |
6510 | 1024 @end example |
1025 @end defun | |
1026 | |
11230
c6b70cdf844e
Don't call the special math functions "transcendental".
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|
1027 @node Math Functions |
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|
1028 @section Standard Mathematical Functions |
6510 | 1029 @cindex transcendental functions |
1030 @cindex mathematical functions | |
1031 | |
21682
90da2489c498
*** empty log message ***
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|
1032 These mathematical functions allow integers as well as floating point |
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|
1033 numbers as arguments. |
6510 | 1034 |
1035 @defun sin arg | |
1036 @defunx cos arg | |
1037 @defunx tan arg | |
1038 These are the ordinary trigonometric functions, with argument measured | |
1039 in radians. | |
1040 @end defun | |
1041 | |
1042 @defun asin arg | |
25454 | 1043 The value of @code{(asin @var{arg})} is a number between |
27193 | 1044 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1045 @minus{}pi/2 |
27193 | 1046 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1047 @tex |
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|
1048 @math{-\pi/2} |
25454 | 1049 @end tex |
1050 and | |
27193 | 1051 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1052 pi/2 |
27193 | 1053 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1054 @tex |
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|
1055 @math{\pi/2} |
25454 | 1056 @end tex |
53432
7dd1ab1ebb2c
(Math Functions): asin, acos, log, log10 report domain-error errors.
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changeset
|
1057 (inclusive) whose sine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} is out of |
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|
1058 range (outside [-1, 1]), it signals a @code{domain-error} error. |
6510 | 1059 @end defun |
1060 | |
1061 @defun acos arg | |
25454 | 1062 The value of @code{(acos @var{arg})} is a number between 0 and |
27193 | 1063 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1064 pi |
27193 | 1065 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1066 @tex |
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|
1067 @math{\pi} |
25454 | 1068 @end tex |
53432
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|
1069 (inclusive) whose cosine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} is out |
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|
1070 of range (outside [-1, 1]), it signals a @code{domain-error} error. |
6510 | 1071 @end defun |
1072 | |
43414
90f3a1f6ee84
(Math Functions): Document the optional second arg of atan.
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|
1073 @defun atan y &optional x |
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|
1074 The value of @code{(atan @var{y})} is a number between |
27193 | 1075 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1076 @minus{}pi/2 |
27193 | 1077 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1078 @tex |
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|
1079 @math{-\pi/2} |
25454 | 1080 @end tex |
1081 and | |
27193 | 1082 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1083 pi/2 |
27193 | 1084 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1085 @tex |
25751
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1086 @math{\pi/2} |
25454 | 1087 @end tex |
43414
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1088 (exclusive) whose tangent is @var{y}. If the optional second |
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1089 argument @var{x} is given, the value of @code{(atan y x)} is the |
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1090 angle in radians between the vector @code{[@var{x}, @var{y}]} and the |
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1091 @code{X} axis. |
6510 | 1092 @end defun |
1093 | |
1094 @defun exp arg | |
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1095 This is the exponential function; it returns |
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1096 @tex |
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1097 @math{e} |
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1098 @end tex |
27193 | 1099 @ifnottex |
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1100 @i{e} |
27193 | 1101 @end ifnottex |
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1102 to the power @var{arg}. |
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1103 @tex |
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1104 @math{e} |
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1105 @end tex |
27193 | 1106 @ifnottex |
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1107 @i{e} |
27193 | 1108 @end ifnottex |
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1109 is a fundamental mathematical constant also called the base of natural |
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1110 logarithms. |
6510 | 1111 @end defun |
1112 | |
1113 @defun log arg &optional base | |
1114 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base @var{base}. | |
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1115 If you don't specify @var{base}, the base |
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1116 @tex |
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1117 @math{e} |
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1118 @end tex |
27193 | 1119 @ifnottex |
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1120 @i{e} |
27193 | 1121 @end ifnottex |
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1122 is used. If @var{arg} is negative, it signals a @code{domain-error} |
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1123 error. |
6510 | 1124 @end defun |
1125 | |
1126 @ignore | |
1127 @defun expm1 arg | |
1128 This function returns @code{(1- (exp @var{arg}))}, but it is more | |
1129 accurate than that when @var{arg} is negative and @code{(exp @var{arg})} | |
1130 is close to 1. | |
1131 @end defun | |
1132 | |
1133 @defun log1p arg | |
1134 This function returns @code{(log (1+ @var{arg}))}, but it is more | |
1135 accurate than that when @var{arg} is so small that adding 1 to it would | |
1136 lose accuracy. | |
1137 @end defun | |
1138 @end ignore | |
1139 | |
1140 @defun log10 arg | |
1141 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base 10. If | |
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1142 @var{arg} is negative, it signals a @code{domain-error} error. |
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1143 @code{(log10 @var{x})} @equiv{} @code{(log @var{x} 10)}, at least |
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1144 approximately. |
6510 | 1145 @end defun |
1146 | |
1147 @defun expt x y | |
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1148 This function returns @var{x} raised to power @var{y}. If both |
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1149 arguments are integers and @var{y} is positive, the result is an |
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1150 integer; in this case, it is truncated to fit the range of possible |
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1151 integer values. |
6510 | 1152 @end defun |
1153 | |
1154 @defun sqrt arg | |
1155 This returns the square root of @var{arg}. If @var{arg} is negative, | |
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1156 it signals a @code{domain-error} error. |
6510 | 1157 @end defun |
1158 | |
1159 @node Random Numbers | |
1160 @section Random Numbers | |
1161 @cindex random numbers | |
1162 | |
1163 A deterministic computer program cannot generate true random numbers. | |
1164 For most purposes, @dfn{pseudo-random numbers} suffice. A series of | |
1165 pseudo-random numbers is generated in a deterministic fashion. The | |
1166 numbers are not truly random, but they have certain properties that | |
1167 mimic a random series. For example, all possible values occur equally | |
1168 often in a pseudo-random series. | |
1169 | |
1170 In Emacs, pseudo-random numbers are generated from a ``seed'' number. | |
1171 Starting from any given seed, the @code{random} function always | |
1172 generates the same sequence of numbers. Emacs always starts with the | |
1173 same seed value, so the sequence of values of @code{random} is actually | |
1174 the same in each Emacs run! For example, in one operating system, the | |
1175 first call to @code{(random)} after you start Emacs always returns | |
1176 -1457731, and the second one always returns -7692030. This | |
1177 repeatability is helpful for debugging. | |
1178 | |
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1179 If you want random numbers that don't always come out the same, execute |
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1180 @code{(random t)}. This chooses a new seed based on the current time of |
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1181 day and on Emacs's process @acronym{ID} number. |
6510 | 1182 |
1183 @defun random &optional limit | |
1184 This function returns a pseudo-random integer. Repeated calls return a | |
1185 series of pseudo-random integers. | |
1186 | |
12067 | 1187 If @var{limit} is a positive integer, the value is chosen to be |
12098 | 1188 nonnegative and less than @var{limit}. |
6510 | 1189 |
1190 If @var{limit} is @code{t}, it means to choose a new seed based on the | |
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1191 current time of day and on Emacs's process @acronym{ID} number. |
6510 | 1192 @c "Emacs'" is incorrect usage! |
1193 | |
1194 On some machines, any integer representable in Lisp may be the result | |
1195 of @code{random}. On other machines, the result can never be larger | |
1196 than a certain maximum or less than a certain (negative) minimum. | |
1197 @end defun | |
52401 | 1198 |
1199 @ignore | |
1200 arch-tag: 574e8dd2-d513-4616-9844-c9a27869782e | |
1201 @end ignore |