annotate lispref/compile.texi @ 78299:101aee30491c

Switch license to GPLv3 or later.
author Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
date Wed, 25 Jul 2007 07:15:21 +0000
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004,
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4 @c 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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6 @setfilename ../info/compile
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7 @node Byte Compilation, Advising Functions, Loading, Top
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8 @chapter Byte Compilation
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9 @cindex byte compilation
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10 @cindex byte-code
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11 @cindex compilation (Emacs Lisp)
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12
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13 Emacs Lisp has a @dfn{compiler} that translates functions written
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14 in Lisp into a special representation called @dfn{byte-code} that can be
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15 executed more efficiently. The compiler replaces Lisp function
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16 definitions with byte-code. When a byte-code function is called, its
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17 definition is evaluated by the @dfn{byte-code interpreter}.
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18
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19 Because the byte-compiled code is evaluated by the byte-code
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20 interpreter, instead of being executed directly by the machine's
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21 hardware (as true compiled code is), byte-code is completely
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22 transportable from machine to machine without recompilation. It is not,
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23 however, as fast as true compiled code.
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24
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25 Compiling a Lisp file with the Emacs byte compiler always reads the
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26 file as multibyte text, even if Emacs was started with @samp{--unibyte},
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27 unless the file specifies otherwise. This is so that compilation gives
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28 results compatible with running the same file without compilation.
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29 @xref{Loading Non-ASCII}.
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30
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31 In general, any version of Emacs can run byte-compiled code produced
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32 by recent earlier versions of Emacs, but the reverse is not true.
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33
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34 @vindex no-byte-compile
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35 If you do not want a Lisp file to be compiled, ever, put a file-local
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36 variable binding for @code{no-byte-compile} into it, like this:
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37
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38 @example
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39 ;; -*-no-byte-compile: t; -*-
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40 @end example
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41
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42 @xref{Compilation Errors}, for how to investigate errors occurring in
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43 byte compilation.
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44
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45 @menu
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46 * Speed of Byte-Code:: An example of speedup from byte compilation.
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47 * Compilation Functions:: Byte compilation functions.
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48 * Docs and Compilation:: Dynamic loading of documentation strings.
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49 * Dynamic Loading:: Dynamic loading of individual functions.
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50 * Eval During Compile:: Code to be evaluated when you compile.
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51 * Compiler Errors:: Handling compiler error messages.
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52 * Byte-Code Objects:: The data type used for byte-compiled functions.
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53 * Disassembly:: Disassembling byte-code; how to read byte-code.
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54 @end menu
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55
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56 @node Speed of Byte-Code
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57 @section Performance of Byte-Compiled Code
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58
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59 A byte-compiled function is not as efficient as a primitive function
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60 written in C, but runs much faster than the version written in Lisp.
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61 Here is an example:
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62
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63 @example
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64 @group
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65 (defun silly-loop (n)
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66 "Return time before and after N iterations of a loop."
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67 (let ((t1 (current-time-string)))
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68 (while (> (setq n (1- n))
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69 0))
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70 (list t1 (current-time-string))))
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71 @result{} silly-loop
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72 @end group
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73
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74 @group
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75 (silly-loop 100000)
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76 @result{} ("Fri Mar 18 17:25:57 1994"
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77 "Fri Mar 18 17:26:28 1994") ; @r{31 seconds}
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78 @end group
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79
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80 @group
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81 (byte-compile 'silly-loop)
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82 @result{} @r{[Compiled code not shown]}
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83 @end group
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84
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85 @group
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86 (silly-loop 100000)
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87 @result{} ("Fri Mar 18 17:26:52 1994"
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88 "Fri Mar 18 17:26:58 1994") ; @r{6 seconds}
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89 @end group
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90 @end example
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91
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92 In this example, the interpreted code required 31 seconds to run,
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93 whereas the byte-compiled code required 6 seconds. These results are
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94 representative, but actual results will vary greatly.
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95
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96 @node Compilation Functions
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97 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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98 @section The Compilation Functions
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99 @cindex compilation functions
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100
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101 You can byte-compile an individual function or macro definition with
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102 the @code{byte-compile} function. You can compile a whole file with
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103 @code{byte-compile-file}, or several files with
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104 @code{byte-recompile-directory} or @code{batch-byte-compile}.
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105
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106 The byte compiler produces error messages and warnings about each file
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107 in a buffer called @samp{*Compile-Log*}. These report things in your
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108 program that suggest a problem but are not necessarily erroneous.
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109
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110 @cindex macro compilation
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111 Be careful when writing macro calls in files that you may someday
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112 byte-compile. Macro calls are expanded when they are compiled, so the
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113 macros must already be defined for proper compilation. For more
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114 details, see @ref{Compiling Macros}. If a program does not work the
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115 same way when compiled as it does when interpreted, erroneous macro
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116 definitions are one likely cause (@pxref{Problems with Macros}).
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117 Inline (@code{defsubst}) functions are less troublesome; if you
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118 compile a call to such a function before its definition is known, the
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119 call will still work right, it will just run slower.
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120
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121 Normally, compiling a file does not evaluate the file's contents or
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122 load the file. But it does execute any @code{require} calls at top
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123 level in the file. One way to ensure that necessary macro definitions
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124 are available during compilation is to require the file that defines
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125 them (@pxref{Named Features}). To avoid loading the macro definition files
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126 when someone @emph{runs} the compiled program, write
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127 @code{eval-when-compile} around the @code{require} calls (@pxref{Eval
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128 During Compile}).
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129
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130 @defun byte-compile symbol
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131 This function byte-compiles the function definition of @var{symbol},
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132 replacing the previous definition with the compiled one. The function
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133 definition of @var{symbol} must be the actual code for the function;
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134 i.e., the compiler does not follow indirection to another symbol.
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135 @code{byte-compile} returns the new, compiled definition of
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136 @var{symbol}.
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137
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138 If @var{symbol}'s definition is a byte-code function object,
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139 @code{byte-compile} does nothing and returns @code{nil}. Lisp records
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140 only one function definition for any symbol, and if that is already
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141 compiled, non-compiled code is not available anywhere. So there is no
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142 way to ``compile the same definition again.''
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143
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144 @example
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145 @group
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146 (defun factorial (integer)
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147 "Compute factorial of INTEGER."
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148 (if (= 1 integer) 1
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149 (* integer (factorial (1- integer)))))
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150 @result{} factorial
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151 @end group
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152
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153 @group
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154 (byte-compile 'factorial)
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155 @result{}
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156 #[(integer)
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157 "^H\301U\203^H^@@\301\207\302^H\303^HS!\"\207"
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158 [integer 1 * factorial]
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159 4 "Compute factorial of INTEGER."]
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160 @end group
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161 @end example
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162
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163 @noindent
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164 The result is a byte-code function object. The string it contains is
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165 the actual byte-code; each character in it is an instruction or an
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166 operand of an instruction. The vector contains all the constants,
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167 variable names and function names used by the function, except for
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168 certain primitives that are coded as special instructions.
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169
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170 If the argument to @code{byte-compile} is a @code{lambda} expression,
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171 it returns the corresponding compiled code, but does not store
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172 it anywhere.
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173 @end defun
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174
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175 @deffn Command compile-defun &optional arg
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176 This command reads the defun containing point, compiles it, and
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177 evaluates the result. If you use this on a defun that is actually a
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178 function definition, the effect is to install a compiled version of that
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179 function.
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180
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181 @code{compile-defun} normally displays the result of evaluation in the
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182 echo area, but if @var{arg} is non-@code{nil}, it inserts the result
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183 in the current buffer after the form it compiled.
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184 @end deffn
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185
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186 @deffn Command byte-compile-file filename &optional load
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187 This function compiles a file of Lisp code named @var{filename} into a
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188 file of byte-code. The output file's name is made by changing the
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189 @samp{.el} suffix into @samp{.elc}; if @var{filename} does not end in
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190 @samp{.el}, it adds @samp{.elc} to the end of @var{filename}.
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191
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192 Compilation works by reading the input file one form at a time. If it
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193 is a definition of a function or macro, the compiled function or macro
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194 definition is written out. Other forms are batched together, then each
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195 batch is compiled, and written so that its compiled code will be
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196 executed when the file is read. All comments are discarded when the
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197 input file is read.
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198
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199 This command returns @code{t} if there were no errors and @code{nil}
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200 otherwise. When called interactively, it prompts for the file name.
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201
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202 If @var{load} is non-@code{nil}, this command loads the compiled file
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203 after compiling it. Interactively, @var{load} is the prefix argument.
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204
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205 @example
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206 @group
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207 % ls -l push*
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208 -rw-r--r-- 1 lewis 791 Oct 5 20:31 push.el
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209 @end group
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210
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211 @group
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212 (byte-compile-file "~/emacs/push.el")
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213 @result{} t
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214 @end group
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215
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216 @group
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217 % ls -l push*
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218 -rw-r--r-- 1 lewis 791 Oct 5 20:31 push.el
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219 -rw-rw-rw- 1 lewis 638 Oct 8 20:25 push.elc
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220 @end group
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221 @end example
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222 @end deffn
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223
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224 @deffn Command byte-recompile-directory directory &optional flag force
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225 @cindex library compilation
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226 This command recompiles every @samp{.el} file in @var{directory} (or
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227 its subdirectories) that needs recompilation. A file needs
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228 recompilation if a @samp{.elc} file exists but is older than the
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229 @samp{.el} file.
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230
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231 When a @samp{.el} file has no corresponding @samp{.elc} file,
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232 @var{flag} says what to do. If it is @code{nil}, this command ignores
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233 these files. If @var{flag} is 0, it compiles them. If it is neither
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234 @code{nil} nor 0, it asks the user whether to compile each such file,
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235 and asks about each subdirectory as well.
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236
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237 Interactively, @code{byte-recompile-directory} prompts for
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238 @var{directory} and @var{flag} is the prefix argument.
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239
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240 If @var{force} is non-@code{nil}, this command recompiles every
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241 @samp{.el} file that has a @samp{.elc} file.
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242
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243 The returned value is unpredictable.
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244 @end deffn
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245
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246 @defun batch-byte-compile &optional noforce
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247 This function runs @code{byte-compile-file} on files specified on the
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248 command line. This function must be used only in a batch execution of
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249 Emacs, as it kills Emacs on completion. An error in one file does not
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250 prevent processing of subsequent files, but no output file will be
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251 generated for it, and the Emacs process will terminate with a nonzero
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252 status code.
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253
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254 If @var{noforce} is non-@code{nil}, this function does not recompile
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255 files that have an up-to-date @samp{.elc} file.
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256
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257 @example
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258 % emacs -batch -f batch-byte-compile *.el
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259 @end example
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260 @end defun
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261
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262 @defun byte-code code-string data-vector max-stack
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263 @cindex byte-code interpreter
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264 This function actually interprets byte-code. A byte-compiled function
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265 is actually defined with a body that calls @code{byte-code}. Don't call
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266 this function yourself---only the byte compiler knows how to generate
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267 valid calls to this function.
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268
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269 In Emacs version 18, byte-code was always executed by way of a call to
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270 the function @code{byte-code}. Nowadays, byte-code is usually executed
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271 as part of a byte-code function object, and only rarely through an
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272 explicit call to @code{byte-code}.
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273 @end defun
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274
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275 @node Docs and Compilation
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276 @section Documentation Strings and Compilation
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277 @cindex dynamic loading of documentation
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278
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279 Functions and variables loaded from a byte-compiled file access their
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280 documentation strings dynamically from the file whenever needed. This
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281 saves space within Emacs, and makes loading faster because the
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282 documentation strings themselves need not be processed while loading the
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283 file. Actual access to the documentation strings becomes slower as a
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284 result, but this normally is not enough to bother users.
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285
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286 Dynamic access to documentation strings does have drawbacks:
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287
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288 @itemize @bullet
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289 @item
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290 If you delete or move the compiled file after loading it, Emacs can no
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291 longer access the documentation strings for the functions and variables
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292 in the file.
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293
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294 @item
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295 If you alter the compiled file (such as by compiling a new version),
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296 then further access to documentation strings in this file will
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297 probably give nonsense results.
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298 @end itemize
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299
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300 If your site installs Emacs following the usual procedures, these
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301 problems will never normally occur. Installing a new version uses a new
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302 directory with a different name; as long as the old version remains
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303 installed, its files will remain unmodified in the places where they are
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304 expected to be.
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305
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306 However, if you have built Emacs yourself and use it from the
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307 directory where you built it, you will experience this problem
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308 occasionally if you edit and recompile Lisp files. When it happens, you
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309 can cure the problem by reloading the file after recompiling it.
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310
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311 You can turn off this feature at compile time by setting
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312 @code{byte-compile-dynamic-docstrings} to @code{nil}; this is useful
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313 mainly if you expect to change the file, and you want Emacs processes
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314 that have already loaded it to keep working when the file changes.
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315 You can do this globally, or for one source file by specifying a
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316 file-local binding for the variable. One way to do that is by adding
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317 this string to the file's first line:
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318
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319 @example
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320 -*-byte-compile-dynamic-docstrings: nil;-*-
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321 @end example
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322
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323 @defvar byte-compile-dynamic-docstrings
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324 If this is non-@code{nil}, the byte compiler generates compiled files
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325 that are set up for dynamic loading of documentation strings.
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326 @end defvar
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327
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328 @cindex @samp{#@@@var{count}}
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329 @cindex @samp{#$}
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330 The dynamic documentation string feature writes compiled files that
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331 use a special Lisp reader construct, @samp{#@@@var{count}}. This
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332 construct skips the next @var{count} characters. It also uses the
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333 @samp{#$} construct, which stands for ``the name of this file, as a
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334 string.'' It is usually best not to use these constructs in Lisp source
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335 files, since they are not designed to be clear to humans reading the
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336 file.
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337
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338 @node Dynamic Loading
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339 @section Dynamic Loading of Individual Functions
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340
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341 @cindex dynamic loading of functions
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342 @cindex lazy loading
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343 When you compile a file, you can optionally enable the @dfn{dynamic
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344 function loading} feature (also known as @dfn{lazy loading}). With
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345 dynamic function loading, loading the file doesn't fully read the
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346 function definitions in the file. Instead, each function definition
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347 contains a place-holder which refers to the file. The first time each
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348 function is called, it reads the full definition from the file, to
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349 replace the place-holder.
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350
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351 The advantage of dynamic function loading is that loading the file
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352 becomes much faster. This is a good thing for a file which contains
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353 many separate user-callable functions, if using one of them does not
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354 imply you will probably also use the rest. A specialized mode which
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355 provides many keyboard commands often has that usage pattern: a user may
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356 invoke the mode, but use only a few of the commands it provides.
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357
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358 The dynamic loading feature has certain disadvantages:
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359
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360 @itemize @bullet
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361 @item
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362 If you delete or move the compiled file after loading it, Emacs can no
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363 longer load the remaining function definitions not already loaded.
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364
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365 @item
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366 If you alter the compiled file (such as by compiling a new version),
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367 then trying to load any function not already loaded will usually yield
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368 nonsense results.
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369 @end itemize
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370
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371 These problems will never happen in normal circumstances with
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372 installed Emacs files. But they are quite likely to happen with Lisp
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373 files that you are changing. The easiest way to prevent these problems
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374 is to reload the new compiled file immediately after each recompilation.
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375
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376 The byte compiler uses the dynamic function loading feature if the
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377 variable @code{byte-compile-dynamic} is non-@code{nil} at compilation
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378 time. Do not set this variable globally, since dynamic loading is
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379 desirable only for certain files. Instead, enable the feature for
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380 specific source files with file-local variable bindings. For example,
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381 you could do it by writing this text in the source file's first line:
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382
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383 @example
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384 -*-byte-compile-dynamic: t;-*-
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385 @end example
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386
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387 @defvar byte-compile-dynamic
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388 If this is non-@code{nil}, the byte compiler generates compiled files
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389 that are set up for dynamic function loading.
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390 @end defvar
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391
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392 @defun fetch-bytecode function
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393 If @var{function} is a byte-code function object, this immediately
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394 finishes loading the byte code of @var{function} from its
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395 byte-compiled file, if it is not fully loaded already. Otherwise,
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396 it does nothing. It always returns @var{function}.
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397 @end defun
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398
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399 @node Eval During Compile
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400 @section Evaluation During Compilation
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401
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402 These features permit you to write code to be evaluated during
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403 compilation of a program.
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404
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405 @defspec eval-and-compile body@dots{}
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406 This form marks @var{body} to be evaluated both when you compile the
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407 containing code and when you run it (whether compiled or not).
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408
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409 You can get a similar result by putting @var{body} in a separate file
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410 and referring to that file with @code{require}. That method is
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411 preferable when @var{body} is large. Effectively @code{require} is
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412 automatically @code{eval-and-compile}, the package is loaded both when
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413 compiling and executing.
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414
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415 @code{autoload} is also effectively @code{eval-and-compile} too. It's
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416 recognized when compiling, so uses of such a function don't produce
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417 ``not known to be defined'' warnings.
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418
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419 Most uses of @code{eval-and-compile} are fairly sophisticated.
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420
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421 If a macro has a helper function to build its result, and that macro
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422 is used both locally and outside the package, then
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423 @code{eval-and-compile} should be used to get the helper both when
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424 compiling and then later when running.
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425
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426 If functions are defined programmatically (with @code{fset} say), then
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427 @code{eval-and-compile} can be used to have that done at compile-time
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428 as well as run-time, so calls to those functions are checked (and
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429 warnings about ``not known to be defined'' suppressed).
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430 @end defspec
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431
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432 @defspec eval-when-compile body@dots{}
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433 This form marks @var{body} to be evaluated at compile time but not when
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434 the compiled program is loaded. The result of evaluation by the
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435 compiler becomes a constant which appears in the compiled program. If
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436 you load the source file, rather than compiling it, @var{body} is
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437 evaluated normally.
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438
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439 @cindex compile-time constant
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440 If you have a constant that needs some calculation to produce,
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441 @code{eval-when-compile} can do that at compile-time. For example,
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442
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443 @lisp
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444 (defvar my-regexp
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445 (eval-when-compile (regexp-opt '("aaa" "aba" "abb"))))
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446 @end lisp
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447
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448 @cindex macros, at compile time
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449 If you're using another package, but only need macros from it (the
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450 byte compiler will expand those), then @code{eval-when-compile} can be
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451 used to load it for compiling, but not executing. For example,
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452
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453 @lisp
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454 (eval-when-compile
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455 (require 'my-macro-package)) ;; only macros needed from this
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456 @end lisp
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457
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458 The same sort of thing goes for macros and @code{defsubst} functions
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459 defined locally and only for use within the file. They are needed for
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460 compiling the file, but in most cases they are not needed for
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461 execution of the compiled file. For example,
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462
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463 @lisp
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464 (eval-when-compile
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465 (unless (fboundp 'some-new-thing)
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466 (defmacro 'some-new-thing ()
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467 (compatibility code))))
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468 @end lisp
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469
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470 @noindent
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471 This is often good for code that's only a fallback for compatibility
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472 with other versions of Emacs.
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473
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474 @strong{Common Lisp Note:} At top level, @code{eval-when-compile} is analogous to the Common
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475 Lisp idiom @code{(eval-when (compile eval) @dots{})}. Elsewhere, the
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476 Common Lisp @samp{#.} reader macro (but not when interpreting) is closer
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477 to what @code{eval-when-compile} does.
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478 @end defspec
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479
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480 @node Compiler Errors
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481 @section Compiler Errors
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482 @cindex compiler errors
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483
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484 Byte compilation outputs all errors and warnings into the buffer
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485 @samp{*Compile-Log*}. The messages include file names and line
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486 numbers that identify the location of the problem. The usual Emacs
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487 commands for operating on compiler diagnostics work properly on
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488 these messages.
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489
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490 However, the warnings about functions that were used but not
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491 defined are always ``located'' at the end of the file, so these
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492 commands won't find the places they are really used. To do that,
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493 you must search for the function names.
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494
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495 You can suppress the compiler warning for calling an undefined
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496 function @var{func} by conditionalizing the function call on an
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497 @code{fboundp} test, like this:
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498
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499 @example
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500 (if (fboundp '@var{func}) ...(@var{func} ...)...)
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501 @end example
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502
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503 @noindent
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504 The call to @var{func} must be in the @var{then-form} of the
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505 @code{if}, and @var{func} must appear quoted in the call to
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506 @code{fboundp}. (This feature operates for @code{cond} as well.)
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507
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508 Likewise, you can suppress a compiler warning for an unbound variable
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509 @var{variable} by conditionalizing its use on a @code{boundp} test,
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510 like this:
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511
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512 @example
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513 (if (boundp '@var{variable}) ...@var{variable}...)
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514 @end example
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515
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516 @noindent
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517 The reference to @var{variable} must be in the @var{then-form} of the
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518 @code{if}, and @var{variable} must appear quoted in the call to
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519 @code{boundp}.
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520
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521 You can suppress any compiler warnings using the construct
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522 @code{with-no-warnings}:
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523
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524 @c This is implemented with a defun, but conceptually it is
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525 @c a special form.
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526
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527 @defspec with-no-warnings body@dots{}
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528 In execution, this is equivalent to @code{(progn @var{body}...)},
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529 but the compiler does not issue warnings for anything that occurs
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530 inside @var{body}.
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diff changeset
531
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532 We recommend that you use this construct around the smallest
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533 possible piece of code.
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534 @end defspec
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535
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536 @node Byte-Code Objects
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537 @section Byte-Code Function Objects
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538 @cindex compiled function
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539 @cindex byte-code function
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540
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541 Byte-compiled functions have a special data type: they are
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542 @dfn{byte-code function objects}.
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543
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544 Internally, a byte-code function object is much like a vector;
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545 however, the evaluator handles this data type specially when it appears
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546 as a function to be called. The printed representation for a byte-code
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547 function object is like that for a vector, with an additional @samp{#}
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548 before the opening @samp{[}.
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549
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550 A byte-code function object must have at least four elements; there is
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551 no maximum number, but only the first six elements have any normal use.
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552 They are:
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553
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554 @table @var
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555 @item arglist
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556 The list of argument symbols.
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557
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558 @item byte-code
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559 The string containing the byte-code instructions.
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560
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561 @item constants
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562 The vector of Lisp objects referenced by the byte code. These include
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563 symbols used as function names and variable names.
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564
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565 @item stacksize
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566 The maximum stack size this function needs.
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567
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568 @item docstring
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569 The documentation string (if any); otherwise, @code{nil}. The value may
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570 be a number or a list, in case the documentation string is stored in a
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571 file. Use the function @code{documentation} to get the real
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572 documentation string (@pxref{Accessing Documentation}).
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573
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574 @item interactive
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575 The interactive spec (if any). This can be a string or a Lisp
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576 expression. It is @code{nil} for a function that isn't interactive.
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577 @end table
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578
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579 Here's an example of a byte-code function object, in printed
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580 representation. It is the definition of the command
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581 @code{backward-sexp}.
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582
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583 @example
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584 #[(&optional arg)
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585 "^H\204^F^@@\301^P\302^H[!\207"
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586 [arg 1 forward-sexp]
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587 2
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588 254435
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589 "p"]
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590 @end example
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591
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592 The primitive way to create a byte-code object is with
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593 @code{make-byte-code}:
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594
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595 @defun make-byte-code &rest elements
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596 This function constructs and returns a byte-code function object
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597 with @var{elements} as its elements.
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598 @end defun
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599
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600 You should not try to come up with the elements for a byte-code
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601 function yourself, because if they are inconsistent, Emacs may crash
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602 when you call the function. Always leave it to the byte compiler to
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603 create these objects; it makes the elements consistent (we hope).
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604
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605 You can access the elements of a byte-code object using @code{aref};
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606 you can also use @code{vconcat} to create a vector with the same
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607 elements.
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608
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609 @node Disassembly
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610 @section Disassembled Byte-Code
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611 @cindex disassembled byte-code
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612
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613 People do not write byte-code; that job is left to the byte compiler.
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614 But we provide a disassembler to satisfy a cat-like curiosity. The
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615 disassembler converts the byte-compiled code into humanly readable
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616 form.
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617
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618 The byte-code interpreter is implemented as a simple stack machine.
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619 It pushes values onto a stack of its own, then pops them off to use them
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620 in calculations whose results are themselves pushed back on the stack.
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621 When a byte-code function returns, it pops a value off the stack and
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622 returns it as the value of the function.
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623
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624 In addition to the stack, byte-code functions can use, bind, and set
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625 ordinary Lisp variables, by transferring values between variables and
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626 the stack.
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627
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628 @deffn Command disassemble object &optional buffer-or-name
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629 This command displays the disassembled code for @var{object}. In
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630 interactive use, or if @var{buffer-or-name} is @code{nil} or omitted,
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631 the output goes in a buffer named @samp{*Disassemble*}. If
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632 @var{buffer-or-name} is non-@code{nil}, it must be a buffer or the
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633 name of an existing buffer. Then the output goes there, at point, and
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634 point is left before the output.
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635
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636 The argument @var{object} can be a function name, a lambda expression
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637 or a byte-code object. If it is a lambda expression, @code{disassemble}
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638 compiles it and disassembles the resulting compiled code.
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639 @end deffn
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640
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641 Here are two examples of using the @code{disassemble} function. We
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642 have added explanatory comments to help you relate the byte-code to the
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643 Lisp source; these do not appear in the output of @code{disassemble}.
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644 These examples show unoptimized byte-code. Nowadays byte-code is
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645 usually optimized, but we did not want to rewrite these examples, since
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646 they still serve their purpose.
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647
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648 @example
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649 @group
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650 (defun factorial (integer)
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651 "Compute factorial of an integer."
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652 (if (= 1 integer) 1
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653 (* integer (factorial (1- integer)))))
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654 @result{} factorial
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655 @end group
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656
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657 @group
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658 (factorial 4)
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659 @result{} 24
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660 @end group
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661
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662 @group
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663 (disassemble 'factorial)
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664 @print{} byte-code for factorial:
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665 doc: Compute factorial of an integer.
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666 args: (integer)
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667 @end group
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668
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669 @group
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670 0 constant 1 ; @r{Push 1 onto stack.}
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671
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672 1 varref integer ; @r{Get value of @code{integer}}
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673 ; @r{from the environment}
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674 ; @r{and push the value}
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675 ; @r{onto the stack.}
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676 @end group
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677
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678 @group
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679 2 eqlsign ; @r{Pop top two values off stack,}
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680 ; @r{compare them,}
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681 ; @r{and push result onto stack.}
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682 @end group
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683
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684 @group
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685 3 goto-if-nil 10 ; @r{Pop and test top of stack;}
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686 ; @r{if @code{nil}, go to 10,}
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687 ; @r{else continue.}
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688 @end group
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689
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690 @group
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691 6 constant 1 ; @r{Push 1 onto top of stack.}
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692
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693 7 goto 17 ; @r{Go to 17 (in this case, 1 will be}
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694 ; @r{returned by the function).}
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695 @end group
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696
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697 @group
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698 10 constant * ; @r{Push symbol @code{*} onto stack.}
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699
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700 11 varref integer ; @r{Push value of @code{integer} onto stack.}
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701 @end group
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702
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703 @group
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704 12 constant factorial ; @r{Push @code{factorial} onto stack.}
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705
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706 13 varref integer ; @r{Push value of @code{integer} onto stack.}
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707
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708 14 sub1 ; @r{Pop @code{integer}, decrement value,}
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709 ; @r{push new value onto stack.}
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710 @end group
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711
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712 @group
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713 ; @r{Stack now contains:}
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714 ; @minus{} @r{decremented value of @code{integer}}
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715 ; @minus{} @r{@code{factorial}}
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716 ; @minus{} @r{value of @code{integer}}
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717 ; @minus{} @r{@code{*}}
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718 @end group
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719
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720 @group
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721 15 call 1 ; @r{Call function @code{factorial} using}
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722 ; @r{the first (i.e., the top) element}
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723 ; @r{of the stack as the argument;}
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724 ; @r{push returned value onto stack.}
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725 @end group
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726
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727 @group
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728 ; @r{Stack now contains:}
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729 ; @minus{} @r{result of recursive}
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730 ; @r{call to @code{factorial}}
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731 ; @minus{} @r{value of @code{integer}}
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732 ; @minus{} @r{@code{*}}
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733 @end group
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734
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735 @group
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736 16 call 2 ; @r{Using the first two}
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737 ; @r{(i.e., the top two)}
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738 ; @r{elements of the stack}
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739 ; @r{as arguments,}
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740 ; @r{call the function @code{*},}
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741 ; @r{pushing the result onto the stack.}
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742 @end group
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743
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744 @group
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745 17 return ; @r{Return the top element}
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746 ; @r{of the stack.}
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747 @result{} nil
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748 @end group
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749 @end example
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750
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751 The @code{silly-loop} function is somewhat more complex:
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752
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753 @example
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754 @group
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755 (defun silly-loop (n)
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diff changeset
756 "Return time before and after N iterations of a loop."
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757 (let ((t1 (current-time-string)))
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758 (while (> (setq n (1- n))
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759 0))
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760 (list t1 (current-time-string))))
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761 @result{} silly-loop
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762 @end group
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763
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764 @group
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765 (disassemble 'silly-loop)
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766 @print{} byte-code for silly-loop:
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diff changeset
767 doc: Return time before and after N iterations of a loop.
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
768 args: (n)
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
769
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
770 0 constant current-time-string ; @r{Push}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
771 ; @r{@code{current-time-string}}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
772 ; @r{onto top of stack.}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
773 @end group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
774
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
775 @group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
776 1 call 0 ; @r{Call @code{current-time-string}}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
777 ; @r{ with no argument,}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
778 ; @r{ pushing result onto stack.}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
779 @end group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
780
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
781 @group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
782 2 varbind t1 ; @r{Pop stack and bind @code{t1}}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
783 ; @r{to popped value.}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
784 @end group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
785
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
786 @group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
787 3 varref n ; @r{Get value of @code{n} from}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
788 ; @r{the environment and push}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
789 ; @r{the value onto the stack.}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
790 @end group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
791
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
792 @group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
793 4 sub1 ; @r{Subtract 1 from top of stack.}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
794 @end group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
795
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
796 @group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
797 5 dup ; @r{Duplicate the top of the stack;}
6452
8c7032348e93 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 5945
diff changeset
798 ; @r{i.e., copy the top of}
5945
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
799 ; @r{the stack and push the}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
800 ; @r{copy onto the stack.}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
801 @end group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
802
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
803 @group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
804 6 varset n ; @r{Pop the top of the stack,}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
805 ; @r{and bind @code{n} to the value.}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
806
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
807 ; @r{In effect, the sequence @code{dup varset}}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
808 ; @r{copies the top of the stack}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
809 ; @r{into the value of @code{n}}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
810 ; @r{without popping it.}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
811 @end group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
812
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
813 @group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
814 7 constant 0 ; @r{Push 0 onto stack.}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
815 @end group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
816
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
817 @group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
818 8 gtr ; @r{Pop top two values off stack,}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
819 ; @r{test if @var{n} is greater than 0}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
820 ; @r{and push result onto stack.}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
821 @end group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
822
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
823 @group
7212
2f1305fcecf6 entered into RCS
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6452
diff changeset
824 9 goto-if-nil-else-pop 17 ; @r{Goto 17 if @code{n} <= 0}
2f1305fcecf6 entered into RCS
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6452
diff changeset
825 ; @r{(this exits the while loop).}
5945
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
826 ; @r{else pop top of stack}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
827 ; @r{and continue}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
828 @end group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
829
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
830 @group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
831 12 constant nil ; @r{Push @code{nil} onto stack}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
832 ; @r{(this is the body of the loop).}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
833 @end group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
834
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
835 @group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
836 13 discard ; @r{Discard result of the body}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
837 ; @r{of the loop (a while loop}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
838 ; @r{is always evaluated for}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
839 ; @r{its side effects).}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
840 @end group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
841
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
842 @group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
843 14 goto 3 ; @r{Jump back to beginning}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
844 ; @r{of while loop.}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
845 @end group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
846
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
847 @group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
848 17 discard ; @r{Discard result of while loop}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
849 ; @r{by popping top of stack.}
7212
2f1305fcecf6 entered into RCS
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6452
diff changeset
850 ; @r{This result is the value @code{nil} that}
2f1305fcecf6 entered into RCS
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6452
diff changeset
851 ; @r{was not popped by the goto at 9.}
5945
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
852 @end group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
853
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
854 @group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
855 18 varref t1 ; @r{Push value of @code{t1} onto stack.}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
856 @end group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
857
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
858 @group
49600
23a1cea22d13 Trailing whitespace deleted.
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents: 38160
diff changeset
859 19 constant current-time-string ; @r{Push}
5945
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
860 ; @r{@code{current-time-string}}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
861 ; @r{onto top of stack.}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
862 @end group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
863
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
864 @group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
865 20 call 0 ; @r{Call @code{current-time-string} again.}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
866 @end group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
867
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
868 @group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
869 21 list2 ; @r{Pop top two elements off stack,}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
870 ; @r{create a list of them,}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
871 ; @r{and push list onto stack.}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
872 @end group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
873
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
874 @group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
875 22 unbind 1 ; @r{Unbind @code{t1} in local environment.}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
876
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
877 23 return ; @r{Return value of the top of stack.}
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
878
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
879 @result{} nil
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
880 @end group
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
881 @end example
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
882
e449bfa3caae Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
883
52401
695cf19ef79e Add arch taglines
Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 52155
diff changeset
884 @ignore
695cf19ef79e Add arch taglines
Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 52155
diff changeset
885 arch-tag: f78e3050-2f0a-4dee-be27-d9979a0a2289
695cf19ef79e Add arch taglines
Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 52155
diff changeset
886 @end ignore