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author | Kenichi Handa <handa@m17n.org> |
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date | Tue, 16 Jun 1998 07:32:05 +0000 |
parents | 40089afa2b1d |
children | 78aaef52e28f |
rev | line source |
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6550 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6550 | 4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
5 @setfilename ../info/strings | |
6 @node Strings and Characters, Lists, Numbers, Top | |
7 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
8 @chapter Strings and Characters | |
9 @cindex strings | |
10 @cindex character arrays | |
11 @cindex characters | |
12 @cindex bytes | |
13 | |
14 A string in Emacs Lisp is an array that contains an ordered sequence | |
15 of characters. Strings are used as names of symbols, buffers, and | |
16 files, to send messages to users, to hold text being copied between | |
17 buffers, and for many other purposes. Because strings are so important, | |
18 Emacs Lisp has many functions expressly for manipulating them. Emacs | |
19 Lisp programs use strings more often than individual characters. | |
20 | |
21 @xref{Strings of Events}, for special considerations for strings of | |
22 keyboard character events. | |
23 | |
24 @menu | |
25 * Basics: String Basics. Basic properties of strings and characters. | |
26 * Predicates for Strings:: Testing whether an object is a string or char. | |
27 * Creating Strings:: Functions to allocate new strings. | |
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28 * Modifying Strings:: Altering the contents of an existing string. |
6550 | 29 * Text Comparison:: Comparing characters or strings. |
30 * String Conversion:: Converting characters or strings and vice versa. | |
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31 * Formatting Strings:: @code{format}: Emacs's analogue of @code{printf}. |
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32 * Case Conversion:: Case conversion functions. |
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33 * Case Tables:: Customizing case conversion. |
6550 | 34 @end menu |
35 | |
36 @node String Basics | |
37 @section String and Character Basics | |
38 | |
39 Strings in Emacs Lisp are arrays that contain an ordered sequence of | |
40 characters. Characters are represented in Emacs Lisp as integers; | |
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41 whether an integer is a character or not is determined only by how it is |
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42 used. Thus, strings really contain integers. |
6550 | 43 |
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44 The length of a string (like any array) is fixed, and cannot be |
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45 altered once the string exists. Strings in Lisp are @emph{not} |
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46 terminated by a distinguished character code. (By contrast, strings in |
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47 C are terminated by a character with @sc{ASCII} code 0.) |
6550 | 48 |
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49 Since strings are arrays, and therefore sequences as well, you can |
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50 operate on them with the general array and sequence functions. |
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51 (@xref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}.) For example, you can access or |
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52 change individual characters in a string using the functions @code{aref} |
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53 and @code{aset} (@pxref{Array Functions}). |
6550 | 54 |
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55 There are two text representations for non-@sc{ASCII} characters in |
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56 Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte and multibyte (@pxref{Text |
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57 Representations}). @sc{ASCII} characters always occupy one byte in a |
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58 string; in fact, there is no real difference between the two |
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59 representation for a string which is all @sc{ASCII}. For most Lisp |
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60 programming, you don't need to be concerned with these two |
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61 representations. |
6550 | 62 |
63 Sometimes key sequences are represented as strings. When a string is | |
64 a key sequence, string elements in the range 128 to 255 represent meta | |
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65 characters (which are extremely large integers) rather than character |
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66 codes in the range 128 to 255. |
6550 | 67 |
68 Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super or alt | |
69 modifiers; they can hold @sc{ASCII} control characters, but no other | |
70 control characters. They do not distinguish case in @sc{ASCII} control | |
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71 characters. If you want to store such characters in a sequence, such as |
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72 a key sequence, you must use a vector instead of a string. |
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73 @xref{Character Type}, for more information about representation of meta |
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74 and other modifiers for keyboard input characters. |
6550 | 75 |
12098 | 76 Strings are useful for holding regular expressions. You can also |
77 match regular expressions against strings (@pxref{Regexp Search}). The | |
78 functions @code{match-string} (@pxref{Simple Match Data}) and | |
79 @code{replace-match} (@pxref{Replacing Match}) are useful for | |
80 decomposing and modifying strings based on regular expression matching. | |
81 | |
6550 | 82 Like a buffer, a string can contain text properties for the characters |
83 in it, as well as the characters themselves. @xref{Text Properties}. | |
12098 | 84 All the Lisp primitives that copy text from strings to buffers or other |
85 strings also copy the properties of the characters being copied. | |
6550 | 86 |
87 @xref{Text}, for information about functions that display strings or | |
88 copy them into buffers. @xref{Character Type}, and @ref{String Type}, | |
89 for information about the syntax of characters and strings. | |
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90 @xref{Non-ASCII Characters}, for functions to convert between text |
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91 representations and encode and decode character codes. |
6550 | 92 |
93 @node Predicates for Strings | |
94 @section The Predicates for Strings | |
95 | |
96 For more information about general sequence and array predicates, | |
97 see @ref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}, and @ref{Arrays}. | |
98 | |
99 @defun stringp object | |
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100 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a string, @code{nil} |
6550 | 101 otherwise. |
102 @end defun | |
103 | |
104 @defun char-or-string-p object | |
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105 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a string or a |
6550 | 106 character (i.e., an integer), @code{nil} otherwise. |
107 @end defun | |
108 | |
109 @node Creating Strings | |
110 @section Creating Strings | |
111 | |
112 The following functions create strings, either from scratch, or by | |
113 putting strings together, or by taking them apart. | |
114 | |
115 @defun make-string count character | |
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116 This function returns a string made up of @var{count} repetitions of |
6550 | 117 @var{character}. If @var{count} is negative, an error is signaled. |
118 | |
119 @example | |
120 (make-string 5 ?x) | |
121 @result{} "xxxxx" | |
122 (make-string 0 ?x) | |
123 @result{} "" | |
124 @end example | |
125 | |
126 Other functions to compare with this one include @code{char-to-string} | |
127 (@pxref{String Conversion}), @code{make-vector} (@pxref{Vectors}), and | |
128 @code{make-list} (@pxref{Building Lists}). | |
129 @end defun | |
130 | |
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131 @defun string &rest characters |
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132 @tindex string |
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133 This returns a string containing the characters @var{characters}. |
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134 |
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135 @example |
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136 (string ?a ?b ?c) |
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137 @result{} "abc" |
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138 @end example |
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139 @end defun |
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140 |
6550 | 141 @defun substring string start &optional end |
12098 | 142 This function returns a new string which consists of those characters |
6550 | 143 from @var{string} in the range from (and including) the character at the |
144 index @var{start} up to (but excluding) the character at the index | |
145 @var{end}. The first character is at index zero. | |
146 | |
147 @example | |
148 @group | |
149 (substring "abcdefg" 0 3) | |
150 @result{} "abc" | |
151 @end group | |
152 @end example | |
153 | |
154 @noindent | |
155 Here the index for @samp{a} is 0, the index for @samp{b} is 1, and the | |
156 index for @samp{c} is 2. Thus, three letters, @samp{abc}, are copied | |
157 from the string @code{"abcdefg"}. The index 3 marks the character | |
158 position up to which the substring is copied. The character whose index | |
159 is 3 is actually the fourth character in the string. | |
160 | |
161 A negative number counts from the end of the string, so that @minus{}1 | |
162 signifies the index of the last character of the string. For example: | |
163 | |
164 @example | |
165 @group | |
166 (substring "abcdefg" -3 -1) | |
167 @result{} "ef" | |
168 @end group | |
169 @end example | |
170 | |
171 @noindent | |
172 In this example, the index for @samp{e} is @minus{}3, the index for | |
173 @samp{f} is @minus{}2, and the index for @samp{g} is @minus{}1. | |
174 Therefore, @samp{e} and @samp{f} are included, and @samp{g} is excluded. | |
175 | |
176 When @code{nil} is used as an index, it stands for the length of the | |
177 string. Thus, | |
178 | |
179 @example | |
180 @group | |
181 (substring "abcdefg" -3 nil) | |
182 @result{} "efg" | |
183 @end group | |
184 @end example | |
185 | |
186 Omitting the argument @var{end} is equivalent to specifying @code{nil}. | |
187 It follows that @code{(substring @var{string} 0)} returns a copy of all | |
188 of @var{string}. | |
189 | |
190 @example | |
191 @group | |
192 (substring "abcdefg" 0) | |
193 @result{} "abcdefg" | |
194 @end group | |
195 @end example | |
196 | |
197 @noindent | |
198 But we recommend @code{copy-sequence} for this purpose (@pxref{Sequence | |
199 Functions}). | |
200 | |
12098 | 201 If the characters copied from @var{string} have text properties, the |
202 properties are copied into the new string also. @xref{Text Properties}. | |
203 | |
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204 @code{substring} also allows vectors for the first argument. |
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205 For example: |
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206 |
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207 @example |
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208 (substring [a b (c) "d"] 1 3) |
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209 @result{} [b (c)] |
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210 @end example |
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211 |
6550 | 212 A @code{wrong-type-argument} error is signaled if either @var{start} or |
213 @var{end} is not an integer or @code{nil}. An @code{args-out-of-range} | |
214 error is signaled if @var{start} indicates a character following | |
215 @var{end}, or if either integer is out of range for @var{string}. | |
216 | |
217 Contrast this function with @code{buffer-substring} (@pxref{Buffer | |
218 Contents}), which returns a string containing a portion of the text in | |
219 the current buffer. The beginning of a string is at index 0, but the | |
220 beginning of a buffer is at index 1. | |
221 @end defun | |
222 | |
223 @defun concat &rest sequences | |
224 @cindex copying strings | |
225 @cindex concatenating strings | |
226 This function returns a new string consisting of the characters in the | |
12098 | 227 arguments passed to it (along with their text properties, if any). The |
228 arguments may be strings, lists of numbers, or vectors of numbers; they | |
229 are not themselves changed. If @code{concat} receives no arguments, it | |
230 returns an empty string. | |
6550 | 231 |
232 @example | |
233 (concat "abc" "-def") | |
234 @result{} "abc-def" | |
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235 (concat "abc" (list 120 121) [122]) |
6550 | 236 @result{} "abcxyz" |
237 ;; @r{@code{nil} is an empty sequence.} | |
238 (concat "abc" nil "-def") | |
239 @result{} "abc-def" | |
240 (concat "The " "quick brown " "fox.") | |
241 @result{} "The quick brown fox." | |
242 (concat) | |
243 @result{} "" | |
244 @end example | |
245 | |
246 @noindent | |
247 The @code{concat} function always constructs a new string that is | |
248 not @code{eq} to any existing string. | |
249 | |
250 When an argument is an integer (not a sequence of integers), it is | |
251 converted to a string of digits making up the decimal printed | |
12067 | 252 representation of the integer. @strong{Don't use this feature; we plan |
253 to eliminate it. If you already use this feature, change your programs | |
254 now!} The proper way to convert an integer to a decimal number in this | |
255 way is with @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting Strings}) or | |
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256 @code{number-to-string} (@pxref{String Conversion}). |
6550 | 257 |
258 @example | |
259 @group | |
260 (concat 137) | |
261 @result{} "137" | |
262 (concat 54 321) | |
263 @result{} "54321" | |
264 @end group | |
265 @end example | |
266 | |
267 For information about other concatenation functions, see the | |
268 description of @code{mapconcat} in @ref{Mapping Functions}, | |
269 @code{vconcat} in @ref{Vectors}, and @code{append} in @ref{Building | |
270 Lists}. | |
271 @end defun | |
272 | |
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273 @defun split-string string separators |
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274 @tindex split-string |
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275 Split @var{string} into substrings in between matches for the regular |
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276 expression @var{separators}. Each match for @var{separators} defines a |
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277 splitting point; the substrings between the splitting points are made |
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278 into a list, which is the value. If @var{separators} is @code{nil} (or |
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279 omitted), the default is @code{"[ \f\t\n\r\v]+"}. |
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280 |
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281 For example, |
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282 |
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283 @example |
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284 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o") |
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285 @result{} ("S" "up is g" "" "d f" "" "d") |
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286 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o+") |
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287 @result{} ("S" "up is g" "d f" "d") |
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288 @end example |
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289 |
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290 When there is a match adjacent to the beginning or end of the string, |
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291 this does not cause a null string to appear at the beginning or end |
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292 of the list: |
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293 |
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294 @example |
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295 (split-string "out to moo" "o+") |
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296 @result{} ("ut t" " m") |
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297 @end example |
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298 |
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299 Empty matches do count, when not adjacent to another match: |
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300 |
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301 @example |
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302 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o*") |
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303 @result{}("S" "u" "p" " " "i" "s" " " "g" "d" " " "f" "d") |
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304 (split-string "Nice doggy!" "") |
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305 @result{}("N" "i" "c" "e" " " "d" "o" "g" "g" "y" "!") |
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306 @end example |
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307 @end defun |
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308 |
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309 @node Modifying Strings |
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310 @section Modifying Strings |
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311 |
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312 The most basic way to alter the contents of an existing string is with |
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313 @code{aset} (@pxref{Array Functions}). @code{(aset @var{string} |
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314 @var{idx} @var{char})} stores @var{char} into @var{string} at index |
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315 @var{idx}. Each character occupies one or more bytes, and if @var{char} |
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316 needs a different number of bytes from the character already present at |
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317 that index, @code{aset} signals an error. |
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318 |
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319 A more powerful function is @code{store-substring}: |
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320 |
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321 @defun store-substring string idx obj |
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322 @tindex store-substring |
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323 This function alters part of the contents of the string @var{string}, by |
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324 storing @var{obj} starting at index @var{idx}. The argument @var{obj} |
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325 may be either a character or a (smaller) string. |
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326 |
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327 Since it is impossible to change the length of an existing string, it is |
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328 an error if @var{obj} doesn't fit within @var{string}'s actual length, |
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329 of if any new character requires a different number of bytes from the |
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330 character currently present at that point in @var{string}. |
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331 @end defun |
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332 |
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333 @need 2000 |
6550 | 334 @node Text Comparison |
335 @section Comparison of Characters and Strings | |
336 @cindex string equality | |
337 | |
338 @defun char-equal character1 character2 | |
339 This function returns @code{t} if the arguments represent the same | |
340 character, @code{nil} otherwise. This function ignores differences | |
341 in case if @code{case-fold-search} is non-@code{nil}. | |
342 | |
343 @example | |
344 (char-equal ?x ?x) | |
345 @result{} t | |
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346 (let ((case-fold-search nil)) |
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347 (char-equal ?x ?X)) |
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348 @result{} nil |
6550 | 349 @end example |
350 @end defun | |
351 | |
352 @defun string= string1 string2 | |
353 This function returns @code{t} if the characters of the two strings | |
354 match exactly; case is significant. | |
355 | |
356 @example | |
357 (string= "abc" "abc") | |
358 @result{} t | |
359 (string= "abc" "ABC") | |
360 @result{} nil | |
361 (string= "ab" "ABC") | |
362 @result{} nil | |
363 @end example | |
12067 | 364 |
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365 The function @code{string=} ignores the text properties of the two |
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366 strings. When @code{equal} (@pxref{Equality Predicates}) compares two |
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367 strings, it uses @code{string=}. |
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368 |
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369 If the strings contain non-@sc{ASCII} characters, and one is unibyte |
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370 while the other is multibyte, then they cannot be equal. @xref{Text |
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371 Representations}. |
6550 | 372 @end defun |
373 | |
374 @defun string-equal string1 string2 | |
375 @code{string-equal} is another name for @code{string=}. | |
376 @end defun | |
377 | |
378 @cindex lexical comparison | |
379 @defun string< string1 string2 | |
380 @c (findex string< causes problems for permuted index!!) | |
381 This function compares two strings a character at a time. First it | |
382 scans both the strings at once to find the first pair of corresponding | |
383 characters that do not match. If the lesser character of those two is | |
384 the character from @var{string1}, then @var{string1} is less, and this | |
385 function returns @code{t}. If the lesser character is the one from | |
386 @var{string2}, then @var{string1} is greater, and this function returns | |
387 @code{nil}. If the two strings match entirely, the value is @code{nil}. | |
388 | |
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389 Pairs of characters are compared according to their character codes. |
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390 Keep in mind that lower case letters have higher numeric values in the |
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391 @sc{ASCII} character set than their upper case counterparts; digits and |
6550 | 392 many punctuation characters have a lower numeric value than upper case |
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393 letters. An @sc{ASCII} character is less than any non-@sc{ASCII} |
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394 character; a unibyte non-@sc{ASCII} character is always less than any |
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395 multibyte non-@sc{ASCII} character (@pxref{Text Representations}). |
6550 | 396 |
397 @example | |
398 @group | |
399 (string< "abc" "abd") | |
400 @result{} t | |
401 (string< "abd" "abc") | |
402 @result{} nil | |
403 (string< "123" "abc") | |
404 @result{} t | |
405 @end group | |
406 @end example | |
407 | |
408 When the strings have different lengths, and they match up to the | |
409 length of @var{string1}, then the result is @code{t}. If they match up | |
410 to the length of @var{string2}, the result is @code{nil}. A string of | |
411 no characters is less than any other string. | |
412 | |
413 @example | |
414 @group | |
415 (string< "" "abc") | |
416 @result{} t | |
417 (string< "ab" "abc") | |
418 @result{} t | |
419 (string< "abc" "") | |
420 @result{} nil | |
421 (string< "abc" "ab") | |
422 @result{} nil | |
423 (string< "" "") | |
424 @result{} nil | |
425 @end group | |
426 @end example | |
427 @end defun | |
428 | |
429 @defun string-lessp string1 string2 | |
430 @code{string-lessp} is another name for @code{string<}. | |
431 @end defun | |
432 | |
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433 @defun compare-strings string1 start1 end1 string2 start2 end2 &optional ignore-case |
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434 @tindex compare-strings |
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435 This function compares a specified part of @var{string1} with a |
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436 specified part of @var{string2}. The specified part of @var{string1} |
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437 runs from index @var{start1} up to index @var{end1} (default, the end of |
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438 the string). The specified part of @var{string2} runs from index |
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439 @var{start2} up to index @var{end2} (default, the end of the string). |
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440 |
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441 The strings are both converted to multibyte for the comparison |
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442 (@pxref{Text Representations}) so that a unibyte string can be equal to |
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443 a multibyte string. If @var{ignore-case} is non-@code{nil}, then case |
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444 is ignored, so that upper case letters can be equal to lower case letters. |
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445 |
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446 If the specified portions of the two strings match, the value is |
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447 @code{t}. Otherwise, the value is an integer which indicates how many |
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448 leading characters agree, and which string is less. Its absolute value |
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449 is one plus the number of characters that agree at the beginning of the |
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450 two strings. The sign is negative if @var{string1} (or its specified |
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451 portion) is less. |
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452 @end defun |
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453 |
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454 @defun assoc-ignore-case key alist |
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455 @tindex assoc-ignore-case |
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456 This function works like @code{assoc}, except that @var{key} must be a |
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457 string, and comparison is done using @code{compare-strings}. |
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458 Case differences are ignored in this comparison. |
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459 @end defun |
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460 |
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461 @defun assoc-ignore-representation key alist |
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462 @tindex assoc-ignore-representation |
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463 This function works like @code{assoc}, except that @var{key} must be a |
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464 string, and comparison is done using @code{compare-strings}. |
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465 Case differences are significant. |
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466 @end defun |
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467 |
6550 | 468 See also @code{compare-buffer-substrings} in @ref{Comparing Text}, for |
469 a way to compare text in buffers. The function @code{string-match}, | |
470 which matches a regular expression against a string, can be used | |
471 for a kind of string comparison; see @ref{Regexp Search}. | |
472 | |
473 @node String Conversion | |
474 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
475 @section Conversion of Characters and Strings | |
476 @cindex conversion of strings | |
477 | |
478 This section describes functions for conversions between characters, | |
479 strings and integers. @code{format} and @code{prin1-to-string} | |
480 (@pxref{Output Functions}) can also convert Lisp objects into strings. | |
481 @code{read-from-string} (@pxref{Input Functions}) can ``convert'' a | |
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482 string representation of a Lisp object into an object. The functions |
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483 @code{string-make-multibyte} and @code{string-make-unibyte} convert the |
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484 text representation of a string (@pxref{Converting Representations}). |
6550 | 485 |
486 @xref{Documentation}, for functions that produce textual descriptions | |
487 of text characters and general input events | |
488 (@code{single-key-description} and @code{text-char-description}). These | |
489 functions are used primarily for making help messages. | |
490 | |
491 @defun char-to-string character | |
492 @cindex character to string | |
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493 This function returns a new string containing one character, |
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494 @var{character}. This function is semi-obsolete because the function |
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495 @code{string} is more general. @xref{Creating Strings}. |
6550 | 496 @end defun |
497 | |
498 @defun string-to-char string | |
499 @cindex string to character | |
500 This function returns the first character in @var{string}. If the | |
501 string is empty, the function returns 0. The value is also 0 when the | |
502 first character of @var{string} is the null character, @sc{ASCII} code | |
503 0. | |
504 | |
505 @example | |
506 (string-to-char "ABC") | |
507 @result{} 65 | |
508 (string-to-char "xyz") | |
509 @result{} 120 | |
510 (string-to-char "") | |
511 @result{} 0 | |
512 (string-to-char "\000") | |
513 @result{} 0 | |
514 @end example | |
515 | |
516 This function may be eliminated in the future if it does not seem useful | |
517 enough to retain. | |
518 @end defun | |
519 | |
520 @defun number-to-string number | |
521 @cindex integer to string | |
522 @cindex integer to decimal | |
523 This function returns a string consisting of the printed | |
524 representation of @var{number}, which may be an integer or a floating | |
525 point number. The value starts with a sign if the argument is | |
526 negative. | |
527 | |
528 @example | |
529 (number-to-string 256) | |
530 @result{} "256" | |
531 (number-to-string -23) | |
532 @result{} "-23" | |
533 (number-to-string -23.5) | |
534 @result{} "-23.5" | |
535 @end example | |
536 | |
537 @cindex int-to-string | |
538 @code{int-to-string} is a semi-obsolete alias for this function. | |
539 | |
540 See also the function @code{format} in @ref{Formatting Strings}. | |
541 @end defun | |
542 | |
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543 @defun string-to-number string &optional base |
6550 | 544 @cindex string to number |
545 This function returns the numeric value of the characters in | |
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546 @var{string}. If @var{base} is non-@code{nil}, integers are converted |
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547 in that base. If @var{base} is @code{nil}, then base ten is used. |
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548 Floating point conversion always uses base ten; we have not implemented |
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549 other radices for floating point numbers, because that would be much |
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550 more work and does not seem useful. |
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551 |
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552 The parsing skips spaces and tabs at the beginning of @var{string}, then |
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553 reads as much of @var{string} as it can interpret as a number. (On some |
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554 systems it ignores other whitespace at the beginning, not just spaces |
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555 and tabs.) If the first character after the ignored whitespace is not a |
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556 digit or a plus or minus sign, this function returns 0. |
6550 | 557 |
558 @example | |
559 (string-to-number "256") | |
560 @result{} 256 | |
561 (string-to-number "25 is a perfect square.") | |
562 @result{} 25 | |
563 (string-to-number "X256") | |
564 @result{} 0 | |
565 (string-to-number "-4.5") | |
566 @result{} -4.5 | |
567 @end example | |
568 | |
569 @findex string-to-int | |
570 @code{string-to-int} is an obsolete alias for this function. | |
571 @end defun | |
572 | |
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573 Here are some other functions that can convert to or from a string: |
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574 |
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575 @table @code |
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576 @item concat |
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577 @code{concat} can convert a vector or a list into a string. |
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578 @xref{Creating Strings}. |
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579 |
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580 @item vconcat |
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581 @code{vconcat} can convert a string into a vector. @xref{Vector |
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582 Functions}. |
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583 |
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584 @item append |
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585 @code{append} can convert a string into a list. @xref{Building Lists}. |
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586 @end table |
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587 |
6550 | 588 @node Formatting Strings |
589 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
590 @section Formatting Strings | |
591 @cindex formatting strings | |
592 @cindex strings, formatting them | |
593 | |
594 @dfn{Formatting} means constructing a string by substitution of | |
595 computed values at various places in a constant string. This string | |
596 controls how the other values are printed as well as where they appear; | |
597 it is called a @dfn{format string}. | |
598 | |
599 Formatting is often useful for computing messages to be displayed. In | |
600 fact, the functions @code{message} and @code{error} provide the same | |
601 formatting feature described here; they differ from @code{format} only | |
602 in how they use the result of formatting. | |
603 | |
604 @defun format string &rest objects | |
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605 This function returns a new string that is made by copying |
6550 | 606 @var{string} and then replacing any format specification |
607 in the copy with encodings of the corresponding @var{objects}. The | |
608 arguments @var{objects} are the computed values to be formatted. | |
609 @end defun | |
610 | |
611 @cindex @samp{%} in format | |
612 @cindex format specification | |
613 A format specification is a sequence of characters beginning with a | |
614 @samp{%}. Thus, if there is a @samp{%d} in @var{string}, the | |
615 @code{format} function replaces it with the printed representation of | |
616 one of the values to be formatted (one of the arguments @var{objects}). | |
617 For example: | |
618 | |
619 @example | |
620 @group | |
621 (format "The value of fill-column is %d." fill-column) | |
622 @result{} "The value of fill-column is 72." | |
623 @end group | |
624 @end example | |
625 | |
626 If @var{string} contains more than one format specification, the | |
627 format specifications correspond with successive values from | |
628 @var{objects}. Thus, the first format specification in @var{string} | |
629 uses the first such value, the second format specification uses the | |
630 second such value, and so on. Any extra format specifications (those | |
631 for which there are no corresponding values) cause unpredictable | |
632 behavior. Any extra values to be formatted are ignored. | |
633 | |
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634 Certain format specifications require values of particular types. If |
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635 you supply a value that doesn't fit the requirements, an error is |
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636 signaled. |
6550 | 637 |
638 Here is a table of valid format specifications: | |
639 | |
640 @table @samp | |
641 @item %s | |
642 Replace the specification with the printed representation of the object, | |
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643 made without quoting (that is, using @code{princ}, not |
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644 @code{prin1}---@pxref{Output Functions}). Thus, strings are represented |
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645 by their contents alone, with no @samp{"} characters, and symbols appear |
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646 without @samp{\} characters. |
6550 | 647 |
648 If there is no corresponding object, the empty string is used. | |
649 | |
650 @item %S | |
651 Replace the specification with the printed representation of the object, | |
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652 made with quoting (that is, using @code{prin1}---@pxref{Output |
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653 Functions}). Thus, strings are enclosed in @samp{"} characters, and |
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654 @samp{\} characters appear where necessary before special characters. |
6550 | 655 |
656 If there is no corresponding object, the empty string is used. | |
657 | |
658 @item %o | |
659 @cindex integer to octal | |
660 Replace the specification with the base-eight representation of an | |
661 integer. | |
662 | |
663 @item %d | |
664 Replace the specification with the base-ten representation of an | |
665 integer. | |
666 | |
667 @item %x | |
668 @cindex integer to hexadecimal | |
669 Replace the specification with the base-sixteen representation of an | |
670 integer. | |
671 | |
672 @item %c | |
673 Replace the specification with the character which is the value given. | |
674 | |
675 @item %e | |
676 Replace the specification with the exponential notation for a floating | |
677 point number. | |
678 | |
679 @item %f | |
680 Replace the specification with the decimal-point notation for a floating | |
681 point number. | |
682 | |
683 @item %g | |
684 Replace the specification with notation for a floating point number, | |
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685 using either exponential notation or decimal-point notation, whichever |
6550 | 686 is shorter. |
687 | |
688 @item %% | |
689 A single @samp{%} is placed in the string. This format specification is | |
690 unusual in that it does not use a value. For example, @code{(format "%% | |
691 %d" 30)} returns @code{"% 30"}. | |
692 @end table | |
693 | |
694 Any other format character results in an @samp{Invalid format | |
695 operation} error. | |
696 | |
697 Here are several examples: | |
698 | |
699 @example | |
700 @group | |
701 (format "The name of this buffer is %s." (buffer-name)) | |
702 @result{} "The name of this buffer is strings.texi." | |
703 | |
704 (format "The buffer object prints as %s." (current-buffer)) | |
13228 | 705 @result{} "The buffer object prints as strings.texi." |
6550 | 706 |
707 (format "The octal value of %d is %o, | |
708 and the hex value is %x." 18 18 18) | |
709 @result{} "The octal value of 18 is 22, | |
710 and the hex value is 12." | |
711 @end group | |
712 @end example | |
713 | |
714 @cindex numeric prefix | |
715 @cindex field width | |
716 @cindex padding | |
717 All the specification characters allow an optional numeric prefix | |
718 between the @samp{%} and the character. The optional numeric prefix | |
719 defines the minimum width for the object. If the printed representation | |
720 of the object contains fewer characters than this, then it is padded. | |
721 The padding is on the left if the prefix is positive (or starts with | |
722 zero) and on the right if the prefix is negative. The padding character | |
723 is normally a space, but if the numeric prefix starts with a zero, zeros | |
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724 are used for padding. Here are some examples of padding: |
6550 | 725 |
726 @example | |
727 (format "%06d is padded on the left with zeros" 123) | |
728 @result{} "000123 is padded on the left with zeros" | |
729 | |
730 (format "%-6d is padded on the right" 123) | |
731 @result{} "123 is padded on the right" | |
732 @end example | |
733 | |
734 @code{format} never truncates an object's printed representation, no | |
735 matter what width you specify. Thus, you can use a numeric prefix to | |
736 specify a minimum spacing between columns with no risk of losing | |
737 information. | |
738 | |
739 In the following three examples, @samp{%7s} specifies a minimum width | |
740 of 7. In the first case, the string inserted in place of @samp{%7s} has | |
741 only 3 letters, so 4 blank spaces are inserted for padding. In the | |
742 second case, the string @code{"specification"} is 13 letters wide but is | |
743 not truncated. In the third case, the padding is on the right. | |
744 | |
745 @smallexample | |
746 @group | |
747 (format "The word `%7s' actually has %d letters in it." | |
748 "foo" (length "foo")) | |
749 @result{} "The word ` foo' actually has 3 letters in it." | |
750 @end group | |
751 | |
752 @group | |
753 (format "The word `%7s' actually has %d letters in it." | |
754 "specification" (length "specification")) | |
755 @result{} "The word `specification' actually has 13 letters in it." | |
756 @end group | |
757 | |
758 @group | |
759 (format "The word `%-7s' actually has %d letters in it." | |
760 "foo" (length "foo")) | |
761 @result{} "The word `foo ' actually has 3 letters in it." | |
762 @end group | |
763 @end smallexample | |
764 | |
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765 @node Case Conversion |
6550 | 766 @comment node-name, next, previous, up |
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767 @section Case Conversion in Lisp |
6550 | 768 @cindex upper case |
769 @cindex lower case | |
770 @cindex character case | |
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771 @cindex case conversion in Lisp |
6550 | 772 |
773 The character case functions change the case of single characters or | |
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774 of the contents of strings. The functions normally convert only |
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775 alphabetic characters (the letters @samp{A} through @samp{Z} and |
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776 @samp{a} through @samp{z}, as well as non-ASCII letters); other |
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777 characters are not altered. (You can specify a different case |
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778 conversion mapping by specifying a case table---@pxref{Case Tables}.) |
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779 |
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780 These functions do not modify the strings that are passed to them as |
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781 arguments. |
6550 | 782 |
783 The examples below use the characters @samp{X} and @samp{x} which have | |
784 @sc{ASCII} codes 88 and 120 respectively. | |
785 | |
786 @defun downcase string-or-char | |
787 This function converts a character or a string to lower case. | |
788 | |
789 When the argument to @code{downcase} is a string, the function creates | |
790 and returns a new string in which each letter in the argument that is | |
791 upper case is converted to lower case. When the argument to | |
792 @code{downcase} is a character, @code{downcase} returns the | |
793 corresponding lower case character. This value is an integer. If the | |
794 original character is lower case, or is not a letter, then the value | |
795 equals the original character. | |
796 | |
797 @example | |
798 (downcase "The cat in the hat") | |
799 @result{} "the cat in the hat" | |
800 | |
801 (downcase ?X) | |
802 @result{} 120 | |
803 @end example | |
804 @end defun | |
805 | |
806 @defun upcase string-or-char | |
807 This function converts a character or a string to upper case. | |
808 | |
809 When the argument to @code{upcase} is a string, the function creates | |
810 and returns a new string in which each letter in the argument that is | |
811 lower case is converted to upper case. | |
812 | |
813 When the argument to @code{upcase} is a character, @code{upcase} | |
814 returns the corresponding upper case character. This value is an integer. | |
815 If the original character is upper case, or is not a letter, then the | |
816 value equals the original character. | |
817 | |
818 @example | |
819 (upcase "The cat in the hat") | |
820 @result{} "THE CAT IN THE HAT" | |
821 | |
822 (upcase ?x) | |
823 @result{} 88 | |
824 @end example | |
825 @end defun | |
826 | |
827 @defun capitalize string-or-char | |
828 @cindex capitalization | |
829 This function capitalizes strings or characters. If | |
830 @var{string-or-char} is a string, the function creates and returns a new | |
831 string, whose contents are a copy of @var{string-or-char} in which each | |
832 word has been capitalized. This means that the first character of each | |
833 word is converted to upper case, and the rest are converted to lower | |
834 case. | |
835 | |
836 The definition of a word is any sequence of consecutive characters that | |
837 are assigned to the word constituent syntax class in the current syntax | |
838 table (@xref{Syntax Class Table}). | |
839 | |
840 When the argument to @code{capitalize} is a character, @code{capitalize} | |
841 has the same result as @code{upcase}. | |
842 | |
843 @example | |
844 (capitalize "The cat in the hat") | |
845 @result{} "The Cat In The Hat" | |
846 | |
847 (capitalize "THE 77TH-HATTED CAT") | |
848 @result{} "The 77th-Hatted Cat" | |
849 | |
850 @group | |
851 (capitalize ?x) | |
852 @result{} 88 | |
853 @end group | |
854 @end example | |
855 @end defun | |
856 | |
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857 @defun upcase-initials string |
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858 This function capitalizes the initials of the words in @var{string}. |
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859 without altering any letters other than the initials. It returns a new |
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860 string whose contents are a copy of @var{string}, in which each word has |
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861 been converted to upper case. |
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862 |
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863 The definition of a word is any sequence of consecutive characters that |
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864 are assigned to the word constituent syntax class in the current syntax |
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865 table (@xref{Syntax Class Table}). |
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866 |
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867 @example |
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868 @group |
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869 (upcase-initials "The CAT in the hAt") |
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870 @result{} "The CAT In The HAt" |
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871 @end group |
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872 @end example |
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873 @end defun |
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874 |
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875 @xref{Text Comparison}, for functions that compare strings; some of |
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876 them ignore case differences, or can optionally ignore case differences. |
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877 |
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878 @node Case Tables |
6550 | 879 @section The Case Table |
880 | |
881 You can customize case conversion by installing a special @dfn{case | |
882 table}. A case table specifies the mapping between upper case and lower | |
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883 case letters. It affects both the case conversion functions for Lisp |
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884 objects (see the previous section) and those that apply to text in the |
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885 buffer (@pxref{Case Changes}). Each buffer has a case table; there is |
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886 also a standard case table which is used to initialize the case table |
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887 of new buffers. |
6550 | 888 |
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889 A case table is a char-table (@pxref{Char-Tables}) whose subtype is |
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890 @code{case-table}. This char-table maps each character into the |
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891 corresponding lower case character. It has three extra slots, which |
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892 hold related tables: |
6550 | 893 |
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894 @table @var |
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895 @item upcase |
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896 The upcase table maps each character into the corresponding upper |
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897 case character. |
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898 @item canonicalize |
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899 The canonicalize table maps all of a set of case-related characters |
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900 into a particular member of that set. |
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901 @item equivalences |
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902 The equivalences table maps each one of a set of case-related characters |
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903 into the next character in that set. |
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904 @end table |
6550 | 905 |
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906 In simple cases, all you need to specify is the mapping to lower-case; |
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907 the three related tables will be calculated automatically from that one. |
6550 | 908 |
909 For some languages, upper and lower case letters are not in one-to-one | |
910 correspondence. There may be two different lower case letters with the | |
911 same upper case equivalent. In these cases, you need to specify the | |
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912 maps for both lower case and upper case. |
6550 | 913 |
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914 The extra table @var{canonicalize} maps each character to a canonical |
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915 equivalent; any two characters that are related by case-conversion have |
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916 the same canonical equivalent character. For example, since @samp{a} |
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917 and @samp{A} are related by case-conversion, they should have the same |
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918 canonical equivalent character (which should be either @samp{a} for both |
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919 of them, or @samp{A} for both of them). |
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920 |
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921 The extra table @var{equivalences} is a map that cyclicly permutes |
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922 each equivalence class (of characters with the same canonical |
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923 equivalent). (For ordinary @sc{ASCII}, this would map @samp{a} into |
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924 @samp{A} and @samp{A} into @samp{a}, and likewise for each set of |
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925 equivalent characters.) |
6550 | 926 |
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927 When you construct a case table, you can provide @code{nil} for |
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928 @var{canonicalize}; then Emacs fills in this slot from the lower case |
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929 and upper case mappings. You can also provide @code{nil} for |
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930 @var{equivalences}; then Emacs fills in this slot from |
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931 @var{canonicalize}. In a case table that is actually in use, those |
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932 components are non-@code{nil}. Do not try to specify @var{equivalences} |
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933 without also specifying @var{canonicalize}. |
6550 | 934 |
935 Here are the functions for working with case tables: | |
936 | |
937 @defun case-table-p object | |
938 This predicate returns non-@code{nil} if @var{object} is a valid case | |
939 table. | |
940 @end defun | |
941 | |
942 @defun set-standard-case-table table | |
943 This function makes @var{table} the standard case table, so that it will | |
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944 be used in any buffers created subsequently. |
6550 | 945 @end defun |
946 | |
947 @defun standard-case-table | |
948 This returns the standard case table. | |
949 @end defun | |
950 | |
951 @defun current-case-table | |
952 This function returns the current buffer's case table. | |
953 @end defun | |
954 | |
955 @defun set-case-table table | |
956 This sets the current buffer's case table to @var{table}. | |
957 @end defun | |
958 | |
959 The following three functions are convenient subroutines for packages | |
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960 that define non-@sc{ASCII} character sets. They modify the specified |
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961 case table @var{case-table}; they also modify the standard syntax table. |
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962 @xref{Syntax Tables}. Normally you would use these functions to change |
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963 the standard case table. |
6550 | 964 |
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965 @defun set-case-syntax-pair uc lc case-table |
6550 | 966 This function specifies a pair of corresponding letters, one upper case |
967 and one lower case. | |
968 @end defun | |
969 | |
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970 @defun set-case-syntax-delims l r case-table |
6550 | 971 This function makes characters @var{l} and @var{r} a matching pair of |
972 case-invariant delimiters. | |
973 @end defun | |
974 | |
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975 @defun set-case-syntax char syntax case-table |
6550 | 976 This function makes @var{char} case-invariant, with syntax |
977 @var{syntax}. | |
978 @end defun | |
979 | |
980 @deffn Command describe-buffer-case-table | |
981 This command displays a description of the contents of the current | |
982 buffer's case table. | |
983 @end deffn |