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annotate lispref/lists.texi @ 25905:1394eb90cc8d
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author | Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org> |
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date | Thu, 07 Oct 1999 14:39:16 +0000 |
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6558 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6558 | 4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
5 @setfilename ../info/lists | |
6 @node Lists, Sequences Arrays Vectors, Strings and Characters, Top | |
7 @chapter Lists | |
8 @cindex list | |
9 @cindex element (of list) | |
10 | |
11 A @dfn{list} represents a sequence of zero or more elements (which may | |
12 be any Lisp objects). The important difference between lists and | |
13 vectors is that two or more lists can share part of their structure; in | |
14 addition, you can insert or delete elements in a list without copying | |
15 the whole list. | |
16 | |
17 @menu | |
18 * Cons Cells:: How lists are made out of cons cells. | |
19 * Lists as Boxes:: Graphical notation to explain lists. | |
20 * List-related Predicates:: Is this object a list? Comparing two lists. | |
21 * List Elements:: Extracting the pieces of a list. | |
22 * Building Lists:: Creating list structure. | |
23 * Modifying Lists:: Storing new pieces into an existing list. | |
24 * Sets And Lists:: A list can represent a finite mathematical set. | |
25 * Association Lists:: A list can represent a finite relation or mapping. | |
26 @end menu | |
27 | |
28 @node Cons Cells | |
29 @section Lists and Cons Cells | |
30 @cindex lists and cons cells | |
31 @cindex @code{nil} and lists | |
32 | |
33 Lists in Lisp are not a primitive data type; they are built up from | |
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34 @dfn{cons cells}. A cons cell is a data object that represents an |
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35 ordered pair. It holds, or ``refers to,'' two Lisp objects, one labeled |
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36 as the @sc{car}, and the other labeled as the @sc{cdr}. These names are |
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37 traditional; see @ref{Cons Cell Type}. @sc{cdr} is pronounced |
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38 ``could-er.'' |
6558 | 39 |
40 A list is a series of cons cells chained together, one cons cell per | |
41 element of the list. By convention, the @sc{car}s of the cons cells are | |
42 the elements of the list, and the @sc{cdr}s are used to chain the list: | |
43 the @sc{cdr} of each cons cell is the following cons cell. The @sc{cdr} | |
44 of the last cons cell is @code{nil}. This asymmetry between the | |
45 @sc{car} and the @sc{cdr} is entirely a matter of convention; at the | |
46 level of cons cells, the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} slots have the same | |
47 characteristics. | |
48 | |
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49 @cindex list structure |
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50 Because most cons cells are used as part of lists, the phrase |
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51 @dfn{list structure} has come to mean any structure made out of cons |
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52 cells. |
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53 |
6558 | 54 The symbol @code{nil} is considered a list as well as a symbol; it is |
55 the list with no elements. For convenience, the symbol @code{nil} is | |
56 considered to have @code{nil} as its @sc{cdr} (and also as its | |
57 @sc{car}). | |
58 | |
59 The @sc{cdr} of any nonempty list @var{l} is a list containing all the | |
60 elements of @var{l} except the first. | |
61 | |
62 @node Lists as Boxes | |
63 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
64 @section Lists as Linked Pairs of Boxes | |
65 @cindex box representation for lists | |
66 @cindex lists represented as boxes | |
67 @cindex cons cell as box | |
68 | |
69 A cons cell can be illustrated as a pair of boxes. The first box | |
70 represents the @sc{car} and the second box represents the @sc{cdr}. | |
71 Here is an illustration of the two-element list, @code{(tulip lily)}, | |
72 made from two cons cells: | |
73 | |
74 @example | |
75 @group | |
76 --------------- --------------- | |
77 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
78 | tulip | o---------->| lily | nil | | |
79 | | | | | | | |
80 --------------- --------------- | |
81 @end group | |
82 @end example | |
83 | |
84 Each pair of boxes represents a cons cell. Each box ``refers to'', | |
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85 ``points to'' or ``holds'' a Lisp object. (These terms are |
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86 synonymous.) The first box, which describes the @sc{car} of the first |
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87 cons cell, contains the symbol @code{tulip}. The arrow from the |
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88 @sc{cdr} box of the first cons cell to the second cons cell indicates |
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89 that the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell is the second cons cell. |
6558 | 90 |
91 The same list can be illustrated in a different sort of box notation | |
92 like this: | |
93 | |
94 @example | |
95 @group | |
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96 --- --- --- --- |
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97 | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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98 --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 99 | | |
100 | | | |
101 --> tulip --> lily | |
102 @end group | |
103 @end example | |
104 | |
105 Here is a more complex illustration, showing the three-element list, | |
106 @code{((pine needles) oak maple)}, the first element of which is a | |
107 two-element list: | |
108 | |
109 @example | |
110 @group | |
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111 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
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112 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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113 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 114 | | | |
115 | | | | |
116 | --> oak --> maple | |
117 | | |
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118 | --- --- --- --- |
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119 --> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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120 --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 121 | | |
122 | | | |
123 --> pine --> needles | |
124 @end group | |
125 @end example | |
126 | |
127 The same list represented in the first box notation looks like this: | |
128 | |
129 @example | |
130 @group | |
131 -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
132 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
133 | o | o------->| oak | o------->| maple | nil | | |
134 | | | | | | | | | | | |
135 -- | --------- -------------- -------------- | |
136 | | |
137 | | |
138 | -------------- ---------------- | |
139 | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
140 ------>| pine | o------->| needles | nil | | |
141 | | | | | | | |
142 -------------- ---------------- | |
143 @end group | |
144 @end example | |
145 | |
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146 @xref{Cons Cell Type}, for the read and print syntax of cons cells and |
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147 lists, and for more ``box and arrow'' illustrations of lists. |
6558 | 148 |
149 @node List-related Predicates | |
150 @section Predicates on Lists | |
151 | |
152 The following predicates test whether a Lisp object is an atom, is a | |
153 cons cell or is a list, or whether it is the distinguished object | |
154 @code{nil}. (Many of these predicates can be defined in terms of the | |
155 others, but they are used so often that it is worth having all of them.) | |
156 | |
157 @defun consp object | |
158 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} | |
159 otherwise. @code{nil} is not a cons cell, although it @emph{is} a list. | |
160 @end defun | |
161 | |
162 @defun atom object | |
163 @cindex atoms | |
164 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is an atom, @code{nil} | |
165 otherwise. All objects except cons cells are atoms. The symbol | |
166 @code{nil} is an atom and is also a list; it is the only Lisp object | |
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167 that is both. |
6558 | 168 |
169 @example | |
170 (atom @var{object}) @equiv{} (not (consp @var{object})) | |
171 @end example | |
172 @end defun | |
173 | |
174 @defun listp object | |
175 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a cons cell or | |
176 @code{nil}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
177 | |
178 @example | |
179 @group | |
180 (listp '(1)) | |
181 @result{} t | |
182 @end group | |
183 @group | |
184 (listp '()) | |
185 @result{} t | |
186 @end group | |
187 @end example | |
188 @end defun | |
189 | |
190 @defun nlistp object | |
191 This function is the opposite of @code{listp}: it returns @code{t} if | |
192 @var{object} is not a list. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
193 | |
194 @example | |
195 (listp @var{object}) @equiv{} (not (nlistp @var{object})) | |
196 @end example | |
197 @end defun | |
198 | |
199 @defun null object | |
200 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is @code{nil}, and | |
201 returns @code{nil} otherwise. This function is identical to @code{not}, | |
202 but as a matter of clarity we use @code{null} when @var{object} is | |
203 considered a list and @code{not} when it is considered a truth value | |
204 (see @code{not} in @ref{Combining Conditions}). | |
205 | |
206 @example | |
207 @group | |
208 (null '(1)) | |
209 @result{} nil | |
210 @end group | |
211 @group | |
212 (null '()) | |
213 @result{} t | |
214 @end group | |
215 @end example | |
216 @end defun | |
217 | |
7734 | 218 @need 2000 |
6558 | 219 |
220 @node List Elements | |
221 @section Accessing Elements of Lists | |
222 @cindex list elements | |
223 | |
224 @defun car cons-cell | |
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225 This function returns the value referred to by the first slot of the |
6558 | 226 cons cell @var{cons-cell}. Expressed another way, this function |
227 returns the @sc{car} of @var{cons-cell}. | |
228 | |
229 As a special case, if @var{cons-cell} is @code{nil}, then @code{car} | |
230 is defined to return @code{nil}; therefore, any list is a valid argument | |
231 for @code{car}. An error is signaled if the argument is not a cons cell | |
232 or @code{nil}. | |
233 | |
234 @example | |
235 @group | |
236 (car '(a b c)) | |
237 @result{} a | |
238 @end group | |
239 @group | |
240 (car '()) | |
241 @result{} nil | |
242 @end group | |
243 @end example | |
244 @end defun | |
245 | |
246 @defun cdr cons-cell | |
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247 This function returns the value referred to by the second slot of |
6558 | 248 the cons cell @var{cons-cell}. Expressed another way, this function |
249 returns the @sc{cdr} of @var{cons-cell}. | |
250 | |
251 As a special case, if @var{cons-cell} is @code{nil}, then @code{cdr} | |
252 is defined to return @code{nil}; therefore, any list is a valid argument | |
253 for @code{cdr}. An error is signaled if the argument is not a cons cell | |
254 or @code{nil}. | |
255 | |
256 @example | |
257 @group | |
258 (cdr '(a b c)) | |
259 @result{} (b c) | |
260 @end group | |
261 @group | |
262 (cdr '()) | |
263 @result{} nil | |
264 @end group | |
265 @end example | |
266 @end defun | |
267 | |
268 @defun car-safe object | |
269 This function lets you take the @sc{car} of a cons cell while avoiding | |
270 errors for other data types. It returns the @sc{car} of @var{object} if | |
271 @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} otherwise. This is in contrast | |
272 to @code{car}, which signals an error if @var{object} is not a list. | |
273 | |
274 @example | |
275 @group | |
276 (car-safe @var{object}) | |
277 @equiv{} | |
278 (let ((x @var{object})) | |
279 (if (consp x) | |
280 (car x) | |
281 nil)) | |
282 @end group | |
283 @end example | |
284 @end defun | |
285 | |
286 @defun cdr-safe object | |
287 This function lets you take the @sc{cdr} of a cons cell while | |
288 avoiding errors for other data types. It returns the @sc{cdr} of | |
289 @var{object} if @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
290 This is in contrast to @code{cdr}, which signals an error if | |
291 @var{object} is not a list. | |
292 | |
293 @example | |
294 @group | |
295 (cdr-safe @var{object}) | |
296 @equiv{} | |
297 (let ((x @var{object})) | |
298 (if (consp x) | |
299 (cdr x) | |
300 nil)) | |
301 @end group | |
302 @end example | |
303 @end defun | |
304 | |
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305 @tindex pop |
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306 @defmac pop listname |
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307 This macro is a way of examining the @sc{car} of a list, |
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308 and taking it off the list, all at once. It is new in Emacs 21. |
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309 |
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310 It operates on the list which is stored in the symbol @var{listname}. |
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311 It removes this element from the list by setting @var{listname} |
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312 to the @sc{cdr} of its old value---but it also returns the @sc{car} |
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313 of that list, which is the element being removed. |
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314 |
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315 @example |
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316 x |
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317 @result{} (a b c) |
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318 (pop x) |
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319 @result{} a |
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320 x |
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321 @result{} (b c) |
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322 @end example |
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323 @end defmac |
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324 |
6558 | 325 @defun nth n list |
326 This function returns the @var{n}th element of @var{list}. Elements | |
327 are numbered starting with zero, so the @sc{car} of @var{list} is | |
328 element number zero. If the length of @var{list} is @var{n} or less, | |
329 the value is @code{nil}. | |
330 | |
331 If @var{n} is negative, @code{nth} returns the first element of | |
332 @var{list}. | |
333 | |
334 @example | |
335 @group | |
336 (nth 2 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
337 @result{} 3 | |
338 @end group | |
339 @group | |
340 (nth 10 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
341 @result{} nil | |
342 @end group | |
343 @group | |
344 (nth -3 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
345 @result{} 1 | |
346 | |
347 (nth n x) @equiv{} (car (nthcdr n x)) | |
348 @end group | |
349 @end example | |
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350 |
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351 The function @code{elt} is similar, but applies to any kind of sequence. |
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352 For historical reasons, it takes its arguments in the opposite order. |
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353 @xref{Sequence Functions}. |
6558 | 354 @end defun |
355 | |
356 @defun nthcdr n list | |
357 This function returns the @var{n}th @sc{cdr} of @var{list}. In other | |
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358 words, it skips past the first @var{n} links of @var{list} and returns |
6558 | 359 what follows. |
360 | |
361 If @var{n} is zero or negative, @code{nthcdr} returns all of | |
362 @var{list}. If the length of @var{list} is @var{n} or less, | |
363 @code{nthcdr} returns @code{nil}. | |
364 | |
365 @example | |
366 @group | |
367 (nthcdr 1 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
368 @result{} (2 3 4) | |
369 @end group | |
370 @group | |
371 (nthcdr 10 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
372 @result{} nil | |
373 @end group | |
374 @group | |
375 (nthcdr -3 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
376 @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
377 @end group | |
378 @end example | |
379 @end defun | |
380 | |
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381 @defun safe-length list |
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382 @tindex safe-length |
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383 This function returns the length of @var{list}, with no risk |
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384 of either an error or an infinite loop. |
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385 |
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386 If @var{list} is not really a list, @code{safe-length} returns 0. If |
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387 @var{list} is circular, it returns a finite value which is at least the |
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388 number of distinct elements. |
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389 @end defun |
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390 |
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391 The most common way to compute the length of a list, when you are not |
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392 worried that it may be circular, is with @code{length}. @xref{Sequence |
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393 Functions}. |
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394 |
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395 @defun caar cons-cell |
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396 @tindex caar |
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397 This is the same as @code{(car (car @var{cons-cell}))}. |
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398 @end defun |
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399 |
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400 @defun cadr cons-cell |
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401 @tindex cadr |
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402 This is the same as @code{(car (cdr @var{cons-cell}))} |
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403 or @code{(nth 1 @var{cons-cell})}. |
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404 @end defun |
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405 |
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406 @defun cdar cons-cell |
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407 @tindex cdar |
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408 This is the same as @code{(cdr (car @var{cons-cell}))}. |
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409 @end defun |
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410 |
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411 @defun cddr cons-cell |
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412 @tindex cddr |
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413 This is the same as @code{(cdr (cdr @var{cons-cell}))} |
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414 or @code{(nthcdr 2 @var{cons-cell})}. |
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415 @end defun |
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416 |
6558 | 417 @node Building Lists |
418 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
419 @section Building Cons Cells and Lists | |
420 @cindex cons cells | |
421 @cindex building lists | |
422 | |
423 Many functions build lists, as lists reside at the very heart of Lisp. | |
424 @code{cons} is the fundamental list-building function; however, it is | |
425 interesting to note that @code{list} is used more times in the source | |
426 code for Emacs than @code{cons}. | |
427 | |
428 @defun cons object1 object2 | |
429 This function is the fundamental function used to build new list | |
430 structure. It creates a new cons cell, making @var{object1} the | |
431 @sc{car}, and @var{object2} the @sc{cdr}. It then returns the new cons | |
432 cell. The arguments @var{object1} and @var{object2} may be any Lisp | |
433 objects, but most often @var{object2} is a list. | |
434 | |
435 @example | |
436 @group | |
437 (cons 1 '(2)) | |
438 @result{} (1 2) | |
439 @end group | |
440 @group | |
441 (cons 1 '()) | |
442 @result{} (1) | |
443 @end group | |
444 @group | |
445 (cons 1 2) | |
446 @result{} (1 . 2) | |
447 @end group | |
448 @end example | |
449 | |
450 @cindex consing | |
451 @code{cons} is often used to add a single element to the front of a | |
452 list. This is called @dfn{consing the element onto the list}. For | |
453 example: | |
454 | |
455 @example | |
456 (setq list (cons newelt list)) | |
457 @end example | |
458 | |
459 Note that there is no conflict between the variable named @code{list} | |
460 used in this example and the function named @code{list} described below; | |
461 any symbol can serve both purposes. | |
462 @end defun | |
463 | |
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464 @tindex push |
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465 @defmac push newelt listname |
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466 This macro provides an alternative way to write |
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467 @code{(setq @var{listname} (cons @var{newelt} @var{listname}))}. |
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468 It is new in Emacs 21. |
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469 @end defmac |
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470 |
6558 | 471 @defun list &rest objects |
472 This function creates a list with @var{objects} as its elements. The | |
473 resulting list is always @code{nil}-terminated. If no @var{objects} | |
474 are given, the empty list is returned. | |
475 | |
476 @example | |
477 @group | |
478 (list 1 2 3 4 5) | |
479 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
480 @end group | |
481 @group | |
482 (list 1 2 '(3 4 5) 'foo) | |
483 @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5) foo) | |
484 @end group | |
485 @group | |
486 (list) | |
487 @result{} nil | |
488 @end group | |
489 @end example | |
490 @end defun | |
491 | |
492 @defun make-list length object | |
493 This function creates a list of length @var{length}, in which all the | |
494 elements have the identical value @var{object}. Compare | |
495 @code{make-list} with @code{make-string} (@pxref{Creating Strings}). | |
496 | |
497 @example | |
498 @group | |
499 (make-list 3 'pigs) | |
500 @result{} (pigs pigs pigs) | |
501 @end group | |
502 @group | |
503 (make-list 0 'pigs) | |
504 @result{} nil | |
505 @end group | |
506 @end example | |
507 @end defun | |
508 | |
509 @defun append &rest sequences | |
510 @cindex copying lists | |
511 This function returns a list containing all the elements of | |
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512 @var{sequences}. The @var{sequences} may be lists, vectors, |
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513 bool-vectors, or strings, but the last one should usually be a list. |
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514 All arguments except the last one are copied, so none of the arguments |
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515 is altered. (See @code{nconc} in @ref{Rearrangement}, for a way to join |
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516 lists with no copying.) |
6558 | 517 |
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518 More generally, the final argument to @code{append} may be any Lisp |
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519 object. The final argument is not copied or converted; it becomes the |
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520 @sc{cdr} of the last cons cell in the new list. If the final argument |
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521 is itself a list, then its elements become in effect elements of the |
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522 result list. If the final element is not a list, the result is a |
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523 ``dotted list'' since its final @sc{cdr} is not @code{nil} as required |
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524 in a true list. |
6558 | 525 |
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526 The @code{append} function also allows integers as arguments. It |
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527 converts them to strings of digits, making up the decimal print |
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528 representation of the integer, and then uses the strings instead of the |
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529 original integers. @strong{Don't use this feature; we plan to eliminate |
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530 it. If you already use this feature, change your programs now!} The |
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531 proper way to convert an integer to a decimal number in this way is with |
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532 @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting Strings}) or @code{number-to-string} |
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533 (@pxref{String Conversion}). |
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534 @end defun |
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535 |
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536 Here is an example of using @code{append}: |
6558 | 537 |
538 @example | |
539 @group | |
540 (setq trees '(pine oak)) | |
541 @result{} (pine oak) | |
542 (setq more-trees (append '(maple birch) trees)) | |
543 @result{} (maple birch pine oak) | |
544 @end group | |
545 | |
546 @group | |
547 trees | |
548 @result{} (pine oak) | |
549 more-trees | |
550 @result{} (maple birch pine oak) | |
551 @end group | |
552 @group | |
553 (eq trees (cdr (cdr more-trees))) | |
554 @result{} t | |
555 @end group | |
556 @end example | |
557 | |
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558 You can see how @code{append} works by looking at a box diagram. The |
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559 variable @code{trees} is set to the list @code{(pine oak)} and then the |
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560 variable @code{more-trees} is set to the list @code{(maple birch pine |
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561 oak)}. However, the variable @code{trees} continues to refer to the |
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562 original list: |
6558 | 563 |
564 @smallexample | |
565 @group | |
566 more-trees trees | |
567 | | | |
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568 | --- --- --- --- -> --- --- --- --- |
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569 --> | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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570 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 571 | | | | |
572 | | | | | |
573 --> maple -->birch --> pine --> oak | |
574 @end group | |
575 @end smallexample | |
576 | |
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577 An empty sequence contributes nothing to the value returned by |
6558 | 578 @code{append}. As a consequence of this, a final @code{nil} argument |
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579 forces a copy of the previous argument: |
6558 | 580 |
581 @example | |
582 @group | |
583 trees | |
584 @result{} (pine oak) | |
585 @end group | |
586 @group | |
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587 (setq wood (append trees nil)) |
6558 | 588 @result{} (pine oak) |
589 @end group | |
590 @group | |
591 wood | |
592 @result{} (pine oak) | |
593 @end group | |
594 @group | |
595 (eq wood trees) | |
596 @result{} nil | |
597 @end group | |
598 @end example | |
599 | |
600 @noindent | |
601 This once was the usual way to copy a list, before the function | |
602 @code{copy-sequence} was invented. @xref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}. | |
603 | |
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604 Here we show the use of vectors and strings as arguments to @code{append}: |
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605 |
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606 @example |
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607 @group |
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608 (append [a b] "cd" nil) |
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609 @result{} (a b 99 100) |
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610 @end group |
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611 @end example |
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612 |
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613 With the help of @code{apply} (@pxref{Calling Functions}), we can append |
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614 all the lists in a list of lists: |
6558 | 615 |
616 @example | |
617 @group | |
618 (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil)) | |
619 @result{} (a b c x y z) | |
620 @end group | |
621 @end example | |
622 | |
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623 If no @var{sequences} are given, @code{nil} is returned: |
6558 | 624 |
625 @example | |
626 @group | |
627 (append) | |
628 @result{} nil | |
629 @end group | |
630 @end example | |
631 | |
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632 Here are some examples where the final argument is not a list: |
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633 |
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634 @example |
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635 (append '(x y) 'z) |
12098 | 636 @result{} (x y . z) |
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637 (append '(x y) [z]) |
12098 | 638 @result{} (x y . [z]) |
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639 @end example |
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640 |
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641 @noindent |
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642 The second example shows that when the final argument is a sequence but |
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643 not a list, the sequence's elements do not become elements of the |
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644 resulting list. Instead, the sequence becomes the final @sc{cdr}, like |
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645 any other non-list final argument. |
6558 | 646 |
647 @defun reverse list | |
648 This function creates a new list whose elements are the elements of | |
649 @var{list}, but in reverse order. The original argument @var{list} is | |
650 @emph{not} altered. | |
651 | |
652 @example | |
653 @group | |
654 (setq x '(1 2 3 4)) | |
655 @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
656 @end group | |
657 @group | |
658 (reverse x) | |
659 @result{} (4 3 2 1) | |
660 x | |
661 @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
662 @end group | |
663 @end example | |
664 @end defun | |
665 | |
666 @node Modifying Lists | |
667 @section Modifying Existing List Structure | |
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668 @cindex destructive list operations |
6558 | 669 |
670 You can modify the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} contents of a cons cell with the | |
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671 primitives @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr}. We call these ``destructive'' |
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672 operations because they change existing list structure. |
6558 | 673 |
674 @cindex CL note---@code{rplaca} vrs @code{setcar} | |
675 @quotation | |
676 @findex rplaca | |
677 @findex rplacd | |
678 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp uses functions @code{rplaca} and | |
679 @code{rplacd} to alter list structure; they change structure the same | |
680 way as @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr}, but the Common Lisp functions | |
681 return the cons cell while @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr} return the | |
682 new @sc{car} or @sc{cdr}. | |
683 @end quotation | |
684 | |
685 @menu | |
686 * Setcar:: Replacing an element in a list. | |
687 * Setcdr:: Replacing part of the list backbone. | |
688 This can be used to remove or add elements. | |
689 * Rearrangement:: Reordering the elements in a list; combining lists. | |
690 @end menu | |
691 | |
692 @node Setcar | |
693 @subsection Altering List Elements with @code{setcar} | |
694 | |
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695 Changing the @sc{car} of a cons cell is done with @code{setcar}. When |
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696 used on a list, @code{setcar} replaces one element of a list with a |
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697 different element. |
6558 | 698 |
699 @defun setcar cons object | |
700 This function stores @var{object} as the new @sc{car} of @var{cons}, | |
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701 replacing its previous @sc{car}. In other words, it changes the |
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702 @sc{car} slot of @var{cons} to refer to @var{object}. It returns the |
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703 value @var{object}. For example: |
6558 | 704 |
705 @example | |
706 @group | |
707 (setq x '(1 2)) | |
708 @result{} (1 2) | |
709 @end group | |
710 @group | |
711 (setcar x 4) | |
712 @result{} 4 | |
713 @end group | |
714 @group | |
715 x | |
716 @result{} (4 2) | |
717 @end group | |
718 @end example | |
719 @end defun | |
720 | |
721 When a cons cell is part of the shared structure of several lists, | |
722 storing a new @sc{car} into the cons changes one element of each of | |
723 these lists. Here is an example: | |
724 | |
725 @example | |
726 @group | |
727 ;; @r{Create two lists that are partly shared.} | |
728 (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
729 @result{} (a b c) | |
730 (setq x2 (cons 'z (cdr x1))) | |
731 @result{} (z b c) | |
732 @end group | |
733 | |
734 @group | |
735 ;; @r{Replace the @sc{car} of a shared link.} | |
736 (setcar (cdr x1) 'foo) | |
737 @result{} foo | |
738 x1 ; @r{Both lists are changed.} | |
739 @result{} (a foo c) | |
740 x2 | |
741 @result{} (z foo c) | |
742 @end group | |
743 | |
744 @group | |
745 ;; @r{Replace the @sc{car} of a link that is not shared.} | |
746 (setcar x1 'baz) | |
747 @result{} baz | |
748 x1 ; @r{Only one list is changed.} | |
749 @result{} (baz foo c) | |
750 x2 | |
751 @result{} (z foo c) | |
752 @end group | |
753 @end example | |
754 | |
755 Here is a graphical depiction of the shared structure of the two lists | |
756 in the variables @code{x1} and @code{x2}, showing why replacing @code{b} | |
757 changes them both: | |
758 | |
759 @example | |
760 @group | |
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761 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
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762 x1---> | | |----> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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763 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 764 | --> | | |
765 | | | | | |
766 --> a | --> b --> c | |
767 | | |
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768 --- --- | |
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769 x2--> | | |-- |
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770 --- --- |
6558 | 771 | |
772 | | |
773 --> z | |
774 @end group | |
775 @end example | |
776 | |
777 Here is an alternative form of box diagram, showing the same relationship: | |
778 | |
779 @example | |
780 @group | |
781 x1: | |
782 -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
783 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
784 | a | o------->| b | o------->| c | nil | | |
785 | | | -->| | | | | | | |
786 -------------- | -------------- -------------- | |
787 | | |
788 x2: | | |
789 -------------- | | |
790 | car | cdr | | | |
791 | z | o---- | |
792 | | | | |
793 -------------- | |
794 @end group | |
795 @end example | |
796 | |
797 @node Setcdr | |
798 @subsection Altering the CDR of a List | |
799 | |
800 The lowest-level primitive for modifying a @sc{cdr} is @code{setcdr}: | |
801 | |
802 @defun setcdr cons object | |
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803 This function stores @var{object} as the new @sc{cdr} of @var{cons}, |
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804 replacing its previous @sc{cdr}. In other words, it changes the |
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805 @sc{cdr} slot of @var{cons} to refer to @var{object}. It returns the |
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806 value @var{object}. |
6558 | 807 @end defun |
808 | |
809 Here is an example of replacing the @sc{cdr} of a list with a | |
810 different list. All but the first element of the list are removed in | |
811 favor of a different sequence of elements. The first element is | |
812 unchanged, because it resides in the @sc{car} of the list, and is not | |
813 reached via the @sc{cdr}. | |
814 | |
815 @example | |
816 @group | |
817 (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
818 @result{} (1 2 3) | |
819 @end group | |
820 @group | |
821 (setcdr x '(4)) | |
822 @result{} (4) | |
823 @end group | |
824 @group | |
825 x | |
826 @result{} (1 4) | |
827 @end group | |
828 @end example | |
829 | |
830 You can delete elements from the middle of a list by altering the | |
831 @sc{cdr}s of the cons cells in the list. For example, here we delete | |
832 the second element, @code{b}, from the list @code{(a b c)}, by changing | |
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833 the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell: |
6558 | 834 |
835 @example | |
836 @group | |
837 (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
838 @result{} (a b c) | |
839 (setcdr x1 (cdr (cdr x1))) | |
840 @result{} (c) | |
841 x1 | |
842 @result{} (a c) | |
843 @end group | |
844 @end example | |
845 | |
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846 @need 4000 |
6558 | 847 Here is the result in box notation: |
848 | |
849 @example | |
850 @group | |
851 -------------------- | |
852 | | | |
853 -------------- | -------------- | -------------- | |
854 | car | cdr | | | car | cdr | -->| car | cdr | | |
855 | a | o----- | b | o-------->| c | nil | | |
856 | | | | | | | | | | |
857 -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
858 @end group | |
859 @end example | |
860 | |
861 @noindent | |
862 The second cons cell, which previously held the element @code{b}, still | |
863 exists and its @sc{car} is still @code{b}, but it no longer forms part | |
864 of this list. | |
865 | |
866 It is equally easy to insert a new element by changing @sc{cdr}s: | |
867 | |
868 @example | |
869 @group | |
870 (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
871 @result{} (a b c) | |
872 (setcdr x1 (cons 'd (cdr x1))) | |
873 @result{} (d b c) | |
874 x1 | |
875 @result{} (a d b c) | |
876 @end group | |
877 @end example | |
878 | |
879 Here is this result in box notation: | |
880 | |
881 @smallexample | |
882 @group | |
883 -------------- ------------- ------------- | |
884 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
885 | a | o | -->| b | o------->| c | nil | | |
886 | | | | | | | | | | | | |
887 --------- | -- | ------------- ------------- | |
888 | | | |
889 ----- -------- | |
890 | | | |
891 | --------------- | | |
892 | | car | cdr | | | |
893 -->| d | o------ | |
894 | | | | |
895 --------------- | |
896 @end group | |
897 @end smallexample | |
898 | |
899 @node Rearrangement | |
900 @subsection Functions that Rearrange Lists | |
901 @cindex rearrangement of lists | |
902 @cindex modification of lists | |
903 | |
904 Here are some functions that rearrange lists ``destructively'' by | |
905 modifying the @sc{cdr}s of their component cons cells. We call these | |
906 functions ``destructive'' because they chew up the original lists passed | |
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907 to them as arguments, relinking their cons cells to form a new list that |
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908 is the returned value. |
6558 | 909 |
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910 @ifinfo |
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911 See @code{delq}, in @ref{Sets And Lists}, for another function |
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912 that modifies cons cells. |
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913 @end ifinfo |
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914 @iftex |
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915 The function @code{delq} in the following section is another example |
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916 of destructive list manipulation. |
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917 @end iftex |
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918 |
6558 | 919 @defun nconc &rest lists |
920 @cindex concatenating lists | |
921 @cindex joining lists | |
922 This function returns a list containing all the elements of @var{lists}. | |
923 Unlike @code{append} (@pxref{Building Lists}), the @var{lists} are | |
924 @emph{not} copied. Instead, the last @sc{cdr} of each of the | |
925 @var{lists} is changed to refer to the following list. The last of the | |
926 @var{lists} is not altered. For example: | |
927 | |
928 @example | |
929 @group | |
930 (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
931 @result{} (1 2 3) | |
932 @end group | |
933 @group | |
934 (nconc x '(4 5)) | |
935 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
936 @end group | |
937 @group | |
938 x | |
939 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
940 @end group | |
941 @end example | |
942 | |
943 Since the last argument of @code{nconc} is not itself modified, it is | |
944 reasonable to use a constant list, such as @code{'(4 5)}, as in the | |
945 above example. For the same reason, the last argument need not be a | |
946 list: | |
947 | |
948 @example | |
949 @group | |
950 (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
951 @result{} (1 2 3) | |
952 @end group | |
953 @group | |
954 (nconc x 'z) | |
955 @result{} (1 2 3 . z) | |
956 @end group | |
957 @group | |
958 x | |
959 @result{} (1 2 3 . z) | |
960 @end group | |
961 @end example | |
962 | |
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963 However, the other arguments (all but the last) must be lists. |
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964 |
6558 | 965 A common pitfall is to use a quoted constant list as a non-last |
966 argument to @code{nconc}. If you do this, your program will change | |
967 each time you run it! Here is what happens: | |
968 | |
969 @smallexample | |
970 @group | |
971 (defun add-foo (x) ; @r{We want this function to add} | |
972 (nconc '(foo) x)) ; @r{@code{foo} to the front of its arg.} | |
973 @end group | |
974 | |
975 @group | |
976 (symbol-function 'add-foo) | |
977 @result{} (lambda (x) (nconc (quote (foo)) x)) | |
978 @end group | |
979 | |
980 @group | |
981 (setq xx (add-foo '(1 2))) ; @r{It seems to work.} | |
982 @result{} (foo 1 2) | |
983 @end group | |
984 @group | |
985 (setq xy (add-foo '(3 4))) ; @r{What happened?} | |
986 @result{} (foo 1 2 3 4) | |
987 @end group | |
988 @group | |
989 (eq xx xy) | |
990 @result{} t | |
991 @end group | |
992 | |
993 @group | |
994 (symbol-function 'add-foo) | |
995 @result{} (lambda (x) (nconc (quote (foo 1 2 3 4) x))) | |
996 @end group | |
997 @end smallexample | |
998 @end defun | |
999 | |
1000 @defun nreverse list | |
1001 @cindex reversing a list | |
1002 This function reverses the order of the elements of @var{list}. | |
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1003 Unlike @code{reverse}, @code{nreverse} alters its argument by reversing |
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1004 the @sc{cdr}s in the cons cells forming the list. The cons cell that |
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1005 used to be the last one in @var{list} becomes the first cons cell of the |
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1006 value. |
6558 | 1007 |
1008 For example: | |
1009 | |
1010 @example | |
1011 @group | |
1012 (setq x '(1 2 3 4)) | |
1013 @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
1014 @end group | |
1015 @group | |
1016 x | |
1017 @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
1018 (nreverse x) | |
1019 @result{} (4 3 2 1) | |
1020 @end group | |
1021 @group | |
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1022 ;; @r{The cons cell that was first is now last.} |
6558 | 1023 x |
1024 @result{} (1) | |
1025 @end group | |
1026 @end example | |
1027 | |
1028 To avoid confusion, we usually store the result of @code{nreverse} | |
1029 back in the same variable which held the original list: | |
1030 | |
1031 @example | |
1032 (setq x (nreverse x)) | |
1033 @end example | |
1034 | |
1035 Here is the @code{nreverse} of our favorite example, @code{(a b c)}, | |
1036 presented graphically: | |
1037 | |
1038 @smallexample | |
1039 @group | |
1040 @r{Original list head:} @r{Reversed list:} | |
1041 ------------- ------------- ------------ | |
1042 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
1043 | a | nil |<-- | b | o |<-- | c | o | | |
1044 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
1045 ------------- | --------- | - | -------- | - | |
1046 | | | | | |
1047 ------------- ------------ | |
1048 @end group | |
1049 @end smallexample | |
1050 @end defun | |
1051 | |
1052 @defun sort list predicate | |
1053 @cindex stable sort | |
1054 @cindex sorting lists | |
1055 This function sorts @var{list} stably, though destructively, and | |
1056 returns the sorted list. It compares elements using @var{predicate}. A | |
1057 stable sort is one in which elements with equal sort keys maintain their | |
1058 relative order before and after the sort. Stability is important when | |
1059 successive sorts are used to order elements according to different | |
1060 criteria. | |
1061 | |
1062 The argument @var{predicate} must be a function that accepts two | |
1063 arguments. It is called with two elements of @var{list}. To get an | |
1064 increasing order sort, the @var{predicate} should return @code{t} if the | |
1065 first element is ``less than'' the second, or @code{nil} if not. | |
1066 | |
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1067 The comparison function @var{predicate} must give reliable results for |
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1068 any given pair of arguments, at least within a single call to |
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1069 @code{sort}. It must be @dfn{antisymmetric}; that is, if @var{a} is |
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1070 less than @var{b}, @var{b} must not be less than @var{a}. It must be |
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1071 @dfn{transitive}---that is, if @var{a} is less than @var{b}, and @var{b} |
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1072 is less than @var{c}, then @var{a} must be less than @var{c}. If you |
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1073 use a comparison function which does not meet these requirements, the |
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1074 result of @code{sort} is unpredictable. |
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1075 |
6558 | 1076 The destructive aspect of @code{sort} is that it rearranges the cons |
1077 cells forming @var{list} by changing @sc{cdr}s. A nondestructive sort | |
1078 function would create new cons cells to store the elements in their | |
1079 sorted order. If you wish to make a sorted copy without destroying the | |
1080 original, copy it first with @code{copy-sequence} and then sort. | |
1081 | |
1082 Sorting does not change the @sc{car}s of the cons cells in @var{list}; | |
1083 the cons cell that originally contained the element @code{a} in | |
1084 @var{list} still has @code{a} in its @sc{car} after sorting, but it now | |
1085 appears in a different position in the list due to the change of | |
1086 @sc{cdr}s. For example: | |
1087 | |
1088 @example | |
1089 @group | |
1090 (setq nums '(1 3 2 6 5 4 0)) | |
1091 @result{} (1 3 2 6 5 4 0) | |
1092 @end group | |
1093 @group | |
1094 (sort nums '<) | |
1095 @result{} (0 1 2 3 4 5 6) | |
1096 @end group | |
1097 @group | |
1098 nums | |
1099 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5 6) | |
1100 @end group | |
1101 @end example | |
1102 | |
1103 @noindent | |
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1104 @strong{Warning}: Note that the list in @code{nums} no longer contains |
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1105 0; this is the same cons cell that it was before, but it is no longer |
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1106 the first one in the list. Don't assume a variable that formerly held |
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1107 the argument now holds the entire sorted list! Instead, save the result |
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1108 of @code{sort} and use that. Most often we store the result back into |
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1109 the variable that held the original list: |
6558 | 1110 |
1111 @example | |
1112 (setq nums (sort nums '<)) | |
1113 @end example | |
1114 | |
1115 @xref{Sorting}, for more functions that perform sorting. | |
1116 See @code{documentation} in @ref{Accessing Documentation}, for a | |
1117 useful example of @code{sort}. | |
1118 @end defun | |
1119 | |
1120 @node Sets And Lists | |
1121 @section Using Lists as Sets | |
1122 @cindex lists as sets | |
1123 @cindex sets | |
1124 | |
1125 A list can represent an unordered mathematical set---simply consider a | |
1126 value an element of a set if it appears in the list, and ignore the | |
1127 order of the list. To form the union of two sets, use @code{append} (as | |
1128 long as you don't mind having duplicate elements). Other useful | |
1129 functions for sets include @code{memq} and @code{delq}, and their | |
1130 @code{equal} versions, @code{member} and @code{delete}. | |
1131 | |
13229 | 1132 @cindex CL note---lack @code{union}, @code{intersection} |
6558 | 1133 @quotation |
1134 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp has functions @code{union} (which | |
1135 avoids duplicate elements) and @code{intersection} for set operations, | |
1136 but GNU Emacs Lisp does not have them. You can write them in Lisp if | |
1137 you wish. | |
1138 @end quotation | |
1139 | |
1140 @defun memq object list | |
1141 @cindex membership in a list | |
1142 This function tests to see whether @var{object} is a member of | |
1143 @var{list}. If it is, @code{memq} returns a list starting with the | |
1144 first occurrence of @var{object}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
1145 The letter @samp{q} in @code{memq} says that it uses @code{eq} to | |
1146 compare @var{object} against the elements of the list. For example: | |
1147 | |
1148 @example | |
1149 @group | |
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1150 (memq 'b '(a b c b a)) |
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1151 @result{} (b c b a) |
6558 | 1152 @end group |
1153 @group | |
1154 (memq '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are not @code{eq}.} | |
1155 @result{} nil | |
1156 @end group | |
1157 @end example | |
1158 @end defun | |
1159 | |
1160 @defun delq object list | |
1161 @cindex deletion of elements | |
1162 This function destructively removes all elements @code{eq} to | |
1163 @var{object} from @var{list}. The letter @samp{q} in @code{delq} says | |
1164 that it uses @code{eq} to compare @var{object} against the elements of | |
1165 the list, like @code{memq}. | |
1166 @end defun | |
1167 | |
1168 When @code{delq} deletes elements from the front of the list, it does so | |
1169 simply by advancing down the list and returning a sublist that starts | |
1170 after those elements: | |
1171 | |
1172 @example | |
1173 @group | |
1174 (delq 'a '(a b c)) @equiv{} (cdr '(a b c)) | |
1175 @end group | |
1176 @end example | |
1177 | |
1178 When an element to be deleted appears in the middle of the list, | |
1179 removing it involves changing the @sc{cdr}s (@pxref{Setcdr}). | |
1180 | |
1181 @example | |
1182 @group | |
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1183 (setq sample-list '(a b c (4))) |
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1184 @result{} (a b c (4)) |
6558 | 1185 @end group |
1186 @group | |
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1187 (delq 'a sample-list) |
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1188 @result{} (b c (4)) |
6558 | 1189 @end group |
1190 @group | |
1191 sample-list | |
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1192 @result{} (a b c (4)) |
6558 | 1193 @end group |
1194 @group | |
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1195 (delq 'c sample-list) |
11628 | 1196 @result{} (a b (4)) |
6558 | 1197 @end group |
1198 @group | |
1199 sample-list | |
11628 | 1200 @result{} (a b (4)) |
6558 | 1201 @end group |
1202 @end example | |
1203 | |
12098 | 1204 Note that @code{(delq 'c sample-list)} modifies @code{sample-list} to |
1205 splice out the third element, but @code{(delq 'a sample-list)} does not | |
6558 | 1206 splice anything---it just returns a shorter list. Don't assume that a |
1207 variable which formerly held the argument @var{list} now has fewer | |
1208 elements, or that it still holds the original list! Instead, save the | |
1209 result of @code{delq} and use that. Most often we store the result back | |
1210 into the variable that held the original list: | |
1211 | |
1212 @example | |
1213 (setq flowers (delq 'rose flowers)) | |
1214 @end example | |
1215 | |
1216 In the following example, the @code{(4)} that @code{delq} attempts to match | |
1217 and the @code{(4)} in the @code{sample-list} are not @code{eq}: | |
1218 | |
1219 @example | |
1220 @group | |
1221 (delq '(4) sample-list) | |
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1222 @result{} (a c (4)) |
6558 | 1223 @end group |
1224 @end example | |
1225 | |
1226 The following two functions are like @code{memq} and @code{delq} but use | |
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1227 @code{equal} rather than @code{eq} to compare elements. @xref{Equality |
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1228 Predicates}. |
6558 | 1229 |
1230 @defun member object list | |
1231 The function @code{member} tests to see whether @var{object} is a member | |
1232 of @var{list}, comparing members with @var{object} using @code{equal}. | |
1233 If @var{object} is a member, @code{member} returns a list starting with | |
1234 its first occurrence in @var{list}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
1235 | |
1236 Compare this with @code{memq}: | |
1237 | |
1238 @example | |
1239 @group | |
1240 (member '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are @code{equal}.} | |
1241 @result{} ((2)) | |
1242 @end group | |
1243 @group | |
1244 (memq '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are not @code{eq}.} | |
1245 @result{} nil | |
1246 @end group | |
1247 @group | |
1248 ;; @r{Two strings with the same contents are @code{equal}.} | |
1249 (member "foo" '("foo" "bar")) | |
1250 @result{} ("foo" "bar") | |
1251 @end group | |
1252 @end example | |
1253 @end defun | |
1254 | |
1255 @defun delete object list | |
1256 This function destructively removes all elements @code{equal} to | |
1257 @var{object} from @var{list}. It is to @code{delq} as @code{member} is | |
1258 to @code{memq}: it uses @code{equal} to compare elements with | |
1259 @var{object}, like @code{member}; when it finds an element that matches, | |
1260 it removes the element just as @code{delq} would. For example: | |
1261 | |
1262 @example | |
1263 @group | |
1264 (delete '(2) '((2) (1) (2))) | |
13229 | 1265 @result{} ((1)) |
6558 | 1266 @end group |
1267 @end example | |
1268 @end defun | |
1269 | |
1270 @quotation | |
1271 @b{Common Lisp note:} The functions @code{member} and @code{delete} in | |
1272 GNU Emacs Lisp are derived from Maclisp, not Common Lisp. The Common | |
1273 Lisp versions do not use @code{equal} to compare elements. | |
1274 @end quotation | |
1275 | |
12098 | 1276 See also the function @code{add-to-list}, in @ref{Setting Variables}, |
1277 for another way to add an element to a list stored in a variable. | |
1278 | |
6558 | 1279 @node Association Lists |
1280 @section Association Lists | |
1281 @cindex association list | |
1282 @cindex alist | |
1283 | |
1284 An @dfn{association list}, or @dfn{alist} for short, records a mapping | |
1285 from keys to values. It is a list of cons cells called | |
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1286 @dfn{associations}: the @sc{car} of each cons cell is the @dfn{key}, and the |
6558 | 1287 @sc{cdr} is the @dfn{associated value}.@footnote{This usage of ``key'' |
1288 is not related to the term ``key sequence''; it means a value used to | |
1289 look up an item in a table. In this case, the table is the alist, and | |
1290 the alist associations are the items.} | |
1291 | |
1292 Here is an example of an alist. The key @code{pine} is associated with | |
1293 the value @code{cones}; the key @code{oak} is associated with | |
1294 @code{acorns}; and the key @code{maple} is associated with @code{seeds}. | |
1295 | |
1296 @example | |
1297 @group | |
1298 '((pine . cones) | |
1299 (oak . acorns) | |
1300 (maple . seeds)) | |
1301 @end group | |
1302 @end example | |
1303 | |
1304 The associated values in an alist may be any Lisp objects; so may the | |
1305 keys. For example, in the following alist, the symbol @code{a} is | |
1306 associated with the number @code{1}, and the string @code{"b"} is | |
1307 associated with the @emph{list} @code{(2 3)}, which is the @sc{cdr} of | |
1308 the alist element: | |
1309 | |
1310 @example | |
1311 ((a . 1) ("b" 2 3)) | |
1312 @end example | |
1313 | |
1314 Sometimes it is better to design an alist to store the associated | |
1315 value in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr} of the element. Here is an | |
1316 example: | |
1317 | |
1318 @example | |
1319 '((rose red) (lily white) (buttercup yellow)) | |
1320 @end example | |
1321 | |
1322 @noindent | |
1323 Here we regard @code{red} as the value associated with @code{rose}. One | |
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1324 advantage of this kind of alist is that you can store other related |
6558 | 1325 information---even a list of other items---in the @sc{cdr} of the |
1326 @sc{cdr}. One disadvantage is that you cannot use @code{rassq} (see | |
1327 below) to find the element containing a given value. When neither of | |
1328 these considerations is important, the choice is a matter of taste, as | |
1329 long as you are consistent about it for any given alist. | |
1330 | |
1331 Note that the same alist shown above could be regarded as having the | |
1332 associated value in the @sc{cdr} of the element; the value associated | |
1333 with @code{rose} would be the list @code{(red)}. | |
1334 | |
1335 Association lists are often used to record information that you might | |
1336 otherwise keep on a stack, since new associations may be added easily to | |
1337 the front of the list. When searching an association list for an | |
1338 association with a given key, the first one found is returned, if there | |
1339 is more than one. | |
1340 | |
1341 In Emacs Lisp, it is @emph{not} an error if an element of an | |
1342 association list is not a cons cell. The alist search functions simply | |
1343 ignore such elements. Many other versions of Lisp signal errors in such | |
1344 cases. | |
1345 | |
1346 Note that property lists are similar to association lists in several | |
1347 respects. A property list behaves like an association list in which | |
1348 each key can occur only once. @xref{Property Lists}, for a comparison | |
1349 of property lists and association lists. | |
1350 | |
1351 @defun assoc key alist | |
1352 This function returns the first association for @var{key} in | |
1353 @var{alist}. It compares @var{key} against the alist elements using | |
1354 @code{equal} (@pxref{Equality Predicates}). It returns @code{nil} if no | |
1355 association in @var{alist} has a @sc{car} @code{equal} to @var{key}. | |
1356 For example: | |
1357 | |
1358 @smallexample | |
1359 (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1360 @result{} ((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds)) | |
1361 (assoc 'oak trees) | |
1362 @result{} (oak . acorns) | |
1363 (cdr (assoc 'oak trees)) | |
1364 @result{} acorns | |
1365 (assoc 'birch trees) | |
1366 @result{} nil | |
1367 @end smallexample | |
1368 | |
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1369 Here is another example, in which the keys and values are not symbols: |
6558 | 1370 |
1371 @smallexample | |
1372 (setq needles-per-cluster | |
1373 '((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
1374 (3 "Pitch Pine") | |
1375 (5 "White Pine"))) | |
1376 | |
1377 (cdr (assoc 3 needles-per-cluster)) | |
1378 @result{} ("Pitch Pine") | |
1379 (cdr (assoc 2 needles-per-cluster)) | |
1380 @result{} ("Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
1381 @end smallexample | |
1382 @end defun | |
1383 | |
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1384 The functions @code{assoc-ignore-representation} and |
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1385 @code{assoc-ignore-case} are much like @code{assoc} except using |
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1386 @code{compare-strings} to do the comparison. @xref{Text Comparison}. |
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1387 |
12067 | 1388 @defun rassoc value alist |
1389 This function returns the first association with value @var{value} in | |
1390 @var{alist}. It returns @code{nil} if no association in @var{alist} has | |
1391 a @sc{cdr} @code{equal} to @var{value}. | |
1392 | |
1393 @code{rassoc} is like @code{assoc} except that it compares the @sc{cdr} of | |
1394 each @var{alist} association instead of the @sc{car}. You can think of | |
1395 this as ``reverse @code{assoc}'', finding the key for a given value. | |
1396 @end defun | |
1397 | |
6558 | 1398 @defun assq key alist |
1399 This function is like @code{assoc} in that it returns the first | |
1400 association for @var{key} in @var{alist}, but it makes the comparison | |
1401 using @code{eq} instead of @code{equal}. @code{assq} returns @code{nil} | |
1402 if no association in @var{alist} has a @sc{car} @code{eq} to @var{key}. | |
1403 This function is used more often than @code{assoc}, since @code{eq} is | |
1404 faster than @code{equal} and most alists use symbols as keys. | |
1405 @xref{Equality Predicates}. | |
1406 | |
1407 @smallexample | |
1408 (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1409 @result{} ((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds)) | |
1410 (assq 'pine trees) | |
1411 @result{} (pine . cones) | |
1412 @end smallexample | |
1413 | |
1414 On the other hand, @code{assq} is not usually useful in alists where the | |
1415 keys may not be symbols: | |
1416 | |
1417 @smallexample | |
1418 (setq leaves | |
1419 '(("simple leaves" . oak) | |
1420 ("compound leaves" . horsechestnut))) | |
1421 | |
1422 (assq "simple leaves" leaves) | |
1423 @result{} nil | |
1424 (assoc "simple leaves" leaves) | |
1425 @result{} ("simple leaves" . oak) | |
1426 @end smallexample | |
1427 @end defun | |
1428 | |
1429 @defun rassq value alist | |
1430 This function returns the first association with value @var{value} in | |
1431 @var{alist}. It returns @code{nil} if no association in @var{alist} has | |
1432 a @sc{cdr} @code{eq} to @var{value}. | |
1433 | |
1434 @code{rassq} is like @code{assq} except that it compares the @sc{cdr} of | |
1435 each @var{alist} association instead of the @sc{car}. You can think of | |
1436 this as ``reverse @code{assq}'', finding the key for a given value. | |
1437 | |
1438 For example: | |
1439 | |
1440 @smallexample | |
1441 (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1442 | |
1443 (rassq 'acorns trees) | |
1444 @result{} (oak . acorns) | |
1445 (rassq 'spores trees) | |
1446 @result{} nil | |
1447 @end smallexample | |
1448 | |
1449 Note that @code{rassq} cannot search for a value stored in the @sc{car} | |
1450 of the @sc{cdr} of an element: | |
1451 | |
1452 @smallexample | |
1453 (setq colors '((rose red) (lily white) (buttercup yellow))) | |
1454 | |
1455 (rassq 'white colors) | |
1456 @result{} nil | |
1457 @end smallexample | |
1458 | |
1459 In this case, the @sc{cdr} of the association @code{(lily white)} is not | |
1460 the symbol @code{white}, but rather the list @code{(white)}. This | |
1461 becomes clearer if the association is written in dotted pair notation: | |
1462 | |
1463 @smallexample | |
1464 (lily white) @equiv{} (lily . (white)) | |
1465 @end smallexample | |
1466 @end defun | |
1467 | |
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1468 @tindex assoc-default |
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1469 @defun assoc-default key alist test default |
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1470 This function searches @var{alist} for a match for @var{key}. For each |
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1471 element of @var{alist}, it compares the element (if it is an atom) or |
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1472 the element's @sc{car} (if it is a cons) against @var{key}, by calling |
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1473 @var{test} with two arguments: the element or its @sc{car}, and |
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1474 @var{key}. The arguments are passed in that order so that you can get |
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1475 useful results using @code{string-match} with an alist that contains |
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1476 regular expressions (@pxref{Regexp Search}). If @var{test} is omitted |
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1477 or @code{nil}, @code{equal} is used for comparison. |
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1478 |
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1479 If an alist element matches @var{key} by this criterion, |
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1480 then @code{assoc-default} returns a value based on this element. |
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1481 If the element is a cons, then the value is the element's @sc{cdr}. |
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1482 Otherwise, the return value is @var{default}. |
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1483 |
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1484 If no alist element matches @var{key}, @code{assoc-default} returns |
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1485 @code{nil}. |
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1486 @end defun |
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1487 |
6558 | 1488 @defun copy-alist alist |
1489 @cindex copying alists | |
1490 This function returns a two-level deep copy of @var{alist}: it creates a | |
1491 new copy of each association, so that you can alter the associations of | |
1492 the new alist without changing the old one. | |
1493 | |
1494 @smallexample | |
1495 @group | |
1496 (setq needles-per-cluster | |
1497 '((2 . ("Austrian Pine" "Red Pine")) | |
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1498 (3 . ("Pitch Pine")) |
7734 | 1499 @end group |
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1500 (5 . ("White Pine")))) |
6558 | 1501 @result{} |
1502 ((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
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1503 (3 "Pitch Pine") |
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1504 (5 "White Pine")) |
6558 | 1505 |
1506 (setq copy (copy-alist needles-per-cluster)) | |
1507 @result{} | |
1508 ((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
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1509 (3 "Pitch Pine") |
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1510 (5 "White Pine")) |
6558 | 1511 |
1512 (eq needles-per-cluster copy) | |
1513 @result{} nil | |
1514 (equal needles-per-cluster copy) | |
1515 @result{} t | |
1516 (eq (car needles-per-cluster) (car copy)) | |
1517 @result{} nil | |
1518 (cdr (car (cdr needles-per-cluster))) | |
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1519 @result{} ("Pitch Pine") |
7734 | 1520 @group |
6558 | 1521 (eq (cdr (car (cdr needles-per-cluster))) |
1522 (cdr (car (cdr copy)))) | |
1523 @result{} t | |
1524 @end group | |
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1525 @end smallexample |
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1526 |
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1527 This example shows how @code{copy-alist} makes it possible to change |
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1528 the associations of one copy without affecting the other: |
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1529 |
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1530 @smallexample |
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1531 @group |
11137 | 1532 (setcdr (assq 3 copy) '("Martian Vacuum Pine")) |
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1533 (cdr (assq 3 needles-per-cluster)) |
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1534 @result{} ("Pitch Pine") |
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1535 @end group |
6558 | 1536 @end smallexample |
1537 @end defun | |
1538 | |
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1539 @defun assoc-delete-all key alist |
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1540 @tindex assoc-delete-all |
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1541 This function deletes from @var{alist} all the elements whose @sc{car} |
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1542 is @var{key}. It returns the modified alist. |
6558 | 1543 |
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1544 @example |
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1545 (assoc-delete-all 'foo |
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1546 '((foo 1) (bar 2) (foo 3) (lose 4))) |
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1547 @result{} ((bar 2) (lose 4)) |
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1548 @end example |
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1549 @end defun |