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annotate lispref/objects.texi @ 25905:1394eb90cc8d
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author | Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org> |
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date | Thu, 07 Oct 1999 14:39:16 +0000 |
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6447 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6447 | 4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
5 @setfilename ../info/objects | |
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6 @node Lisp Data Types, Numbers, Introduction, Top |
6447 | 7 @chapter Lisp Data Types |
8 @cindex object | |
9 @cindex Lisp object | |
10 @cindex type | |
11 @cindex data type | |
12 | |
13 A Lisp @dfn{object} is a piece of data used and manipulated by Lisp | |
14 programs. For our purposes, a @dfn{type} or @dfn{data type} is a set of | |
15 possible objects. | |
16 | |
17 Every object belongs to at least one type. Objects of the same type | |
18 have similar structures and may usually be used in the same contexts. | |
19 Types can overlap, and objects can belong to two or more types. | |
20 Consequently, we can ask whether an object belongs to a particular type, | |
21 but not for ``the'' type of an object. | |
22 | |
23 @cindex primitive type | |
24 A few fundamental object types are built into Emacs. These, from | |
25 which all other types are constructed, are called @dfn{primitive | |
26 types}. Each object belongs to one and only one primitive type. These | |
27 types include @dfn{integer}, @dfn{float}, @dfn{cons}, @dfn{symbol}, | |
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28 @dfn{string}, @dfn{vector}, @dfn{subr}, and @dfn{byte-code function}, plus |
6447 | 29 several special types, such as @dfn{buffer}, that are related to |
30 editing. (@xref{Editing Types}.) | |
31 | |
32 Each primitive type has a corresponding Lisp function that checks | |
33 whether an object is a member of that type. | |
34 | |
35 Note that Lisp is unlike many other languages in that Lisp objects are | |
36 @dfn{self-typing}: the primitive type of the object is implicit in the | |
37 object itself. For example, if an object is a vector, nothing can treat | |
38 it as a number; Lisp knows it is a vector, not a number. | |
39 | |
40 In most languages, the programmer must declare the data type of each | |
41 variable, and the type is known by the compiler but not represented in | |
42 the data. Such type declarations do not exist in Emacs Lisp. A Lisp | |
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43 variable can have any type of value, and it remembers whatever value |
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44 you store in it, type and all. |
6447 | 45 |
46 This chapter describes the purpose, printed representation, and read | |
47 syntax of each of the standard types in GNU Emacs Lisp. Details on how | |
48 to use these types can be found in later chapters. | |
49 | |
50 @menu | |
51 * Printed Representation:: How Lisp objects are represented as text. | |
52 * Comments:: Comments and their formatting conventions. | |
53 * Programming Types:: Types found in all Lisp systems. | |
54 * Editing Types:: Types specific to Emacs. | |
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55 * Circular Objects:: Read syntax for circular structure. |
6447 | 56 * Type Predicates:: Tests related to types. |
57 * Equality Predicates:: Tests of equality between any two objects. | |
58 @end menu | |
59 | |
60 @node Printed Representation | |
61 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
62 @section Printed Representation and Read Syntax | |
63 @cindex printed representation | |
64 @cindex read syntax | |
65 | |
66 The @dfn{printed representation} of an object is the format of the | |
67 output generated by the Lisp printer (the function @code{prin1}) for | |
68 that object. The @dfn{read syntax} of an object is the format of the | |
69 input accepted by the Lisp reader (the function @code{read}) for that | |
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70 object. @xref{Read and Print}. |
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71 |
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72 Most objects have more than one possible read syntax. Some types of |
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73 object have no read syntax, since it may not make sense to enter objects |
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74 of these types directly in a Lisp program. Except for these cases, the |
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75 printed representation of an object is also a read syntax for it. |
6447 | 76 |
77 In other languages, an expression is text; it has no other form. In | |
78 Lisp, an expression is primarily a Lisp object and only secondarily the | |
79 text that is the object's read syntax. Often there is no need to | |
80 emphasize this distinction, but you must keep it in the back of your | |
81 mind, or you will occasionally be very confused. | |
82 | |
83 @cindex hash notation | |
84 Every type has a printed representation. Some types have no read | |
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85 syntax---for example, the buffer type has none. Objects of these types |
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86 are printed in @dfn{hash notation}: the characters @samp{#<} followed by |
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87 a descriptive string (typically the type name followed by the name of |
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88 the object), and closed with a matching @samp{>}. Hash notation cannot |
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89 be read at all, so the Lisp reader signals the error |
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90 @code{invalid-read-syntax} whenever it encounters @samp{#<}. |
6447 | 91 @kindex invalid-read-syntax |
92 | |
93 @example | |
94 (current-buffer) | |
95 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> | |
96 @end example | |
97 | |
98 When you evaluate an expression interactively, the Lisp interpreter | |
99 first reads the textual representation of it, producing a Lisp object, | |
100 and then evaluates that object (@pxref{Evaluation}). However, | |
101 evaluation and reading are separate activities. Reading returns the | |
102 Lisp object represented by the text that is read; the object may or may | |
103 not be evaluated later. @xref{Input Functions}, for a description of | |
104 @code{read}, the basic function for reading objects. | |
105 | |
106 @node Comments | |
107 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
108 @section Comments | |
109 @cindex comments | |
110 @cindex @samp{;} in comment | |
111 | |
112 A @dfn{comment} is text that is written in a program only for the sake | |
113 of humans that read the program, and that has no effect on the meaning | |
114 of the program. In Lisp, a semicolon (@samp{;}) starts a comment if it | |
115 is not within a string or character constant. The comment continues to | |
116 the end of line. The Lisp reader discards comments; they do not become | |
117 part of the Lisp objects which represent the program within the Lisp | |
118 system. | |
119 | |
12098 | 120 The @samp{#@@@var{count}} construct, which skips the next @var{count} |
121 characters, is useful for program-generated comments containing binary | |
122 data. The Emacs Lisp byte compiler uses this in its output files | |
123 (@pxref{Byte Compilation}). It isn't meant for source files, however. | |
124 | |
6447 | 125 @xref{Comment Tips}, for conventions for formatting comments. |
126 | |
127 @node Programming Types | |
128 @section Programming Types | |
129 @cindex programming types | |
130 | |
131 There are two general categories of types in Emacs Lisp: those having | |
132 to do with Lisp programming, and those having to do with editing. The | |
133 former exist in many Lisp implementations, in one form or another. The | |
134 latter are unique to Emacs Lisp. | |
135 | |
136 @menu | |
137 * Integer Type:: Numbers without fractional parts. | |
138 * Floating Point Type:: Numbers with fractional parts and with a large range. | |
139 * Character Type:: The representation of letters, numbers and | |
140 control characters. | |
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141 * Symbol Type:: A multi-use object that refers to a function, |
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142 variable, or property list, and has a unique identity. |
6447 | 143 * Sequence Type:: Both lists and arrays are classified as sequences. |
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144 * Cons Cell Type:: Cons cells, and lists (which are made from cons cells). |
6447 | 145 * Array Type:: Arrays include strings and vectors. |
146 * String Type:: An (efficient) array of characters. | |
147 * Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays. | |
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148 * Char-Table Type:: One-dimensional sparse arrays indexed by characters. |
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149 * Bool-Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays of @code{t} or @code{nil}. |
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150 * Hash Table Type:: Super-fast lookup tables. |
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151 * Function Type:: A piece of executable code you can call from elsewhere. |
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152 * Macro Type:: A method of expanding an expression into another |
6447 | 153 expression, more fundamental but less pretty. |
154 * Primitive Function Type:: A function written in C, callable from Lisp. | |
155 * Byte-Code Type:: A function written in Lisp, then compiled. | |
156 * Autoload Type:: A type used for automatically loading seldom-used | |
157 functions. | |
158 @end menu | |
159 | |
160 @node Integer Type | |
161 @subsection Integer Type | |
162 | |
10559 | 163 The range of values for integers in Emacs Lisp is @minus{}134217728 to |
164 134217727 (28 bits; i.e., | |
6447 | 165 @ifinfo |
10559 | 166 -2**27 |
6447 | 167 @end ifinfo |
168 @tex | |
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169 @math{-2^{27}} |
6447 | 170 @end tex |
171 to | |
172 @ifinfo | |
10559 | 173 2**27 - 1) |
6447 | 174 @end ifinfo |
175 @tex | |
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176 @math{2^{28}-1}) |
6447 | 177 @end tex |
10559 | 178 on most machines. (Some machines may provide a wider range.) It is |
179 important to note that the Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions do not check | |
180 for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 134217727)} is @minus{}134217728 on most | |
181 machines. | |
6447 | 182 |
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183 The read syntax for integers is a sequence of (base ten) digits with an |
6447 | 184 optional sign at the beginning and an optional period at the end. The |
185 printed representation produced by the Lisp interpreter never has a | |
186 leading @samp{+} or a final @samp{.}. | |
187 | |
188 @example | |
189 @group | |
190 -1 ; @r{The integer -1.} | |
191 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
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192 1. ; @r{Also the integer 1.} |
6447 | 193 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} |
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194 268435457 ; @r{Also the integer 1 on a 28-bit implementation.} |
6447 | 195 @end group |
196 @end example | |
197 | |
198 @xref{Numbers}, for more information. | |
199 | |
200 @node Floating Point Type | |
201 @subsection Floating Point Type | |
202 | |
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203 Emacs supports floating point numbers (though there is a compilation |
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204 option to disable them). The precise range of floating point numbers is |
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205 machine-specific. |
6447 | 206 |
207 The printed representation for floating point numbers requires either | |
208 a decimal point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or | |
209 both. For example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, | |
210 @samp{1.5e3}, and @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point | |
211 number whose value is 1500. They are all equivalent. | |
212 | |
213 @xref{Numbers}, for more information. | |
214 | |
215 @node Character Type | |
216 @subsection Character Type | |
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217 @cindex @sc{ascii} character codes |
6447 | 218 |
219 A @dfn{character} in Emacs Lisp is nothing more than an integer. In | |
220 other words, characters are represented by their character codes. For | |
221 example, the character @kbd{A} is represented as the @w{integer 65}. | |
222 | |
223 Individual characters are not often used in programs. It is far more | |
224 common to work with @emph{strings}, which are sequences composed of | |
225 characters. @xref{String Type}. | |
226 | |
227 Characters in strings, buffers, and files are currently limited to the | |
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228 range of 0 to 524287---nineteen bits. But not all values in that range |
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229 are valid character codes. Codes 0 through 127 are ASCII codes; the |
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230 rest are non-ASCII (@pxref{Non-ASCII Characters}). Characters that represent |
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231 keyboard input have a much wider range, to encode modifier keys such as |
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232 Control, Meta and Shift. |
6447 | 233 |
234 @cindex read syntax for characters | |
235 @cindex printed representation for characters | |
236 @cindex syntax for characters | |
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237 @cindex @samp{?} in character constant |
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238 @cindex question mark in character constant |
6447 | 239 Since characters are really integers, the printed representation of a |
240 character is a decimal number. This is also a possible read syntax for | |
241 a character, but writing characters that way in Lisp programs is a very | |
242 bad idea. You should @emph{always} use the special read syntax formats | |
243 that Emacs Lisp provides for characters. These syntax formats start | |
244 with a question mark. | |
245 | |
246 The usual read syntax for alphanumeric characters is a question mark | |
247 followed by the character; thus, @samp{?A} for the character | |
248 @kbd{A}, @samp{?B} for the character @kbd{B}, and @samp{?a} for the | |
249 character @kbd{a}. | |
250 | |
251 For example: | |
252 | |
253 @example | |
254 ?Q @result{} 81 ?q @result{} 113 | |
255 @end example | |
256 | |
257 You can use the same syntax for punctuation characters, but it is | |
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258 often a good idea to add a @samp{\} so that the Emacs commands for |
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259 editing Lisp code don't get confused. For example, @samp{?\ } is the |
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260 way to write the space character. If the character is @samp{\}, you |
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261 @emph{must} use a second @samp{\} to quote it: @samp{?\\}. |
6447 | 262 |
263 @cindex whitespace | |
264 @cindex bell character | |
265 @cindex @samp{\a} | |
266 @cindex backspace | |
267 @cindex @samp{\b} | |
268 @cindex tab | |
269 @cindex @samp{\t} | |
270 @cindex vertical tab | |
271 @cindex @samp{\v} | |
272 @cindex formfeed | |
273 @cindex @samp{\f} | |
274 @cindex newline | |
275 @cindex @samp{\n} | |
276 @cindex return | |
277 @cindex @samp{\r} | |
278 @cindex escape | |
279 @cindex @samp{\e} | |
280 You can express the characters Control-g, backspace, tab, newline, | |
281 vertical tab, formfeed, return, and escape as @samp{?\a}, @samp{?\b}, | |
282 @samp{?\t}, @samp{?\n}, @samp{?\v}, @samp{?\f}, @samp{?\r}, @samp{?\e}, | |
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283 respectively. Thus, |
6447 | 284 |
285 @example | |
286 ?\a @result{} 7 ; @r{@kbd{C-g}} | |
287 ?\b @result{} 8 ; @r{backspace, @key{BS}, @kbd{C-h}} | |
288 ?\t @result{} 9 ; @r{tab, @key{TAB}, @kbd{C-i}} | |
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289 ?\n @result{} 10 ; @r{newline, @kbd{C-j}} |
6447 | 290 ?\v @result{} 11 ; @r{vertical tab, @kbd{C-k}} |
291 ?\f @result{} 12 ; @r{formfeed character, @kbd{C-l}} | |
292 ?\r @result{} 13 ; @r{carriage return, @key{RET}, @kbd{C-m}} | |
293 ?\e @result{} 27 ; @r{escape character, @key{ESC}, @kbd{C-[}} | |
294 ?\\ @result{} 92 ; @r{backslash character, @kbd{\}} | |
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295 ?\d @result{} 127 ; @r{delete character, @key{DEL}} |
6447 | 296 @end example |
297 | |
298 @cindex escape sequence | |
299 These sequences which start with backslash are also known as | |
300 @dfn{escape sequences}, because backslash plays the role of an escape | |
301 character; this usage has nothing to do with the character @key{ESC}. | |
302 | |
303 @cindex control characters | |
304 Control characters may be represented using yet another read syntax. | |
305 This consists of a question mark followed by a backslash, caret, and the | |
306 corresponding non-control character, in either upper or lower case. For | |
307 example, both @samp{?\^I} and @samp{?\^i} are valid read syntax for the | |
308 character @kbd{C-i}, the character whose value is 9. | |
309 | |
310 Instead of the @samp{^}, you can use @samp{C-}; thus, @samp{?\C-i} is | |
311 equivalent to @samp{?\^I} and to @samp{?\^i}: | |
312 | |
313 @example | |
314 ?\^I @result{} 9 ?\C-I @result{} 9 | |
315 @end example | |
316 | |
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317 In strings and buffers, the only control characters allowed are those |
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318 that exist in @sc{ascii}; but for keyboard input purposes, you can turn |
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319 any character into a control character with @samp{C-}. The character |
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320 codes for these non-@sc{ascii} control characters include the |
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321 @tex |
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322 @math{2^{26}} |
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323 @end tex |
12098 | 324 @ifinfo |
325 2**26 | |
326 @end ifinfo | |
327 bit as well as the code for the corresponding non-control | |
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328 character. Ordinary terminals have no way of generating non-@sc{ascii} |
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329 control characters, but you can generate them straightforwardly using X |
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330 and other window systems. |
6447 | 331 |
12098 | 332 For historical reasons, Emacs treats the @key{DEL} character as |
333 the control equivalent of @kbd{?}: | |
6447 | 334 |
335 @example | |
336 ?\^? @result{} 127 ?\C-? @result{} 127 | |
337 @end example | |
338 | |
12098 | 339 @noindent |
340 As a result, it is currently not possible to represent the character | |
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341 @kbd{Control-?}, which is a meaningful input character under X, using |
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342 @samp{\C-}. It is not easy to change this, as various Lisp files refer |
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343 to @key{DEL} in this way. |
12098 | 344 |
6447 | 345 For representing control characters to be found in files or strings, |
346 we recommend the @samp{^} syntax; for control characters in keyboard | |
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347 input, we prefer the @samp{C-} syntax. Which one you use does not |
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348 affect the meaning of the program, but may guide the understanding of |
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349 people who read it. |
6447 | 350 |
351 @cindex meta characters | |
352 A @dfn{meta character} is a character typed with the @key{META} | |
353 modifier key. The integer that represents such a character has the | |
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354 @tex |
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355 @math{2^{27}} |
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356 @end tex |
12098 | 357 @ifinfo |
358 2**27 | |
359 @end ifinfo | |
360 bit set (which on most machines makes it a negative number). We | |
6447 | 361 use high bits for this and other modifiers to make possible a wide range |
362 of basic character codes. | |
363 | |
12098 | 364 In a string, the |
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365 @tex |
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366 @math{2^{7}} |
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367 @end tex |
12098 | 368 @ifinfo |
369 2**7 | |
370 @end ifinfo | |
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371 bit attached to an ASCII character indicates a meta character; thus, the |
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372 meta characters that can fit in a string have codes in the range from |
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373 128 to 255, and are the meta versions of the ordinary @sc{ascii} |
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374 characters. (In Emacs versions 18 and older, this convention was used |
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375 for characters outside of strings as well.) |
6447 | 376 |
377 The read syntax for meta characters uses @samp{\M-}. For example, | |
378 @samp{?\M-A} stands for @kbd{M-A}. You can use @samp{\M-} together with | |
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379 octal character codes (see below), with @samp{\C-}, or with any other |
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380 syntax for a character. Thus, you can write @kbd{M-A} as @samp{?\M-A}, |
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381 or as @samp{?\M-\101}. Likewise, you can write @kbd{C-M-b} as |
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382 @samp{?\M-\C-b}, @samp{?\C-\M-b}, or @samp{?\M-\002}. |
6447 | 383 |
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384 The case of a graphic character is indicated by its character code; |
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385 for example, @sc{ascii} distinguishes between the characters @samp{a} |
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386 and @samp{A}. But @sc{ascii} has no way to represent whether a control |
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387 character is upper case or lower case. Emacs uses the |
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388 @tex |
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389 @math{2^{25}} |
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390 @end tex |
12098 | 391 @ifinfo |
392 2**25 | |
393 @end ifinfo | |
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394 bit to indicate that the shift key was used in typing a control |
12098 | 395 character. This distinction is possible only when you use X terminals |
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396 or other special terminals; ordinary terminals do not report the |
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397 distinction to the computer in any way. The Lisp syntax for |
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398 the shift bit is @samp{\S-}; thus, @samp{?\C-\S-o} or @samp{?\C-\S-O} |
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399 represents the shifted-control-o character. |
6447 | 400 |
401 @cindex hyper characters | |
402 @cindex super characters | |
403 @cindex alt characters | |
404 The X Window System defines three other modifier bits that can be set | |
405 in a character: @dfn{hyper}, @dfn{super} and @dfn{alt}. The syntaxes | |
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406 for these bits are @samp{\H-}, @samp{\s-} and @samp{\A-}. (Case is |
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407 significant in these prefixes.) Thus, @samp{?\H-\M-\A-x} represents |
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408 @kbd{Alt-Hyper-Meta-x}. |
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409 @tex |
12098 | 410 Numerically, the |
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411 bit values are @math{2^{22}} for alt, @math{2^{23}} for super and @math{2^{24}} for hyper. |
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412 @end tex |
12098 | 413 @ifinfo |
414 Numerically, the | |
415 bit values are 2**22 for alt, 2**23 for super and 2**24 for hyper. | |
416 @end ifinfo | |
6447 | 417 |
418 @cindex @samp{\} in character constant | |
419 @cindex backslash in character constant | |
420 @cindex octal character code | |
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421 Finally, the most general read syntax for a character represents the |
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422 character code in either octal or hex. To use octal, write a question |
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423 mark followed by a backslash and the octal character code (up to three |
6447 | 424 octal digits); thus, @samp{?\101} for the character @kbd{A}, |
425 @samp{?\001} for the character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\002} for the | |
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426 character @kbd{C-b}. Although this syntax can represent any @sc{ascii} |
6447 | 427 character, it is preferred only when the precise octal value is more |
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428 important than the @sc{ascii} representation. |
6447 | 429 |
430 @example | |
431 @group | |
432 ?\012 @result{} 10 ?\n @result{} 10 ?\C-j @result{} 10 | |
433 ?\101 @result{} 65 ?A @result{} 65 | |
434 @end group | |
435 @end example | |
436 | |
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437 To use hex, write a question mark followed by a backslash, @samp{x}, |
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438 and the hexadecimal character code. You can use any number of hex |
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439 digits, so you can represent any character code in this way. |
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440 Thus, @samp{?\x41} for the character @kbd{A}, @samp{?\x1} for the |
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441 character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\x8e0} for the character |
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442 @iftex |
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443 @samp{@`a}. |
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444 @end iftex |
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445 @ifinfo |
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446 @samp{a} with grave accent. |
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447 @end ifinfo |
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448 |
6447 | 449 A backslash is allowed, and harmless, preceding any character without |
450 a special escape meaning; thus, @samp{?\+} is equivalent to @samp{?+}. | |
451 There is no reason to add a backslash before most characters. However, | |
452 you should add a backslash before any of the characters | |
453 @samp{()\|;'`"#.,} to avoid confusing the Emacs commands for editing | |
454 Lisp code. Also add a backslash before whitespace characters such as | |
455 space, tab, newline and formfeed. However, it is cleaner to use one of | |
456 the easily readable escape sequences, such as @samp{\t}, instead of an | |
457 actual whitespace character such as a tab. | |
458 | |
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459 @node Symbol Type |
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460 @subsection Symbol Type |
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461 |
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462 A @dfn{symbol} in GNU Emacs Lisp is an object with a name. The symbol |
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463 name serves as the printed representation of the symbol. In ordinary |
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464 use, the name is unique---no two symbols have the same name. |
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465 |
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466 A symbol can serve as a variable, as a function name, or to hold a |
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467 property list. Or it may serve only to be distinct from all other Lisp |
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468 objects, so that its presence in a data structure may be recognized |
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469 reliably. In a given context, usually only one of these uses is |
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470 intended. But you can use one symbol in all of these ways, |
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471 independently. |
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472 |
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473 @cindex @samp{\} in symbols |
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474 @cindex backslash in symbols |
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475 A symbol name can contain any characters whatever. Most symbol names |
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476 are written with letters, digits, and the punctuation characters |
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477 @samp{-+=*/}. Such names require no special punctuation; the characters |
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478 of the name suffice as long as the name does not look like a number. |
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479 (If it does, write a @samp{\} at the beginning of the name to force |
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480 interpretation as a symbol.) The characters @samp{_~!@@$%^&:<>@{@}} are |
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481 less often used but also require no special punctuation. Any other |
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482 characters may be included in a symbol's name by escaping them with a |
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483 backslash. In contrast to its use in strings, however, a backslash in |
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484 the name of a symbol simply quotes the single character that follows the |
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485 backslash. For example, in a string, @samp{\t} represents a tab |
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486 character; in the name of a symbol, however, @samp{\t} merely quotes the |
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487 letter @samp{t}. To have a symbol with a tab character in its name, you |
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488 must actually use a tab (preceded with a backslash). But it's rare to |
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489 do such a thing. |
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490 |
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491 @cindex CL note---case of letters |
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492 @quotation |
7734 | 493 @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, lower case letters are always |
12098 | 494 ``folded'' to upper case, unless they are explicitly escaped. In Emacs |
495 Lisp, upper case and lower case letters are distinct. | |
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496 @end quotation |
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497 |
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498 Here are several examples of symbol names. Note that the @samp{+} in |
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499 the fifth example is escaped to prevent it from being read as a number. |
12098 | 500 This is not necessary in the sixth example because the rest of the name |
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501 makes it invalid as a number. |
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502 |
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503 @example |
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504 @group |
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505 foo ; @r{A symbol named @samp{foo}.} |
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506 FOO ; @r{A symbol named @samp{FOO}, different from @samp{foo}.} |
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507 char-to-string ; @r{A symbol named @samp{char-to-string}.} |
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508 @end group |
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509 @group |
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510 1+ ; @r{A symbol named @samp{1+}} |
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511 ; @r{(not @samp{+1}, which is an integer).} |
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512 @end group |
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513 @group |
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514 \+1 ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+1}} |
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515 ; @r{(not a very readable name).} |
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516 @end group |
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517 @group |
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518 \(*\ 1\ 2\) ; @r{A symbol named @samp{(* 1 2)} (a worse name).} |
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519 @c the @'s in this next line use up three characters, hence the |
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520 @c apparent misalignment of the comment. |
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521 +-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@} ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@}}.} |
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522 ; @r{These characters need not be escaped.} |
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523 @end group |
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524 @end example |
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525 |
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526 @cindex @samp{#:} read syntax |
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527 Normally the Lisp reader interns all symbols (@pxref{Creating |
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528 Symbols}). To prevent interning, you can write @samp{#:} before the |
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529 name of the symbol. |
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530 |
6447 | 531 @node Sequence Type |
532 @subsection Sequence Types | |
533 | |
534 A @dfn{sequence} is a Lisp object that represents an ordered set of | |
535 elements. There are two kinds of sequence in Emacs Lisp, lists and | |
536 arrays. Thus, an object of type list or of type array is also | |
537 considered a sequence. | |
538 | |
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539 Arrays are further subdivided into strings, vectors, char-tables and |
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540 bool-vectors. Vectors can hold elements of any type, but string |
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541 elements must be characters, and bool-vector elements must be @code{t} |
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542 or @code{nil}. The characters in a string can have text properties like |
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543 characters in a buffer (@pxref{Text Properties}); vectors and |
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544 bool-vectors do not support text properties even when their elements |
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545 happen to be characters. Char-tables are like vectors except that they |
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546 are indexed by any valid character code. |
6447 | 547 |
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548 Lists, strings and the other array types are different, but they have |
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549 important similarities. For example, all have a length @var{l}, and all |
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550 have elements which can be indexed from zero to @var{l} minus one. |
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551 Several functions, called sequence functions, accept any kind of |
6447 | 552 sequence. For example, the function @code{elt} can be used to extract |
553 an element of a sequence, given its index. @xref{Sequences Arrays | |
554 Vectors}. | |
555 | |
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556 It is generally impossible to read the same sequence twice, since |
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557 sequences are always created anew upon reading. If you read the read |
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558 syntax for a sequence twice, you get two sequences with equal contents. |
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559 There is one exception: the empty list @code{()} always stands for the |
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560 same object, @code{nil}. |
6447 | 561 |
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562 @node Cons Cell Type |
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563 @subsection Cons Cell and List Types |
6447 | 564 @cindex address field of register |
565 @cindex decrement field of register | |
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566 @cindex pointers |
6447 | 567 |
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568 A @dfn{cons cell} is an object that consists of two slots, called the |
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569 @sc{car} slot and the @sc{cdr} slot. Each slot can @dfn{hold} or |
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570 @dfn{refer to} any Lisp object. We also say that ``the @sc{car} of |
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571 this cons cell is'' whatever object its @sc{car} slot currently holds, |
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572 and likewise for the @sc{cdr}. |
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573 |
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574 @quotation |
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575 A note to C programmers: in Lisp, we do not distinguish between |
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576 ``holding'' a value and ``pointing to'' the value, because pointers in |
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577 Lisp are implicit. |
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578 @end quotation |
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579 |
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580 A @dfn{list} is a series of cons cells, linked together so that the |
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581 @sc{cdr} slot of each cons cell holds either the next cons cell or the |
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582 empty list. @xref{Lists}, for functions that work on lists. Because |
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583 most cons cells are used as part of lists, the phrase @dfn{list |
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584 structure} has come to refer to any structure made out of cons cells. |
6447 | 585 |
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586 The names @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} derive from the history of Lisp. The |
6447 | 587 original Lisp implementation ran on an @w{IBM 704} computer which |
588 divided words into two parts, called the ``address'' part and the | |
589 ``decrement''; @sc{car} was an instruction to extract the contents of | |
590 the address part of a register, and @sc{cdr} an instruction to extract | |
591 the contents of the decrement. By contrast, ``cons cells'' are named | |
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592 for the function @code{cons} that creates them, which in turn was named |
6447 | 593 for its purpose, the construction of cells. |
594 | |
595 @cindex atom | |
596 Because cons cells are so central to Lisp, we also have a word for | |
597 ``an object which is not a cons cell''. These objects are called | |
598 @dfn{atoms}. | |
599 | |
600 @cindex parenthesis | |
601 The read syntax and printed representation for lists are identical, and | |
602 consist of a left parenthesis, an arbitrary number of elements, and a | |
603 right parenthesis. | |
604 | |
605 Upon reading, each object inside the parentheses becomes an element | |
606 of the list. That is, a cons cell is made for each element. The | |
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607 @sc{car} slot of the cons cell holds the element, and its @sc{cdr} |
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608 slot refers to the next cons cell of the list, which holds the next |
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609 element in the list. The @sc{cdr} slot of the last cons cell is set to |
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610 hold @code{nil}. |
6447 | 611 |
612 @cindex box diagrams, for lists | |
613 @cindex diagrams, boxed, for lists | |
614 A list can be illustrated by a diagram in which the cons cells are | |
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615 shown as pairs of boxes, like dominoes. (The Lisp reader cannot read |
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616 such an illustration; unlike the textual notation, which can be |
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617 understood by both humans and computers, the box illustrations can be |
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618 understood only by humans.) This picture represents the three-element |
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619 list @code{(rose violet buttercup)}: |
6447 | 620 |
621 @example | |
622 @group | |
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623 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
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624 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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625 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 626 | | | |
627 | | | | |
628 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup | |
629 @end group | |
630 @end example | |
631 | |
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632 In this diagram, each box represents a slot that can hold or refer to |
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633 any Lisp object. Each pair of boxes represents a cons cell. Each arrow |
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634 represents a reference to a Lisp object, either an atom or another cons |
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635 cell. |
6447 | 636 |
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637 In this example, the first box, which holds the @sc{car} of the first |
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638 cons cell, refers to or ``holds'' @code{rose} (a symbol). The second |
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639 box, holding the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell, refers to the next |
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640 pair of boxes, the second cons cell. The @sc{car} of the second cons |
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641 cell is @code{violet}, and its @sc{cdr} is the third cons cell. The |
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642 @sc{cdr} of the third (and last) cons cell is @code{nil}. |
6447 | 643 |
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644 Here is another diagram of the same list, @code{(rose violet |
6447 | 645 buttercup)}, sketched in a different manner: |
646 | |
647 @smallexample | |
648 @group | |
649 --------------- ---------------- ------------------- | |
650 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
651 | rose | o-------->| violet | o-------->| buttercup | nil | | |
652 | | | | | | | | | | |
653 --------------- ---------------- ------------------- | |
654 @end group | |
655 @end smallexample | |
656 | |
657 @cindex @samp{(@dots{})} in lists | |
658 @cindex @code{nil} in lists | |
659 @cindex empty list | |
660 A list with no elements in it is the @dfn{empty list}; it is identical | |
661 to the symbol @code{nil}. In other words, @code{nil} is both a symbol | |
662 and a list. | |
663 | |
664 Here are examples of lists written in Lisp syntax: | |
665 | |
666 @example | |
667 (A 2 "A") ; @r{A list of three elements.} | |
668 () ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} | |
669 nil ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} | |
670 ("A ()") ; @r{A list of one element: the string @code{"A ()"}.} | |
671 (A ()) ; @r{A list of two elements: @code{A} and the empty list.} | |
672 (A nil) ; @r{Equivalent to the previous.} | |
673 ((A B C)) ; @r{A list of one element} | |
674 ; @r{(which is a list of three elements).} | |
675 @end example | |
676 | |
677 Here is the list @code{(A ())}, or equivalently @code{(A nil)}, | |
678 depicted with boxes and arrows: | |
679 | |
680 @example | |
681 @group | |
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682 --- --- --- --- |
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683 | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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684 --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 685 | | |
686 | | | |
687 --> A --> nil | |
688 @end group | |
689 @end example | |
690 | |
691 @menu | |
692 * Dotted Pair Notation:: An alternative syntax for lists. | |
693 * Association List Type:: A specially constructed list. | |
694 @end menu | |
695 | |
696 @node Dotted Pair Notation | |
697 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
698 @subsubsection Dotted Pair Notation | |
699 @cindex dotted pair notation | |
700 @cindex @samp{.} in lists | |
701 | |
702 @dfn{Dotted pair notation} is an alternative syntax for cons cells | |
703 that represents the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} explicitly. In this syntax, | |
704 @code{(@var{a} .@: @var{b})} stands for a cons cell whose @sc{car} is | |
705 the object @var{a}, and whose @sc{cdr} is the object @var{b}. Dotted | |
706 pair notation is therefore more general than list syntax. In the dotted | |
707 pair notation, the list @samp{(1 2 3)} is written as @samp{(1 . (2 . (3 | |
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708 . nil)))}. For @code{nil}-terminated lists, you can use either |
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709 notation, but list notation is usually clearer and more convenient. |
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710 When printing a list, the dotted pair notation is only used if the |
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711 @sc{cdr} of a cons cell is not a list. |
6447 | 712 |
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713 Here's an example using boxes to illustrate dotted pair notation. |
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714 This example shows the pair @code{(rose . violet)}: |
6447 | 715 |
716 @example | |
717 @group | |
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718 --- --- |
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719 | | |--> violet |
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720 --- --- |
6447 | 721 | |
722 | | |
723 --> rose | |
724 @end group | |
725 @end example | |
726 | |
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727 You can combine dotted pair notation with list notation to represent |
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728 conveniently a chain of cons cells with a non-@code{nil} final @sc{cdr}. |
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729 You write a dot after the last element of the list, followed by the |
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730 @sc{cdr} of the final cons cell. For example, @code{(rose violet |
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731 . buttercup)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . buttercup))}. |
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732 The object looks like this: |
6447 | 733 |
734 @example | |
735 @group | |
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736 --- --- --- --- |
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737 | | |--> | | |--> buttercup |
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738 --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 739 | | |
740 | | | |
741 --> rose --> violet | |
742 @end group | |
743 @end example | |
744 | |
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745 The syntax @code{(rose .@: violet .@: buttercup)} is invalid because |
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746 there is nothing that it could mean. If anything, it would say to put |
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747 @code{buttercup} in the @sc{cdr} of a cons cell whose @sc{cdr} is already |
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748 used for @code{violet}. |
6447 | 749 |
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750 The list @code{(rose violet)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet))}, |
6447 | 751 and looks like this: |
752 | |
753 @example | |
754 @group | |
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755 --- --- --- --- |
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756 | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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757 --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 758 | | |
759 | | | |
760 --> rose --> violet | |
761 @end group | |
762 @end example | |
763 | |
764 Similarly, the three-element list @code{(rose violet buttercup)} | |
765 is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . (buttercup)))}. | |
766 @ifinfo | |
767 It looks like this: | |
768 | |
769 @example | |
770 @group | |
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771 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
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772 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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773 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 774 | | | |
775 | | | | |
776 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup | |
777 @end group | |
778 @end example | |
779 @end ifinfo | |
780 | |
781 @node Association List Type | |
782 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
783 @subsubsection Association List Type | |
784 | |
785 An @dfn{association list} or @dfn{alist} is a specially-constructed | |
786 list whose elements are cons cells. In each element, the @sc{car} is | |
787 considered a @dfn{key}, and the @sc{cdr} is considered an | |
788 @dfn{associated value}. (In some cases, the associated value is stored | |
789 in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr}.) Association lists are often used as | |
790 stacks, since it is easy to add or remove associations at the front of | |
791 the list. | |
792 | |
793 For example, | |
794 | |
795 @example | |
796 (setq alist-of-colors | |
797 '((rose . red) (lily . white) (buttercup . yellow))) | |
798 @end example | |
799 | |
800 @noindent | |
801 sets the variable @code{alist-of-colors} to an alist of three elements. In the | |
802 first element, @code{rose} is the key and @code{red} is the value. | |
803 | |
804 @xref{Association Lists}, for a further explanation of alists and for | |
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805 functions that work on alists. @xref{Hash Tables}, for another kind of |
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806 lookup table, which is much faster for handling a large number of keys. |
6447 | 807 |
808 @node Array Type | |
809 @subsection Array Type | |
810 | |
811 An @dfn{array} is composed of an arbitrary number of slots for | |
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812 holding or referring to other Lisp objects, arranged in a contiguous block of |
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813 memory. Accessing any element of an array takes approximately the same |
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814 amount of time. In contrast, accessing an element of a list requires |
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815 time proportional to the position of the element in the list. (Elements |
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816 at the end of a list take longer to access than elements at the |
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817 beginning of a list.) |
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818 |
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819 Emacs defines four types of array: strings, vectors, bool-vectors, and |
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820 char-tables. |
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821 |
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822 A string is an array of characters and a vector is an array of |
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823 arbitrary objects. A bool-vector can hold only @code{t} or @code{nil}. |
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824 These kinds of array may have any length up to the largest integer. |
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825 Char-tables are sparse arrays indexed by any valid character code; they |
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826 can hold arbitrary objects. |
6447 | 827 |
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828 The first element of an array has index zero, the second element has |
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829 index 1, and so on. This is called @dfn{zero-origin} indexing. For |
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830 example, an array of four elements has indices 0, 1, 2, @w{and 3}. The |
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831 largest possible index value is one less than the length of the array. |
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832 Once an array is created, its length is fixed. |
6447 | 833 |
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834 All Emacs Lisp arrays are one-dimensional. (Most other programming |
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835 languages support multidimensional arrays, but they are not essential; |
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836 you can get the same effect with an array of arrays.) Each type of |
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837 array has its own read syntax; see the following sections for details. |
6447 | 838 |
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839 The array type is contained in the sequence type and |
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840 contains the string type, the vector type, the bool-vector type, and the |
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841 char-table type. |
6447 | 842 |
843 @node String Type | |
844 @subsection String Type | |
845 | |
846 A @dfn{string} is an array of characters. Strings are used for many | |
847 purposes in Emacs, as can be expected in a text editor; for example, as | |
848 the names of Lisp symbols, as messages for the user, and to represent | |
849 text extracted from buffers. Strings in Lisp are constants: evaluation | |
850 of a string returns the same string. | |
851 | |
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852 @xref{Strings and Characters}, for functions that operate on strings. |
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853 |
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854 @menu |
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855 * Syntax for Strings:: |
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856 * Non-ASCII in Strings:: |
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857 * Nonprinting Characters:: |
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858 * Text Props and Strings:: |
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859 @end menu |
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860 |
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861 @node Syntax for Strings |
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862 @subsubsection Syntax for Strings |
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863 |
6447 | 864 @cindex @samp{"} in strings |
865 @cindex double-quote in strings | |
866 @cindex @samp{\} in strings | |
867 @cindex backslash in strings | |
868 The read syntax for strings is a double-quote, an arbitrary number of | |
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869 characters, and another double-quote, @code{"like this"}. To include a |
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870 double-quote in a string, precede it with a backslash; thus, @code{"\""} |
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871 is a string containing just a single double-quote character. Likewise, |
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872 you can include a backslash by preceding it with another backslash, like |
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873 this: @code{"this \\ is a single embedded backslash"}. |
6447 | 874 |
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875 @cindex newline in strings |
7118
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876 The newline character is not special in the read syntax for strings; |
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877 if you write a new line between the double-quotes, it becomes a |
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878 character in the string. But an escaped newline---one that is preceded |
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879 by @samp{\}---does not become part of the string; i.e., the Lisp reader |
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880 ignores an escaped newline while reading a string. An escaped space |
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881 @w{@samp{\ }} is likewise ignored. |
6447 | 882 |
883 @example | |
884 "It is useful to include newlines | |
885 in documentation strings, | |
886 but the newline is \ | |
887 ignored if escaped." | |
888 @result{} "It is useful to include newlines | |
889 in documentation strings, | |
890 but the newline is ignored if escaped." | |
891 @end example | |
892 | |
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893 @node Non-ASCII in Strings |
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894 @subsubsection Non-ASCII Characters in Strings |
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895 |
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896 You can include a non-@sc{ascii} international character in a string |
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897 constant by writing it literally. There are two text representations |
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898 for non-@sc{ascii} characters in Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte |
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899 and multibyte. If the string constant is read from a multibyte source, |
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900 such as a multibyte buffer or string, or a file that would be visited as |
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901 multibyte, then the character is read as a multibyte character, and that |
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902 makes the string multibyte. If the string constant is read from a |
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903 unibyte source, then the character is read as unibyte and that makes the |
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904 string unibyte. |
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905 |
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906 You can also represent a multibyte non-@sc{ASCII} character with its |
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907 character code: use a hex escape, @samp{\x@var{nnnnnnn}}, with as many |
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908 digits as necessary. (Multibyte non-@sc{ASCII} character codes are all |
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909 greater than 256.) Any character which is not a valid hex digit |
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910 terminates this construct. If the next character in the string could be |
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911 interpreted as a hex digit, write @w{@samp{\ }} (backslash and space) to |
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912 terminate the hex escape---for example, @w{@samp{\x8e0\ }} represents |
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913 one character, @samp{a} with grave accent. @w{@samp{\ }} in a string |
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914 constant is just like backslash-newline; it does not contribute any |
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915 character to the string, but it does terminate the preceding hex escape. |
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916 |
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917 Using a multibyte hex escape forces the string to multibyte. You can |
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918 represent a unibyte non-@sc{ascii} character with its character code, |
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919 which must be in the range from 128 (0200 octal) to 255 (0377 octal). |
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920 This forces a unibyte string. |
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921 |
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922 @xref{Text Representations}, for more information about the two |
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923 text representations. |
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924 |
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925 @node Nonprinting Characters |
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926 @subsubsection Nonprinting Characters in Strings |
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927 |
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928 You can use the same backslash escape-sequences in a string constant |
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929 as in character literals (but do not use the question mark that begins a |
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930 character constant). For example, you can write a string containing the |
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931 nonprinting characters tab and @kbd{C-a}, with commas and spaces between |
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932 them, like this: @code{"\t, \C-a"}. @xref{Character Type}, for a |
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933 description of the read syntax for characters. |
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934 |
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935 However, not all of the characters you can write with backslash |
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936 escape-sequences are valid in strings. The only control characters that |
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937 a string can hold are the @sc{ascii} control characters. Strings do not |
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938 distinguish case in @sc{ascii} control characters. |
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939 |
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940 Properly speaking, strings cannot hold meta characters; but when a |
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941 string is to be used as a key sequence, there is a special convention |
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942 that provides a way to represent meta versions of @sc{ascii} characters in a |
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943 string. If you use the @samp{\M-} syntax to indicate a meta character |
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944 in a string constant, this sets the |
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945 @tex |
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946 @math{2^{7}} |
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947 @end tex |
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948 @ifinfo |
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949 2**7 |
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950 @end ifinfo |
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951 bit of the character in the string. If the string is used in |
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952 @code{define-key} or @code{lookup-key}, this numeric code is translated |
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953 into the equivalent meta character. @xref{Character Type}. |
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954 |
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955 Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super, or alt |
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956 modifiers. |
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957 |
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958 @node Text Props and Strings |
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959 @subsubsection Text Properties in Strings |
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960 |
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961 A string can hold properties for the characters it contains, in |
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962 addition to the characters themselves. This enables programs that copy |
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963 text between strings and buffers to copy the text's properties with no |
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964 special effort. @xref{Text Properties}, for an explanation of what text |
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965 properties mean. Strings with text properties use a special read and |
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966 print syntax: |
6447 | 967 |
968 @example | |
969 #("@var{characters}" @var{property-data}...) | |
970 @end example | |
971 | |
972 @noindent | |
973 where @var{property-data} consists of zero or more elements, in groups | |
974 of three as follows: | |
975 | |
976 @example | |
977 @var{beg} @var{end} @var{plist} | |
978 @end example | |
979 | |
980 @noindent | |
981 The elements @var{beg} and @var{end} are integers, and together specify | |
982 a range of indices in the string; @var{plist} is the property list for | |
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983 that range. For example, |
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984 |
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985 @example |
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986 #("foo bar" 0 3 (face bold) 3 4 nil 4 7 (face italic)) |
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987 @end example |
6447 | 988 |
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989 @noindent |
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990 represents a string whose textual contents are @samp{foo bar}, in which |
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991 the first three characters have a @code{face} property with value |
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992 @code{bold}, and the last three have a @code{face} property with value |
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993 @code{italic}. (The fourth character has no text properties, so its |
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994 property list is @code{nil}. It is not actually necessary to mention |
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995 ranges with @code{nil} as the property list, since any characters not |
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996 mentioned in any range will default to having no properties.) |
6447 | 997 |
998 @node Vector Type | |
999 @subsection Vector Type | |
1000 | |
1001 A @dfn{vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type. It | |
1002 takes a constant amount of time to access any element of a vector. (In | |
1003 a list, the access time of an element is proportional to the distance of | |
1004 the element from the beginning of the list.) | |
1005 | |
1006 The printed representation of a vector consists of a left square | |
1007 bracket, the elements, and a right square bracket. This is also the | |
1008 read syntax. Like numbers and strings, vectors are considered constants | |
1009 for evaluation. | |
1010 | |
1011 @example | |
1012 [1 "two" (three)] ; @r{A vector of three elements.} | |
1013 @result{} [1 "two" (three)] | |
1014 @end example | |
1015 | |
1016 @xref{Vectors}, for functions that work with vectors. | |
1017 | |
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1018 @node Char-Table Type |
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1019 @subsection Char-Table Type |
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1020 |
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1021 A @dfn{char-table} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type, |
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1022 indexed by character codes. Char-tables have certain extra features to |
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1023 make them more useful for many jobs that involve assigning information |
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1024 to character codes---for example, a char-table can have a parent to |
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1025 inherit from, a default value, and a small number of extra slots to use for |
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1026 special purposes. A char-table can also specify a single value for |
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1027 a whole character set. |
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1028 |
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1029 The printed representation of a char-table is like a vector |
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1030 except that there is an extra @samp{#^} at the beginning. |
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1031 |
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1032 @xref{Char-Tables}, for special functions to operate on char-tables. |
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1033 Uses of char-tables include: |
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1034 |
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1035 @itemize @bullet |
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1036 @item |
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1037 Case tables (@pxref{Case Tables}). |
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1038 |
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1039 @item |
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1040 Character category tables (@pxref{Categories}). |
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1041 |
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1042 @item |
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1043 Display Tables (@pxref{Display Tables}). |
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1044 |
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1045 @item |
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1046 Syntax tables (@pxref{Syntax Tables}). |
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1047 @end itemize |
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1048 |
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1049 @node Bool-Vector Type |
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1050 @subsection Bool-Vector Type |
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1051 |
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1052 A @dfn{bool-vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements that |
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1053 must be @code{t} or @code{nil}. |
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1054 |
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1055 The printed representation of a bool-vector is like a string, except |
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1056 that it begins with @samp{#&} followed by the length. The string |
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1057 constant that follows actually specifies the contents of the bool-vector |
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1058 as a bitmap---each ``character'' in the string contains 8 bits, which |
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1059 specify the next 8 elements of the bool-vector (1 stands for @code{t}, |
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1060 and 0 for @code{nil}). The least significant bits of the character |
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1061 correspond to the lowest indices in the bool-vector. If the length is not a |
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1062 multiple of 8, the printed representation shows extra elements, but |
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1063 these extras really make no difference. |
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1064 |
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1065 @example |
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1066 (make-bool-vector 3 t) |
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1067 @result{} #&3"\007" |
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1068 (make-bool-vector 3 nil) |
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1069 @result{} #&3"\0" |
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1070 ;; @r{These are equal since only the first 3 bits are used.} |
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1071 (equal #&3"\377" #&3"\007") |
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1072 @result{} t |
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1073 @end example |
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1074 |
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1075 @node Hash Table Type |
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1076 @subsection Hash Table Type |
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1077 |
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1078 A hash table is a very fast kind of lookup table, somewhat like an |
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1079 alist in that it maps keys to corresponding values, but much faster. |
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1080 Hash tables are a new feature in Emacs 21; they have no read syntax, and |
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1081 print using hash notation. @xref{Hash Tables}. |
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1082 |
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1083 @example |
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1084 (make-hash-table) |
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1085 @result{} #<hash-table 'eql nil 0/65 0x83af980> |
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1086 @end example |
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1087 |
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1088 @node Function Type |
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1089 @subsection Function Type |
6447 | 1090 |
1091 Just as functions in other programming languages are executable, | |
1092 @dfn{Lisp function} objects are pieces of executable code. However, | |
1093 functions in Lisp are primarily Lisp objects, and only secondarily the | |
1094 text which represents them. These Lisp objects are lambda expressions: | |
1095 lists whose first element is the symbol @code{lambda} (@pxref{Lambda | |
1096 Expressions}). | |
1097 | |
1098 In most programming languages, it is impossible to have a function | |
1099 without a name. In Lisp, a function has no intrinsic name. A lambda | |
1100 expression is also called an @dfn{anonymous function} (@pxref{Anonymous | |
1101 Functions}). A named function in Lisp is actually a symbol with a valid | |
1102 function in its function cell (@pxref{Defining Functions}). | |
1103 | |
1104 Most of the time, functions are called when their names are written in | |
1105 Lisp expressions in Lisp programs. However, you can construct or obtain | |
1106 a function object at run time and then call it with the primitive | |
1107 functions @code{funcall} and @code{apply}. @xref{Calling Functions}. | |
1108 | |
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1109 @node Macro Type |
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1110 @subsection Macro Type |
6447 | 1111 |
1112 A @dfn{Lisp macro} is a user-defined construct that extends the Lisp | |
1113 language. It is represented as an object much like a function, but with | |
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1114 different argument-passing semantics. A Lisp macro has the form of a |
6447 | 1115 list whose first element is the symbol @code{macro} and whose @sc{cdr} |
1116 is a Lisp function object, including the @code{lambda} symbol. | |
1117 | |
1118 Lisp macro objects are usually defined with the built-in | |
1119 @code{defmacro} function, but any list that begins with @code{macro} is | |
1120 a macro as far as Emacs is concerned. @xref{Macros}, for an explanation | |
1121 of how to write a macro. | |
1122 | |
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1123 @strong{Warning}: Lisp macros and keyboard macros (@pxref{Keyboard |
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1124 Macros}) are entirely different things. When we use the word ``macro'' |
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1125 without qualification, we mean a Lisp macro, not a keyboard macro. |
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1126 |
6447 | 1127 @node Primitive Function Type |
1128 @subsection Primitive Function Type | |
1129 @cindex special forms | |
1130 | |
1131 A @dfn{primitive function} is a function callable from Lisp but | |
1132 written in the C programming language. Primitive functions are also | |
1133 called @dfn{subrs} or @dfn{built-in functions}. (The word ``subr'' is | |
1134 derived from ``subroutine''.) Most primitive functions evaluate all | |
1135 their arguments when they are called. A primitive function that does | |
1136 not evaluate all its arguments is called a @dfn{special form} | |
1137 (@pxref{Special Forms}).@refill | |
1138 | |
1139 It does not matter to the caller of a function whether the function is | |
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1140 primitive. However, this does matter if you try to redefine a primitive |
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1141 with a function written in Lisp. The reason is that the primitive |
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1142 function may be called directly from C code. Calls to the redefined |
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1143 function from Lisp will use the new definition, but calls from C code |
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1144 may still use the built-in definition. Therefore, @strong{we discourage |
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1145 redefinition of primitive functions}. |
6447 | 1146 |
1147 The term @dfn{function} refers to all Emacs functions, whether written | |
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1148 in Lisp or C. @xref{Function Type}, for information about the |
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1149 functions written in Lisp. |
6447 | 1150 |
1151 Primitive functions have no read syntax and print in hash notation | |
1152 with the name of the subroutine. | |
1153 | |
1154 @example | |
1155 @group | |
1156 (symbol-function 'car) ; @r{Access the function cell} | |
1157 ; @r{of the symbol.} | |
1158 @result{} #<subr car> | |
1159 (subrp (symbol-function 'car)) ; @r{Is this a primitive function?} | |
1160 @result{} t ; @r{Yes.} | |
1161 @end group | |
1162 @end example | |
1163 | |
1164 @node Byte-Code Type | |
1165 @subsection Byte-Code Function Type | |
1166 | |
1167 The byte compiler produces @dfn{byte-code function objects}. | |
1168 Internally, a byte-code function object is much like a vector; however, | |
1169 the evaluator handles this data type specially when it appears as a | |
1170 function to be called. @xref{Byte Compilation}, for information about | |
1171 the byte compiler. | |
1172 | |
12098 | 1173 The printed representation and read syntax for a byte-code function |
1174 object is like that for a vector, with an additional @samp{#} before the | |
1175 opening @samp{[}. | |
6447 | 1176 |
1177 @node Autoload Type | |
1178 @subsection Autoload Type | |
1179 | |
1180 An @dfn{autoload object} is a list whose first element is the symbol | |
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1181 @code{autoload}. It is stored as the function definition of a symbol, |
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1182 where it serves as a placeholder for the real definition. The autoload |
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1183 object says that the real definition is found in a file of Lisp code |
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1184 that should be loaded when necessary. It contains the name of the file, |
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1185 plus some other information about the real definition. |
6447 | 1186 |
1187 After the file has been loaded, the symbol should have a new function | |
1188 definition that is not an autoload object. The new definition is then | |
1189 called as if it had been there to begin with. From the user's point of | |
1190 view, the function call works as expected, using the function definition | |
1191 in the loaded file. | |
1192 | |
1193 An autoload object is usually created with the function | |
1194 @code{autoload}, which stores the object in the function cell of a | |
1195 symbol. @xref{Autoload}, for more details. | |
1196 | |
1197 @node Editing Types | |
1198 @section Editing Types | |
1199 @cindex editing types | |
1200 | |
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1201 The types in the previous section are used for general programming |
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1202 purposes, and most of them are common to most Lisp dialects. Emacs Lisp |
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1203 provides several additional data types for purposes connected with |
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1204 editing. |
6447 | 1205 |
1206 @menu | |
1207 * Buffer Type:: The basic object of editing. | |
1208 * Marker Type:: A position in a buffer. | |
1209 * Window Type:: Buffers are displayed in windows. | |
1210 * Frame Type:: Windows subdivide frames. | |
1211 * Window Configuration Type:: Recording the way a frame is subdivided. | |
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1212 * Frame Configuration Type:: Recording the status of all frames. |
6447 | 1213 * Process Type:: A process running on the underlying OS. |
1214 * Stream Type:: Receive or send characters. | |
1215 * Keymap Type:: What function a keystroke invokes. | |
1216 * Overlay Type:: How an overlay is represented. | |
1217 @end menu | |
1218 | |
1219 @node Buffer Type | |
1220 @subsection Buffer Type | |
1221 | |
1222 A @dfn{buffer} is an object that holds text that can be edited | |
1223 (@pxref{Buffers}). Most buffers hold the contents of a disk file | |
1224 (@pxref{Files}) so they can be edited, but some are used for other | |
1225 purposes. Most buffers are also meant to be seen by the user, and | |
1226 therefore displayed, at some time, in a window (@pxref{Windows}). But a | |
1227 buffer need not be displayed in any window. | |
1228 | |
1229 The contents of a buffer are much like a string, but buffers are not | |
1230 used like strings in Emacs Lisp, and the available operations are | |
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1231 different. For example, you can insert text efficiently into an |
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1232 existing buffer, altering the buffer's contents, whereas ``inserting'' |
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1233 text into a string requires concatenating substrings, and the result is |
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1234 an entirely new string object. |
6447 | 1235 |
1236 Each buffer has a designated position called @dfn{point} | |
1237 (@pxref{Positions}). At any time, one buffer is the @dfn{current | |
1238 buffer}. Most editing commands act on the contents of the current | |
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1239 buffer in the neighborhood of point. Many of the standard Emacs |
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1240 functions manipulate or test the characters in the current buffer; a |
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1241 whole chapter in this manual is devoted to describing these functions |
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1242 (@pxref{Text}). |
6447 | 1243 |
1244 Several other data structures are associated with each buffer: | |
1245 | |
1246 @itemize @bullet | |
1247 @item | |
1248 a local syntax table (@pxref{Syntax Tables}); | |
1249 | |
1250 @item | |
1251 a local keymap (@pxref{Keymaps}); and, | |
1252 | |
1253 @item | |
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1254 a list of buffer-local variable bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local Variables}). |
12098 | 1255 |
1256 @item | |
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1257 overlays (@pxref{Overlays}). |
12098 | 1258 |
1259 @item | |
1260 text properties for the text in the buffer (@pxref{Text Properties}). | |
6447 | 1261 @end itemize |
1262 | |
1263 @noindent | |
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1264 The local keymap and variable list contain entries that individually |
6447 | 1265 override global bindings or values. These are used to customize the |
1266 behavior of programs in different buffers, without actually changing the | |
1267 programs. | |
1268 | |
12098 | 1269 A buffer may be @dfn{indirect}, which means it shares the text |
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1270 of another buffer, but presents it differently. @xref{Indirect Buffers}. |
12098 | 1271 |
1272 Buffers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, showing the | |
6447 | 1273 buffer name. |
1274 | |
1275 @example | |
1276 @group | |
1277 (current-buffer) | |
1278 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> | |
1279 @end group | |
1280 @end example | |
1281 | |
1282 @node Marker Type | |
1283 @subsection Marker Type | |
1284 | |
1285 A @dfn{marker} denotes a position in a specific buffer. Markers | |
1286 therefore have two components: one for the buffer, and one for the | |
1287 position. Changes in the buffer's text automatically relocate the | |
1288 position value as necessary to ensure that the marker always points | |
1289 between the same two characters in the buffer. | |
1290 | |
1291 Markers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1292 current character position and the name of the buffer. | |
1293 | |
1294 @example | |
1295 @group | |
1296 (point-marker) | |
1297 @result{} #<marker at 10779 in objects.texi> | |
1298 @end group | |
1299 @end example | |
1300 | |
1301 @xref{Markers}, for information on how to test, create, copy, and move | |
1302 markers. | |
1303 | |
1304 @node Window Type | |
1305 @subsection Window Type | |
1306 | |
1307 A @dfn{window} describes the portion of the terminal screen that Emacs | |
1308 uses to display a buffer. Every window has one associated buffer, whose | |
1309 contents appear in the window. By contrast, a given buffer may appear | |
1310 in one window, no window, or several windows. | |
1311 | |
1312 Though many windows may exist simultaneously, at any time one window | |
1313 is designated the @dfn{selected window}. This is the window where the | |
1314 cursor is (usually) displayed when Emacs is ready for a command. The | |
1315 selected window usually displays the current buffer, but this is not | |
1316 necessarily the case. | |
1317 | |
1318 Windows are grouped on the screen into frames; each window belongs to | |
1319 one and only one frame. @xref{Frame Type}. | |
1320 | |
1321 Windows have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1322 window number and the name of the buffer being displayed. The window | |
1323 numbers exist to identify windows uniquely, since the buffer displayed | |
1324 in any given window can change frequently. | |
1325 | |
1326 @example | |
1327 @group | |
1328 (selected-window) | |
1329 @result{} #<window 1 on objects.texi> | |
1330 @end group | |
1331 @end example | |
1332 | |
1333 @xref{Windows}, for a description of the functions that work on windows. | |
1334 | |
1335 @node Frame Type | |
1336 @subsection Frame Type | |
1337 | |
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1338 A @dfn{frame} is a rectangle on the screen that contains one or more |
6447 | 1339 Emacs windows. A frame initially contains a single main window (plus |
1340 perhaps a minibuffer window) which you can subdivide vertically or | |
1341 horizontally into smaller windows. | |
1342 | |
1343 Frames have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1344 frame's title, plus its address in core (useful to identify the frame | |
1345 uniquely). | |
1346 | |
1347 @example | |
1348 @group | |
1349 (selected-frame) | |
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1350 @result{} #<frame emacs@@psilocin.gnu.org 0xdac80> |
6447 | 1351 @end group |
1352 @end example | |
1353 | |
1354 @xref{Frames}, for a description of the functions that work on frames. | |
1355 | |
1356 @node Window Configuration Type | |
1357 @subsection Window Configuration Type | |
1358 @cindex screen layout | |
1359 | |
1360 A @dfn{window configuration} stores information about the positions, | |
1361 sizes, and contents of the windows in a frame, so you can recreate the | |
1362 same arrangement of windows later. | |
1363 | |
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1364 Window configurations do not have a read syntax; their print syntax |
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1365 looks like @samp{#<window-configuration>}. @xref{Window |
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1366 Configurations}, for a description of several functions related to |
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1367 window configurations. |
6447 | 1368 |
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1369 @node Frame Configuration Type |
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1370 @subsection Frame Configuration Type |
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1371 @cindex screen layout |
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1372 |
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1373 A @dfn{frame configuration} stores information about the positions, |
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1374 sizes, and contents of the windows in all frames. It is actually |
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1375 a list whose @sc{car} is @code{frame-configuration} and whose |
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1376 @sc{cdr} is an alist. Each alist element describes one frame, |
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1377 which appears as the @sc{car} of that element. |
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1378 |
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1379 @xref{Frame Configurations}, for a description of several functions |
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1380 related to frame configurations. |
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1381 |
6447 | 1382 @node Process Type |
1383 @subsection Process Type | |
1384 | |
1385 The word @dfn{process} usually means a running program. Emacs itself | |
1386 runs in a process of this sort. However, in Emacs Lisp, a process is a | |
1387 Lisp object that designates a subprocess created by the Emacs process. | |
1388 Programs such as shells, GDB, ftp, and compilers, running in | |
1389 subprocesses of Emacs, extend the capabilities of Emacs. | |
1390 | |
1391 An Emacs subprocess takes textual input from Emacs and returns textual | |
1392 output to Emacs for further manipulation. Emacs can also send signals | |
1393 to the subprocess. | |
1394 | |
1395 Process objects have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, | |
1396 giving the name of the process: | |
1397 | |
1398 @example | |
1399 @group | |
1400 (process-list) | |
1401 @result{} (#<process shell>) | |
1402 @end group | |
1403 @end example | |
1404 | |
1405 @xref{Processes}, for information about functions that create, delete, | |
1406 return information about, send input or signals to, and receive output | |
1407 from processes. | |
1408 | |
1409 @node Stream Type | |
1410 @subsection Stream Type | |
1411 | |
1412 A @dfn{stream} is an object that can be used as a source or sink for | |
1413 characters---either to supply characters for input or to accept them as | |
1414 output. Many different types can be used this way: markers, buffers, | |
1415 strings, and functions. Most often, input streams (character sources) | |
1416 obtain characters from the keyboard, a buffer, or a file, and output | |
1417 streams (character sinks) send characters to a buffer, such as a | |
1418 @file{*Help*} buffer, or to the echo area. | |
1419 | |
1420 The object @code{nil}, in addition to its other meanings, may be used | |
1421 as a stream. It stands for the value of the variable | |
1422 @code{standard-input} or @code{standard-output}. Also, the object | |
1423 @code{t} as a stream specifies input using the minibuffer | |
1424 (@pxref{Minibuffers}) or output in the echo area (@pxref{The Echo | |
1425 Area}). | |
1426 | |
1427 Streams have no special printed representation or read syntax, and | |
1428 print as whatever primitive type they are. | |
1429 | |
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1430 @xref{Read and Print}, for a description of functions |
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1431 related to streams, including parsing and printing functions. |
6447 | 1432 |
1433 @node Keymap Type | |
1434 @subsection Keymap Type | |
1435 | |
1436 A @dfn{keymap} maps keys typed by the user to commands. This mapping | |
1437 controls how the user's command input is executed. A keymap is actually | |
1438 a list whose @sc{car} is the symbol @code{keymap}. | |
1439 | |
1440 @xref{Keymaps}, for information about creating keymaps, handling prefix | |
1441 keys, local as well as global keymaps, and changing key bindings. | |
1442 | |
1443 @node Overlay Type | |
1444 @subsection Overlay Type | |
1445 | |
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1446 An @dfn{overlay} specifies properties that apply to a part of a |
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1447 buffer. Each overlay applies to a specified range of the buffer, and |
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1448 contains a property list (a list whose elements are alternating property |
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1449 names and values). Overlay properties are used to present parts of the |
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1450 buffer temporarily in a different display style. Overlays have no read |
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1451 syntax, and print in hash notation, giving the buffer name and range of |
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1452 positions. |
6447 | 1453 |
12098 | 1454 @xref{Overlays}, for how to create and use overlays. |
6447 | 1455 |
25751
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1456 @node Circular Objects |
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1457 @section Read Syntax for Circular Objects |
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1458 @cindex circular structure, read syntax |
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1459 @cindex shared structure, read syntax |
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1460 @cindex @samp{#@var{n}=} read syntax |
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1461 @cindex @samp{#@var{n}#} read syntax |
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1462 |
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1463 In Emacs 21, to represent shared or circular structure within a |
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1464 complex of Lisp objects, you can use the reader constructs |
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1465 @samp{#@var{n}=} and @samp{#@var{n}#}. |
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1466 |
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1467 Use @code{#@var{n}=} before an object to label it for later reference; |
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1468 subsequently, you can use @code{#@var{n}#} to refer the same object in |
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1469 another place. Here, @var{n} is some integer. For example, here is how |
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1470 to make a list in which the first element recurs as the third element: |
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1471 |
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1472 @example |
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1473 (#1=(a) b #1#) |
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1474 @end example |
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1475 |
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1476 @noindent |
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1477 This differs from ordinary syntax such as this |
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1478 |
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1479 @example |
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1480 ((a) b (a)) |
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1481 @end example |
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1482 |
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1483 @noindent |
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1484 which would result in a list whose first and third elements |
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1485 look alike but are not the same Lisp object. This shows the difference: |
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1486 |
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1487 @example |
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1488 (prog1 nil |
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1489 (setq x '(#1=(a) b #1#))) |
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1490 (eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x)) |
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1491 @result{} t |
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1492 (setq x '((a) b (a))) |
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1493 (eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x)) |
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1494 @result{} nil |
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1495 @end example |
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1496 |
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1497 You can also use the same syntax to make a circular structure, which |
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1498 appears as an ``element'' within itself. Here is an example: |
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1499 |
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1500 @example |
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1501 #1=(a #1#) |
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1502 @end example |
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1503 |
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1504 @noindent |
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1505 This makes a list whose second element is the list itself. |
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1506 Here's how you can see that it really works: |
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1507 |
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1508 @example |
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1509 (prog1 nil |
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1510 (setq x '#1=(a #1#))) |
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1511 (eq x (cadr x)) |
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1512 @result{} t |
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1513 @end example |
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1514 |
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1515 The Lisp printer can produce this syntax to record circular and shared |
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1516 structure in a Lisp object, if you bind the variable @code{print-circle} |
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1517 to a non-@code{nil} value. @xref{Output Variables}. |
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1518 |
6447 | 1519 @node Type Predicates |
1520 @section Type Predicates | |
1521 @cindex predicates | |
1522 @cindex type checking | |
1523 @kindex wrong-type-argument | |
1524 | |
1525 The Emacs Lisp interpreter itself does not perform type checking on | |
1526 the actual arguments passed to functions when they are called. It could | |
1527 not do so, since function arguments in Lisp do not have declared data | |
1528 types, as they do in other programming languages. It is therefore up to | |
1529 the individual function to test whether each actual argument belongs to | |
1530 a type that the function can use. | |
1531 | |
1532 All built-in functions do check the types of their actual arguments | |
1533 when appropriate, and signal a @code{wrong-type-argument} error if an | |
1534 argument is of the wrong type. For example, here is what happens if you | |
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1535 pass an argument to @code{+} that it cannot handle: |
6447 | 1536 |
1537 @example | |
1538 @group | |
1539 (+ 2 'a) | |
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1540 @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, a |
6447 | 1541 @end group |
1542 @end example | |
1543 | |
1544 @cindex type predicates | |
1545 @cindex testing types | |
12067 | 1546 If you want your program to handle different types differently, you |
1547 must do explicit type checking. The most common way to check the type | |
1548 of an object is to call a @dfn{type predicate} function. Emacs has a | |
1549 type predicate for each type, as well as some predicates for | |
1550 combinations of types. | |
1551 | |
1552 A type predicate function takes one argument; it returns @code{t} if | |
1553 the argument belongs to the appropriate type, and @code{nil} otherwise. | |
1554 Following a general Lisp convention for predicate functions, most type | |
1555 predicates' names end with @samp{p}. | |
1556 | |
1557 Here is an example which uses the predicates @code{listp} to check for | |
1558 a list and @code{symbolp} to check for a symbol. | |
6447 | 1559 |
12067 | 1560 @example |
1561 (defun add-on (x) | |
1562 (cond ((symbolp x) | |
1563 ;; If X is a symbol, put it on LIST. | |
1564 (setq list (cons x list))) | |
1565 ((listp x) | |
1566 ;; If X is a list, add its elements to LIST. | |
1567 (setq list (append x list))) | |
1568 (t | |
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1569 ;; We handle only symbols and lists. |
12067 | 1570 (error "Invalid argument %s in add-on" x)))) |
1571 @end example | |
1572 | |
1573 Here is a table of predefined type predicates, in alphabetical order, | |
6447 | 1574 with references to further information. |
1575 | |
1576 @table @code | |
1577 @item atom | |
1578 @xref{List-related Predicates, atom}. | |
1579 | |
1580 @item arrayp | |
1581 @xref{Array Functions, arrayp}. | |
1582 | |
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1583 @item bool-vector-p |
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1584 @xref{Bool-Vectors, bool-vector-p}. |
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1585 |
6447 | 1586 @item bufferp |
1587 @xref{Buffer Basics, bufferp}. | |
1588 | |
1589 @item byte-code-function-p | |
1590 @xref{Byte-Code Type, byte-code-function-p}. | |
1591 | |
1592 @item case-table-p | |
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1593 @xref{Case Tables, case-table-p}. |
6447 | 1594 |
1595 @item char-or-string-p | |
1596 @xref{Predicates for Strings, char-or-string-p}. | |
1597 | |
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1598 @item char-table-p |
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1599 @xref{Char-Tables, char-table-p}. |
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1600 |
6447 | 1601 @item commandp |
1602 @xref{Interactive Call, commandp}. | |
1603 | |
1604 @item consp | |
1605 @xref{List-related Predicates, consp}. | |
1606 | |
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1607 @item display-table-p |
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1608 @xref{Display Tables, display-table-p}. |
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1609 |
6447 | 1610 @item floatp |
1611 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, floatp}. | |
1612 | |
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1613 @item frame-configuration-p |
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1614 @xref{Frame Configurations, frame-configuration-p}. |
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1615 |
6447 | 1616 @item frame-live-p |
1617 @xref{Deleting Frames, frame-live-p}. | |
1618 | |
1619 @item framep | |
1620 @xref{Frames, framep}. | |
1621 | |
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1622 @item functionp |
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1623 @xref{Functions, functionp}. |
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1624 |
6447 | 1625 @item integer-or-marker-p |
1626 @xref{Predicates on Markers, integer-or-marker-p}. | |
1627 | |
1628 @item integerp | |
1629 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, integerp}. | |
1630 | |
1631 @item keymapp | |
1632 @xref{Creating Keymaps, keymapp}. | |
1633 | |
1634 @item listp | |
1635 @xref{List-related Predicates, listp}. | |
1636 | |
1637 @item markerp | |
1638 @xref{Predicates on Markers, markerp}. | |
1639 | |
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1640 @item wholenump |
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1641 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, wholenump}. |
6447 | 1642 |
1643 @item nlistp | |
1644 @xref{List-related Predicates, nlistp}. | |
1645 | |
1646 @item numberp | |
1647 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, numberp}. | |
1648 | |
1649 @item number-or-marker-p | |
1650 @xref{Predicates on Markers, number-or-marker-p}. | |
1651 | |
1652 @item overlayp | |
1653 @xref{Overlays, overlayp}. | |
1654 | |
1655 @item processp | |
1656 @xref{Processes, processp}. | |
1657 | |
1658 @item sequencep | |
1659 @xref{Sequence Functions, sequencep}. | |
1660 | |
1661 @item stringp | |
1662 @xref{Predicates for Strings, stringp}. | |
1663 | |
1664 @item subrp | |
1665 @xref{Function Cells, subrp}. | |
1666 | |
1667 @item symbolp | |
1668 @xref{Symbols, symbolp}. | |
1669 | |
1670 @item syntax-table-p | |
1671 @xref{Syntax Tables, syntax-table-p}. | |
1672 | |
1673 @item user-variable-p | |
1674 @xref{Defining Variables, user-variable-p}. | |
1675 | |
1676 @item vectorp | |
1677 @xref{Vectors, vectorp}. | |
1678 | |
1679 @item window-configuration-p | |
1680 @xref{Window Configurations, window-configuration-p}. | |
1681 | |
1682 @item window-live-p | |
1683 @xref{Deleting Windows, window-live-p}. | |
1684 | |
1685 @item windowp | |
1686 @xref{Basic Windows, windowp}. | |
1687 @end table | |
1688 | |
12067 | 1689 The most general way to check the type of an object is to call the |
1690 function @code{type-of}. Recall that each object belongs to one and | |
1691 only one primitive type; @code{type-of} tells you which one (@pxref{Lisp | |
1692 Data Types}). But @code{type-of} knows nothing about non-primitive | |
1693 types. In most cases, it is more convenient to use type predicates than | |
1694 @code{type-of}. | |
1695 | |
1696 @defun type-of object | |
1697 This function returns a symbol naming the primitive type of | |
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1698 @var{object}. The value is one of the symbols @code{symbol}, |
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1699 @code{integer}, @code{float}, @code{string}, @code{cons}, @code{vector}, |
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1700 @code{char-table}, @code{bool-vector}, @code{subr}, |
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1701 @code{compiled-function}, @code{marker}, @code{overlay}, @code{window}, |
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1702 @code{buffer}, @code{frame}, @code{process}, or |
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1703 @code{window-configuration}. |
12067 | 1704 |
1705 @example | |
1706 (type-of 1) | |
1707 @result{} integer | |
1708 (type-of 'nil) | |
1709 @result{} symbol | |
1710 (type-of '()) ; @r{@code{()} is @code{nil}.} | |
1711 @result{} symbol | |
1712 (type-of '(x)) | |
1713 @result{} cons | |
1714 @end example | |
1715 @end defun | |
1716 | |
6447 | 1717 @node Equality Predicates |
1718 @section Equality Predicates | |
1719 @cindex equality | |
1720 | |
1721 Here we describe two functions that test for equality between any two | |
1722 objects. Other functions test equality between objects of specific | |
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1723 types, e.g., strings. For these predicates, see the appropriate chapter |
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1724 describing the data type. |
6447 | 1725 |
1726 @defun eq object1 object2 | |
1727 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are | |
1728 the same object, @code{nil} otherwise. The ``same object'' means that a | |
1729 change in one will be reflected by the same change in the other. | |
1730 | |
1731 @code{eq} returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are | |
1732 integers with the same value. Also, since symbol names are normally | |
1733 unique, if the arguments are symbols with the same name, they are | |
1734 @code{eq}. For other types (e.g., lists, vectors, strings), two | |
1735 arguments with the same contents or elements are not necessarily | |
1736 @code{eq} to each other: they are @code{eq} only if they are the same | |
1737 object. | |
1738 | |
1739 @example | |
1740 @group | |
1741 (eq 'foo 'foo) | |
1742 @result{} t | |
1743 @end group | |
1744 | |
1745 @group | |
1746 (eq 456 456) | |
1747 @result{} t | |
1748 @end group | |
1749 | |
1750 @group | |
1751 (eq "asdf" "asdf") | |
1752 @result{} nil | |
1753 @end group | |
1754 | |
1755 @group | |
1756 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1757 @result{} nil | |
1758 @end group | |
1759 | |
1760 @group | |
1761 (setq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1762 @result{} (1 (2 (3))) | |
1763 (eq foo foo) | |
1764 @result{} t | |
1765 (eq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1766 @result{} nil | |
1767 @end group | |
1768 | |
1769 @group | |
1770 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1771 @result{} nil | |
1772 @end group | |
1773 | |
1774 @group | |
1775 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1776 @result{} nil | |
1777 @end group | |
1778 @end example | |
1779 | |
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1780 The @code{make-symbol} function returns an uninterned symbol, distinct |
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1781 from the symbol that is used if you write the name in a Lisp expression. |
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1782 Distinct symbols with the same name are not @code{eq}. @xref{Creating |
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1783 Symbols}. |
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1784 |
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1785 @example |
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1786 @group |
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1787 (eq (make-symbol "foo") 'foo) |
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1788 @result{} nil |
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1789 @end group |
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1790 @end example |
6447 | 1791 @end defun |
1792 | |
1793 @defun equal object1 object2 | |
1794 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} have | |
1795 equal components, @code{nil} otherwise. Whereas @code{eq} tests if its | |
1796 arguments are the same object, @code{equal} looks inside nonidentical | |
1797 arguments to see if their elements are the same. So, if two objects are | |
1798 @code{eq}, they are @code{equal}, but the converse is not always true. | |
1799 | |
1800 @example | |
1801 @group | |
1802 (equal 'foo 'foo) | |
1803 @result{} t | |
1804 @end group | |
1805 | |
1806 @group | |
1807 (equal 456 456) | |
1808 @result{} t | |
1809 @end group | |
1810 | |
1811 @group | |
1812 (equal "asdf" "asdf") | |
1813 @result{} t | |
1814 @end group | |
1815 @group | |
1816 (eq "asdf" "asdf") | |
1817 @result{} nil | |
1818 @end group | |
1819 | |
1820 @group | |
1821 (equal '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1822 @result{} t | |
1823 @end group | |
1824 @group | |
1825 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1826 @result{} nil | |
1827 @end group | |
1828 | |
1829 @group | |
1830 (equal [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1831 @result{} t | |
1832 @end group | |
1833 @group | |
1834 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1835 @result{} nil | |
1836 @end group | |
1837 | |
1838 @group | |
1839 (equal (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1840 @result{} t | |
1841 @end group | |
1842 | |
1843 @group | |
1844 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1845 @result{} nil | |
1846 @end group | |
1847 @end example | |
1848 | |
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1849 Comparison of strings is case-sensitive, but does not take account of |
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1850 text properties---it compares only the characters in the strings. |
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1851 A unibyte string never equals a multibyte string unless the |
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1852 contents are entirely @sc{ascii} (@pxref{Text Representations}). |
6447 | 1853 |
1854 @example | |
1855 @group | |
1856 (equal "asdf" "ASDF") | |
1857 @result{} nil | |
1858 @end group | |
1859 @end example | |
12098 | 1860 |
1861 Two distinct buffers are never @code{equal}, even if their contents | |
1862 are the same. | |
6447 | 1863 @end defun |
1864 | |
1865 The test for equality is implemented recursively, and circular lists may | |
1866 therefore cause infinite recursion (leading to an error). |