Mercurial > emacs
annotate lispref/numbers.texi @ 21811:180afb14ad52
(main): Fix bug report address.
author | Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org> |
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date | Tue, 28 Apr 1998 21:33:28 +0000 |
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6510 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6510 | 4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
5 @setfilename ../info/numbers | |
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6 @node Numbers, Strings and Characters, Lisp Data Types, Top |
6510 | 7 @chapter Numbers |
8 @cindex integers | |
9 @cindex numbers | |
10 | |
11 GNU Emacs supports two numeric data types: @dfn{integers} and | |
12 @dfn{floating point numbers}. Integers are whole numbers such as | |
13 @minus{}3, 0, 7, 13, and 511. Their values are exact. Floating point | |
14 numbers are numbers with fractional parts, such as @minus{}4.5, 0.0, or | |
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15 2.71828. They can also be expressed in exponential notation: 1.5e2 |
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16 equals 150; in this example, @samp{e2} stands for ten to the second |
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17 power, and that is multiplied by 1.5. Floating point values are not |
6510 | 18 exact; they have a fixed, limited amount of precision. |
19 | |
20 @menu | |
21 * Integer Basics:: Representation and range of integers. | |
22 * Float Basics:: Representation and range of floating point. | |
23 * Predicates on Numbers:: Testing for numbers. | |
24 * Comparison of Numbers:: Equality and inequality predicates. | |
25 * Numeric Conversions:: Converting float to integer and vice versa. | |
26 * Arithmetic Operations:: How to add, subtract, multiply and divide. | |
27 * Rounding Operations:: Explicitly rounding floating point numbers. | |
28 * Bitwise Operations:: Logical and, or, not, shifting. | |
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29 * Math Functions:: Trig, exponential and logarithmic functions. |
6510 | 30 * Random Numbers:: Obtaining random integers, predictable or not. |
31 @end menu | |
32 | |
33 @node Integer Basics | |
34 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
35 @section Integer Basics | |
36 | |
37 The range of values for an integer depends on the machine. The | |
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38 minimum range is @minus{}134217728 to 134217727 (28 bits; i.e., |
6510 | 39 @ifinfo |
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40 -2**27 |
6510 | 41 @end ifinfo |
42 @tex | |
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43 $-2^{27}$ |
6510 | 44 @end tex |
45 to | |
46 @ifinfo | |
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47 2**27 - 1), |
6510 | 48 @end ifinfo |
49 @tex | |
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50 $2^{27}-1$), |
6510 | 51 @end tex |
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52 but some machines may provide a wider range. Many examples in this |
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53 chapter assume an integer has 28 bits. |
6510 | 54 @cindex overflow |
55 | |
56 The Lisp reader reads an integer as a sequence of digits with optional | |
57 initial sign and optional final period. | |
58 | |
59 @example | |
60 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
61 1. ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
62 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} | |
63 -1 ; @r{The integer @minus{}1.} | |
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64 268435457 ; @r{Also the integer 1, due to overflow.} |
6510 | 65 0 ; @r{The integer 0.} |
66 -0 ; @r{The integer 0.} | |
67 @end example | |
68 | |
69 To understand how various functions work on integers, especially the | |
70 bitwise operators (@pxref{Bitwise Operations}), it is often helpful to | |
71 view the numbers in their binary form. | |
72 | |
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73 In 28-bit binary, the decimal integer 5 looks like this: |
6510 | 74 |
75 @example | |
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76 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101 |
6510 | 77 @end example |
78 | |
79 @noindent | |
80 (We have inserted spaces between groups of 4 bits, and two spaces | |
81 between groups of 8 bits, to make the binary integer easier to read.) | |
82 | |
83 The integer @minus{}1 looks like this: | |
84 | |
85 @example | |
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86 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 87 @end example |
88 | |
89 @noindent | |
90 @cindex two's complement | |
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91 @minus{}1 is represented as 28 ones. (This is called @dfn{two's |
6510 | 92 complement} notation.) |
93 | |
94 The negative integer, @minus{}5, is creating by subtracting 4 from | |
95 @minus{}1. In binary, the decimal integer 4 is 100. Consequently, | |
96 @minus{}5 looks like this: | |
97 | |
98 @example | |
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99 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011 |
6510 | 100 @end example |
101 | |
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102 In this implementation, the largest 28-bit binary integer value is |
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103 134,217,727 in decimal. In binary, it looks like this: |
6510 | 104 |
105 @example | |
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106 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 107 @end example |
108 | |
109 Since the arithmetic functions do not check whether integers go | |
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110 outside their range, when you add 1 to 134,217,727, the value is the |
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111 negative integer @minus{}134,217,728: |
6510 | 112 |
113 @example | |
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114 (+ 1 134217727) |
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115 @result{} -134217728 |
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116 @result{} 1000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 |
6510 | 117 @end example |
118 | |
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119 Many of the functions described in this chapter accept markers for |
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120 arguments in place of numbers. (@xref{Markers}.) Since the actual |
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121 arguments to such functions may be either numbers or markers, we often |
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122 give these arguments the name @var{number-or-marker}. When the argument |
6510 | 123 value is a marker, its position value is used and its buffer is ignored. |
124 | |
125 @node Float Basics | |
126 @section Floating Point Basics | |
127 | |
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128 Floating point numbers are useful for representing numbers that are |
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129 not integral. The precise range of floating point numbers is |
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130 machine-specific; it is the same as the range of the C data type |
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131 @code{double} on the machine you are using. |
6510 | 132 |
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133 The read-syntax for floating point numbers requires either a decimal |
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134 point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or both. For |
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135 example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, @samp{1.5e3}, and |
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136 @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point number whose |
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137 value is 1500. They are all equivalent. You can also use a minus sign |
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138 to write negative floating point numbers, as in @samp{-1.0}. |
6510 | 139 |
140 @cindex IEEE floating point | |
141 @cindex positive infinity | |
142 @cindex negative infinity | |
143 @cindex infinity | |
144 @cindex NaN | |
145 Most modern computers support the IEEE floating point standard, which | |
146 provides for positive infinity and negative infinity as floating point | |
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147 values. It also provides for a class of values called NaN or |
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148 ``not-a-number''; numerical functions return such values in cases where |
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149 there is no correct answer. For example, @code{(sqrt -1.0)} returns a |
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150 NaN. For practical purposes, there's no significant difference between |
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151 different NaN values in Emacs Lisp, and there's no rule for precisely |
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152 which NaN value should be used in a particular case, so Emacs Lisp |
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153 doesn't try to distinguish them. Here are the read syntaxes for |
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154 these special floating point values: |
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155 |
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156 @table @asis |
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157 @item positive infinity |
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158 @samp{1.0e+INF} |
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159 @item negative infinity |
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160 @samp{-1.0e+INF} |
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161 @item Not-a-number |
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162 @samp{0.0e+NaN}. |
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163 @end table |
6510 | 164 |
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165 In addition, the value @code{-0.0} is distinguishable from ordinary |
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166 zero in IEEE floating point (although @code{equal} and @code{=} consider |
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167 them equal values). |
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168 |
6510 | 169 You can use @code{logb} to extract the binary exponent of a floating |
170 point number (or estimate the logarithm of an integer): | |
171 | |
172 @defun logb number | |
173 This function returns the binary exponent of @var{number}. More | |
174 precisely, the value is the logarithm of @var{number} base 2, rounded | |
175 down to an integer. | |
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176 |
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177 @example |
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178 (logb 10) |
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179 @result{} 3 |
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180 (logb 10.0e20) |
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181 @result{} 69 |
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182 @end example |
6510 | 183 @end defun |
184 | |
185 @node Predicates on Numbers | |
186 @section Type Predicates for Numbers | |
187 | |
188 The functions in this section test whether the argument is a number or | |
189 whether it is a certain sort of number. The functions @code{integerp} | |
190 and @code{floatp} can take any type of Lisp object as argument (the | |
191 predicates would not be of much use otherwise); but the @code{zerop} | |
192 predicate requires a number as its argument. See also | |
193 @code{integer-or-marker-p} and @code{number-or-marker-p}, in | |
194 @ref{Predicates on Markers}. | |
195 | |
196 @defun floatp object | |
197 This predicate tests whether its argument is a floating point | |
198 number and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
199 | |
200 @code{floatp} does not exist in Emacs versions 18 and earlier. | |
201 @end defun | |
202 | |
203 @defun integerp object | |
204 This predicate tests whether its argument is an integer, and returns | |
205 @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
206 @end defun | |
207 | |
208 @defun numberp object | |
209 This predicate tests whether its argument is a number (either integer or | |
210 floating point), and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
211 @end defun | |
212 | |
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213 @defun wholenump object |
6510 | 214 @cindex natural numbers |
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215 The @code{wholenump} predicate (whose name comes from the phrase |
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216 ``whole-number-p'') tests to see whether its argument is a nonnegative |
6510 | 217 integer, and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. 0 is |
218 considered non-negative. | |
219 | |
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220 @findex natnump |
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221 @code{natnump} is an obsolete synonym for @code{wholenump}. |
6510 | 222 @end defun |
223 | |
224 @defun zerop number | |
225 This predicate tests whether its argument is zero, and returns @code{t} | |
226 if so, @code{nil} otherwise. The argument must be a number. | |
227 | |
228 These two forms are equivalent: @code{(zerop x)} @equiv{} @code{(= x 0)}. | |
229 @end defun | |
230 | |
231 @node Comparison of Numbers | |
232 @section Comparison of Numbers | |
233 @cindex number equality | |
234 | |
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235 To test numbers for numerical equality, you should normally use |
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236 @code{=}, not @code{eq}. There can be many distinct floating point |
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237 number objects with the same numeric value. If you use @code{eq} to |
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238 compare them, then you test whether two values are the same |
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239 @emph{object}. By contrast, @code{=} compares only the numeric values |
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240 of the objects. |
6510 | 241 |
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242 At present, each integer value has a unique Lisp object in Emacs Lisp. |
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243 Therefore, @code{eq} is equivalent to @code{=} where integers are |
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244 concerned. It is sometimes convenient to use @code{eq} for comparing an |
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245 unknown value with an integer, because @code{eq} does not report an |
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246 error if the unknown value is not a number---it accepts arguments of any |
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247 type. By contrast, @code{=} signals an error if the arguments are not |
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248 numbers or markers. However, it is a good idea to use @code{=} if you |
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249 can, even for comparing integers, just in case we change the |
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250 representation of integers in a future Emacs version. |
6510 | 251 |
252 There is another wrinkle: because floating point arithmetic is not | |
253 exact, it is often a bad idea to check for equality of two floating | |
254 point values. Usually it is better to test for approximate equality. | |
255 Here's a function to do this: | |
256 | |
257 @example | |
258 (defvar fuzz-factor 1.0e-6) | |
259 (defun approx-equal (x y) | |
12098 | 260 (or (and (= x 0) (= y 0)) |
261 (< (/ (abs (- x y)) | |
262 (max (abs x) (abs y))) | |
263 fuzz-factor))) | |
6510 | 264 @end example |
265 | |
266 @cindex CL note---integers vrs @code{eq} | |
267 @quotation | |
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268 @b{Common Lisp note:} Comparing numbers in Common Lisp always requires |
6510 | 269 @code{=} because Common Lisp implements multi-word integers, and two |
270 distinct integer objects can have the same numeric value. Emacs Lisp | |
271 can have just one integer object for any given value because it has a | |
272 limited range of integer values. | |
273 @end quotation | |
274 | |
275 @defun = number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
276 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and | |
277 returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
278 @end defun | |
279 | |
280 @defun /= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
281 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and | |
282 returns @code{t} if they are not, and @code{nil} if they are. | |
283 @end defun | |
284 | |
285 @defun < number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
286 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly less than | |
287 its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
288 @end defun | |
289 | |
290 @defun <= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
291 This function tests whether its first argument is less than or equal | |
292 to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
293 otherwise. | |
294 @end defun | |
295 | |
296 @defun > number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
297 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly greater | |
298 than its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
299 otherwise. | |
300 @end defun | |
301 | |
302 @defun >= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
303 This function tests whether its first argument is greater than or | |
304 equal to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
305 otherwise. | |
306 @end defun | |
307 | |
308 @defun max number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers | |
309 This function returns the largest of its arguments. | |
310 | |
311 @example | |
312 (max 20) | |
313 @result{} 20 | |
314 (max 1 2.5) | |
315 @result{} 2.5 | |
316 (max 1 3 2.5) | |
317 @result{} 3 | |
318 @end example | |
319 @end defun | |
320 | |
321 @defun min number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers | |
322 This function returns the smallest of its arguments. | |
323 | |
324 @example | |
325 (min -4 1) | |
326 @result{} -4 | |
327 @end example | |
328 @end defun | |
329 | |
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330 @defun abs number |
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331 This returns the absolute value of @var{number}. |
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332 @end defun |
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333 |
6510 | 334 @node Numeric Conversions |
335 @section Numeric Conversions | |
336 @cindex rounding in conversions | |
337 | |
338 To convert an integer to floating point, use the function @code{float}. | |
339 | |
340 @defun float number | |
341 This returns @var{number} converted to floating point. | |
342 If @var{number} is already a floating point number, @code{float} returns | |
343 it unchanged. | |
344 @end defun | |
345 | |
346 There are four functions to convert floating point numbers to integers; | |
347 they differ in how they round. These functions accept integer arguments | |
348 also, and return such arguments unchanged. | |
349 | |
350 @defun truncate number | |
351 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards | |
352 zero. | |
353 @end defun | |
354 | |
355 @defun floor number &optional divisor | |
356 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding downward | |
357 (towards negative infinity). | |
358 | |
359 If @var{divisor} is specified, @var{number} is divided by @var{divisor} | |
360 before the floor is taken; this is the division operation that | |
361 corresponds to @code{mod}. An @code{arith-error} results if | |
362 @var{divisor} is 0. | |
363 @end defun | |
364 | |
365 @defun ceiling number | |
366 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding upward | |
367 (towards positive infinity). | |
368 @end defun | |
369 | |
370 @defun round number | |
371 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards the | |
12098 | 372 nearest integer. Rounding a value equidistant between two integers |
373 may choose the integer closer to zero, or it may prefer an even integer, | |
374 depending on your machine. | |
6510 | 375 @end defun |
376 | |
377 @node Arithmetic Operations | |
378 @section Arithmetic Operations | |
379 | |
380 Emacs Lisp provides the traditional four arithmetic operations: | |
381 addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Remainder and modulus | |
382 functions supplement the division functions. The functions to | |
383 add or subtract 1 are provided because they are traditional in Lisp and | |
384 commonly used. | |
385 | |
386 All of these functions except @code{%} return a floating point value | |
387 if any argument is floating. | |
388 | |
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389 It is important to note that in Emacs Lisp, arithmetic functions |
12067 | 390 do not check for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 134217727)} may evaluate to |
391 @minus{}134217728, depending on your hardware. | |
6510 | 392 |
393 @defun 1+ number-or-marker | |
394 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} plus 1. | |
395 For example, | |
396 | |
397 @example | |
398 (setq foo 4) | |
399 @result{} 4 | |
400 (1+ foo) | |
401 @result{} 5 | |
402 @end example | |
403 | |
12098 | 404 This function is not analogous to the C operator @code{++}---it does not |
405 increment a variable. It just computes a sum. Thus, if we continue, | |
6510 | 406 |
407 @example | |
408 foo | |
409 @result{} 4 | |
410 @end example | |
411 | |
412 If you want to increment the variable, you must use @code{setq}, | |
413 like this: | |
414 | |
415 @example | |
416 (setq foo (1+ foo)) | |
417 @result{} 5 | |
418 @end example | |
419 @end defun | |
420 | |
421 @defun 1- number-or-marker | |
422 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} minus 1. | |
423 @end defun | |
424 | |
425 @defun + &rest numbers-or-markers | |
426 This function adds its arguments together. When given no arguments, | |
12098 | 427 @code{+} returns 0. |
6510 | 428 |
429 @example | |
430 (+) | |
431 @result{} 0 | |
432 (+ 1) | |
433 @result{} 1 | |
434 (+ 1 2 3 4) | |
435 @result{} 10 | |
436 @end example | |
437 @end defun | |
438 | |
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439 @defun - &optional number-or-marker &rest more-numbers-or-markers |
6510 | 440 The @code{-} function serves two purposes: negation and subtraction. |
441 When @code{-} has a single argument, the value is the negative of the | |
442 argument. When there are multiple arguments, @code{-} subtracts each of | |
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443 the @var{more-numbers-or-markers} from @var{number-or-marker}, |
12098 | 444 cumulatively. If there are no arguments, the result is 0. |
6510 | 445 |
446 @example | |
447 (- 10 1 2 3 4) | |
448 @result{} 0 | |
449 (- 10) | |
450 @result{} -10 | |
451 (-) | |
452 @result{} 0 | |
453 @end example | |
454 @end defun | |
455 | |
456 @defun * &rest numbers-or-markers | |
457 This function multiplies its arguments together, and returns the | |
12098 | 458 product. When given no arguments, @code{*} returns 1. |
6510 | 459 |
460 @example | |
461 (*) | |
462 @result{} 1 | |
463 (* 1) | |
464 @result{} 1 | |
465 (* 1 2 3 4) | |
466 @result{} 24 | |
467 @end example | |
468 @end defun | |
469 | |
470 @defun / dividend divisor &rest divisors | |
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471 This function divides @var{dividend} by @var{divisor} and returns the |
6510 | 472 quotient. If there are additional arguments @var{divisors}, then it |
473 divides @var{dividend} by each divisor in turn. Each argument may be a | |
474 number or a marker. | |
475 | |
476 If all the arguments are integers, then the result is an integer too. | |
477 This means the result has to be rounded. On most machines, the result | |
478 is rounded towards zero after each division, but some machines may round | |
479 differently with negative arguments. This is because the Lisp function | |
480 @code{/} is implemented using the C division operator, which also | |
481 permits machine-dependent rounding. As a practical matter, all known | |
482 machines round in the standard fashion. | |
483 | |
484 @cindex @code{arith-error} in division | |
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485 If you divide an integer by 0, an @code{arith-error} error is signaled. |
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486 (@xref{Errors}.) Floating point division by zero returns either |
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487 infinity or a NaN if your machine supports IEEE floating point; |
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488 otherwise, it signals an @code{arith-error} error. |
6510 | 489 |
490 @example | |
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491 @group |
6510 | 492 (/ 6 2) |
493 @result{} 3 | |
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494 @end group |
6510 | 495 (/ 5 2) |
496 @result{} 2 | |
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497 (/ 5.0 2) |
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498 @result{} 2.5 |
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499 (/ 5 2.0) |
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500 @result{} 2.5 |
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501 (/ 5.0 2.0) |
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502 @result{} 2.5 |
6510 | 503 (/ 25 3 2) |
504 @result{} 4 | |
505 (/ -17 6) | |
506 @result{} -2 | |
507 @end example | |
508 | |
509 The result of @code{(/ -17 6)} could in principle be -3 on some | |
510 machines. | |
511 @end defun | |
512 | |
513 @defun % dividend divisor | |
514 @cindex remainder | |
515 This function returns the integer remainder after division of @var{dividend} | |
516 by @var{divisor}. The arguments must be integers or markers. | |
517 | |
518 For negative arguments, the remainder is in principle machine-dependent | |
519 since the quotient is; but in practice, all known machines behave alike. | |
520 | |
521 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. | |
522 | |
523 @example | |
524 (% 9 4) | |
525 @result{} 1 | |
526 (% -9 4) | |
527 @result{} -1 | |
528 (% 9 -4) | |
529 @result{} 1 | |
530 (% -9 -4) | |
531 @result{} -1 | |
532 @end example | |
533 | |
534 For any two integers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor}, | |
535 | |
536 @example | |
537 @group | |
538 (+ (% @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) | |
539 (* (/ @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor})) | |
540 @end group | |
541 @end example | |
542 | |
543 @noindent | |
544 always equals @var{dividend}. | |
545 @end defun | |
546 | |
547 @defun mod dividend divisor | |
548 @cindex modulus | |
549 This function returns the value of @var{dividend} modulo @var{divisor}; | |
550 in other words, the remainder after division of @var{dividend} | |
551 by @var{divisor}, but with the same sign as @var{divisor}. | |
552 The arguments must be numbers or markers. | |
553 | |
554 Unlike @code{%}, @code{mod} returns a well-defined result for negative | |
555 arguments. It also permits floating point arguments; it rounds the | |
556 quotient downward (towards minus infinity) to an integer, and uses that | |
557 quotient to compute the remainder. | |
558 | |
559 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. | |
560 | |
561 @example | |
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562 @group |
6510 | 563 (mod 9 4) |
564 @result{} 1 | |
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565 @end group |
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566 @group |
6510 | 567 (mod -9 4) |
568 @result{} 3 | |
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569 @end group |
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570 @group |
6510 | 571 (mod 9 -4) |
572 @result{} -3 | |
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573 @end group |
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574 @group |
6510 | 575 (mod -9 -4) |
576 @result{} -1 | |
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577 @end group |
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578 @group |
6510 | 579 (mod 5.5 2.5) |
580 @result{} .5 | |
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581 @end group |
6510 | 582 @end example |
583 | |
584 For any two numbers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor}, | |
585 | |
586 @example | |
587 @group | |
588 (+ (mod @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) | |
589 (* (floor @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor})) | |
590 @end group | |
591 @end example | |
592 | |
593 @noindent | |
12098 | 594 always equals @var{dividend}, subject to rounding error if either |
595 argument is floating point. For @code{floor}, see @ref{Numeric | |
596 Conversions}. | |
6510 | 597 @end defun |
598 | |
599 @node Rounding Operations | |
600 @section Rounding Operations | |
601 @cindex rounding without conversion | |
602 | |
8017 | 603 The functions @code{ffloor}, @code{fceiling}, @code{fround} and |
6510 | 604 @code{ftruncate} take a floating point argument and return a floating |
605 point result whose value is a nearby integer. @code{ffloor} returns the | |
8017 | 606 nearest integer below; @code{fceiling}, the nearest integer above; |
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607 @code{ftruncate}, the nearest integer in the direction towards zero; |
6510 | 608 @code{fround}, the nearest integer. |
609 | |
610 @defun ffloor float | |
611 This function rounds @var{float} to the next lower integral value, and | |
612 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
613 @end defun | |
614 | |
8017 | 615 @defun fceiling float |
6510 | 616 This function rounds @var{float} to the next higher integral value, and |
617 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
618 @end defun | |
619 | |
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620 @defun ftruncate float |
6510 | 621 This function rounds @var{float} towards zero to an integral value, and |
622 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
623 @end defun | |
624 | |
625 @defun fround float | |
626 This function rounds @var{float} to the nearest integral value, | |
627 and returns that value as a floating point number. | |
628 @end defun | |
629 | |
630 @node Bitwise Operations | |
631 @section Bitwise Operations on Integers | |
632 | |
633 In a computer, an integer is represented as a binary number, a | |
634 sequence of @dfn{bits} (digits which are either zero or one). A bitwise | |
635 operation acts on the individual bits of such a sequence. For example, | |
636 @dfn{shifting} moves the whole sequence left or right one or more places, | |
637 reproducing the same pattern ``moved over''. | |
638 | |
639 The bitwise operations in Emacs Lisp apply only to integers. | |
640 | |
641 @defun lsh integer1 count | |
642 @cindex logical shift | |
643 @code{lsh}, which is an abbreviation for @dfn{logical shift}, shifts the | |
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644 bits in @var{integer1} to the left @var{count} places, or to the right |
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645 if @var{count} is negative, bringing zeros into the vacated bits. If |
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646 @var{count} is negative, @code{lsh} shifts zeros into the leftmost |
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647 (most-significant) bit, producing a positive result even if |
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648 @var{integer1} is negative. Contrast this with @code{ash}, below. |
6510 | 649 |
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650 Here are two examples of @code{lsh}, shifting a pattern of bits one |
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651 place to the left. We show only the low-order eight bits of the binary |
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652 pattern; the rest are all zero. |
6510 | 653 |
654 @example | |
655 @group | |
656 (lsh 5 1) | |
657 @result{} 10 | |
658 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 10.} | |
659 00000101 @result{} 00001010 | |
660 | |
661 (lsh 7 1) | |
662 @result{} 14 | |
663 ;; @r{Decimal 7 becomes decimal 14.} | |
664 00000111 @result{} 00001110 | |
665 @end group | |
666 @end example | |
667 | |
668 @noindent | |
669 As the examples illustrate, shifting the pattern of bits one place to | |
670 the left produces a number that is twice the value of the previous | |
671 number. | |
672 | |
12098 | 673 Shifting a pattern of bits two places to the left produces results |
674 like this (with 8-bit binary numbers): | |
675 | |
676 @example | |
677 @group | |
678 (lsh 3 2) | |
679 @result{} 12 | |
680 ;; @r{Decimal 3 becomes decimal 12.} | |
681 00000011 @result{} 00001100 | |
682 @end group | |
683 @end example | |
684 | |
685 On the other hand, shifting one place to the right looks like this: | |
686 | |
687 @example | |
688 @group | |
689 (lsh 6 -1) | |
690 @result{} 3 | |
691 ;; @r{Decimal 6 becomes decimal 3.} | |
692 00000110 @result{} 00000011 | |
693 @end group | |
694 | |
695 @group | |
696 (lsh 5 -1) | |
697 @result{} 2 | |
698 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 2.} | |
699 00000101 @result{} 00000010 | |
700 @end group | |
701 @end example | |
702 | |
703 @noindent | |
704 As the example illustrates, shifting one place to the right divides the | |
705 value of a positive integer by two, rounding downward. | |
706 | |
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707 The function @code{lsh}, like all Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions, does |
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708 not check for overflow, so shifting left can discard significant bits |
12067 | 709 and change the sign of the number. For example, left shifting |
710 134,217,727 produces @minus{}2 on a 28-bit machine: | |
6510 | 711 |
712 @example | |
12067 | 713 (lsh 134217727 1) ; @r{left shift} |
6510 | 714 @result{} -2 |
715 @end example | |
716 | |
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|
717 In binary, in the 28-bit implementation, the argument looks like this: |
6510 | 718 |
719 @example | |
720 @group | |
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|
721 ;; @r{Decimal 134,217,727} |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
722 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 723 @end group |
724 @end example | |
725 | |
726 @noindent | |
727 which becomes the following when left shifted: | |
728 | |
729 @example | |
730 @group | |
731 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}2} | |
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|
732 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 |
6510 | 733 @end group |
734 @end example | |
735 @end defun | |
736 | |
737 @defun ash integer1 count | |
738 @cindex arithmetic shift | |
739 @code{ash} (@dfn{arithmetic shift}) shifts the bits in @var{integer1} | |
740 to the left @var{count} places, or to the right if @var{count} | |
741 is negative. | |
742 | |
743 @code{ash} gives the same results as @code{lsh} except when | |
744 @var{integer1} and @var{count} are both negative. In that case, | |
12098 | 745 @code{ash} puts ones in the empty bit positions on the left, while |
746 @code{lsh} puts zeros in those bit positions. | |
6510 | 747 |
748 Thus, with @code{ash}, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right | |
749 looks like this: | |
750 | |
751 @example | |
752 @group | |
753 (ash -6 -1) @result{} -3 | |
754 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal @minus{}3.} | |
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|
755 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010 |
6510 | 756 @result{} |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
757 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101 |
6510 | 758 @end group |
759 @end example | |
760 | |
761 In contrast, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right with | |
762 @code{lsh} looks like this: | |
763 | |
764 @example | |
765 @group | |
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|
766 (lsh -6 -1) @result{} 134217725 |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
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diff
changeset
|
767 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal 134,217,725.} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
768 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010 |
6510 | 769 @result{} |
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|
770 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101 |
6510 | 771 @end group |
772 @end example | |
773 | |
774 Here are other examples: | |
775 | |
776 @c !!! Check if lined up in smallbook format! XDVI shows problem | |
777 @c with smallbook but not with regular book! --rjc 16mar92 | |
778 @smallexample | |
779 @group | |
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|
780 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 781 |
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|
782 (lsh 5 2) ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
783 @result{} 20 ; = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001 0100} |
6510 | 784 @end group |
785 @group | |
786 (ash 5 2) | |
787 @result{} 20 | |
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|
788 (lsh -5 2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
789 @result{} -20 ; = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 1100} |
6510 | 790 (ash -5 2) |
791 @result{} -20 | |
792 @end group | |
793 @group | |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
794 (lsh 5 -2) ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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diff
changeset
|
795 @result{} 1 ; = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001} |
6510 | 796 @end group |
797 @group | |
798 (ash 5 -2) | |
799 @result{} 1 | |
800 @end group | |
801 @group | |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
802 (lsh -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
803 @result{} 4194302 ; = @r{0011 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110} |
6510 | 804 @end group |
805 @group | |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
806 (ash -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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changeset
|
807 @result{} -2 ; = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110} |
6510 | 808 @end group |
809 @end smallexample | |
810 @end defun | |
811 | |
812 @defun logand &rest ints-or-markers | |
813 @cindex logical and | |
814 @cindex bitwise and | |
815 This function returns the ``logical and'' of the arguments: the | |
816 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is | |
817 set in all the arguments. (``Set'' means that the value of the bit is 1 | |
818 rather than 0.) | |
819 | |
820 For example, using 4-bit binary numbers, the ``logical and'' of 13 and | |
821 12 is 12: 1101 combined with 1100 produces 1100. | |
822 In both the binary numbers, the leftmost two bits are set (i.e., they | |
823 are 1's), so the leftmost two bits of the returned value are set. | |
824 However, for the rightmost two bits, each is zero in at least one of | |
825 the arguments, so the rightmost two bits of the returned value are 0's. | |
826 | |
827 @noindent | |
828 Therefore, | |
829 | |
830 @example | |
831 @group | |
832 (logand 13 12) | |
833 @result{} 12 | |
834 @end group | |
835 @end example | |
836 | |
837 If @code{logand} is not passed any argument, it returns a value of | |
838 @minus{}1. This number is an identity element for @code{logand} | |
839 because its binary representation consists entirely of ones. If | |
840 @code{logand} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument. | |
841 | |
842 @smallexample | |
843 @group | |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
844 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 845 |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
846 (logand 14 13) ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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changeset
|
847 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
848 @result{} 12 ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
6510 | 849 @end group |
850 | |
851 @group | |
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852 (logand 14 13 4) ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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changeset
|
853 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
854 ; 4 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
855 @result{} 4 ; 4 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100} |
6510 | 856 @end group |
857 | |
858 @group | |
859 (logand) | |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
860 @result{} -1 ; -1 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111} |
6510 | 861 @end group |
862 @end smallexample | |
863 @end defun | |
864 | |
865 @defun logior &rest ints-or-markers | |
866 @cindex logical inclusive or | |
867 @cindex bitwise or | |
868 This function returns the ``inclusive or'' of its arguments: the @var{n}th bit | |
869 is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is set in at least | |
870 one of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the result is zero, | |
871 which is an identity element for this operation. If @code{logior} is | |
872 passed just one argument, it returns that argument. | |
873 | |
874 @smallexample | |
875 @group | |
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|
876 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 877 |
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|
878 (logior 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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changeset
|
879 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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changeset
|
880 @result{} 13 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
6510 | 881 @end group |
882 | |
883 @group | |
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|
884 (logior 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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changeset
|
885 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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changeset
|
886 ; 7 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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changeset
|
887 @result{} 15 ; 15 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111} |
6510 | 888 @end group |
889 @end smallexample | |
890 @end defun | |
891 | |
892 @defun logxor &rest ints-or-markers | |
893 @cindex bitwise exclusive or | |
894 @cindex logical exclusive or | |
895 This function returns the ``exclusive or'' of its arguments: the | |
7115
9a9e88e65617
*** empty log message ***
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6510
diff
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|
896 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is |
9a9e88e65617
*** empty log message ***
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|
897 set in an odd number of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the |
9a9e88e65617
*** empty log message ***
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|
898 result is 0, which is an identity element for this operation. If |
9a9e88e65617
*** empty log message ***
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parents:
6510
diff
changeset
|
899 @code{logxor} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument. |
6510 | 900 |
901 @smallexample | |
902 @group | |
10306
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
903 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 904 |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
905 (logxor 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
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changeset
|
906 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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diff
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|
907 @result{} 9 ; 9 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1001} |
6510 | 908 @end group |
909 | |
910 @group | |
10306
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
911 (logxor 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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changeset
|
912 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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changeset
|
913 ; 7 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
914 @result{} 14 ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
6510 | 915 @end group |
916 @end smallexample | |
917 @end defun | |
918 | |
919 @defun lognot integer | |
920 @cindex logical not | |
921 @cindex bitwise not | |
922 This function returns the logical complement of its argument: the @var{n}th | |
923 bit is one in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is zero in | |
924 @var{integer}, and vice-versa. | |
925 | |
926 @example | |
927 (lognot 5) | |
928 @result{} -6 | |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
929 ;; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
6510 | 930 ;; @r{becomes} |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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diff
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|
931 ;; -6 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010} |
6510 | 932 @end example |
933 @end defun | |
934 | |
11230
c6b70cdf844e
Don't call the special math functions "transcendental".
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
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diff
changeset
|
935 @node Math Functions |
c6b70cdf844e
Don't call the special math functions "transcendental".
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changeset
|
936 @section Standard Mathematical Functions |
6510 | 937 @cindex transcendental functions |
938 @cindex mathematical functions | |
939 | |
21682
90da2489c498
*** empty log message ***
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21007
diff
changeset
|
940 These mathematical functions allow integers as well as floating point |
90da2489c498
*** empty log message ***
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21007
diff
changeset
|
941 numbers as arguments. |
6510 | 942 |
943 @defun sin arg | |
944 @defunx cos arg | |
945 @defunx tan arg | |
946 These are the ordinary trigonometric functions, with argument measured | |
947 in radians. | |
948 @end defun | |
949 | |
950 @defun asin arg | |
7115
9a9e88e65617
*** empty log message ***
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|
951 The value of @code{(asin @var{arg})} is a number between @minus{}pi/2 |
9a9e88e65617
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diff
changeset
|
952 and pi/2 (inclusive) whose sine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} |
6510 | 953 is out of range (outside [-1, 1]), then the result is a NaN. |
954 @end defun | |
955 | |
956 @defun acos arg | |
957 The value of @code{(acos @var{arg})} is a number between 0 and pi | |
958 (inclusive) whose cosine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} | |
959 is out of range (outside [-1, 1]), then the result is a NaN. | |
960 @end defun | |
961 | |
962 @defun atan arg | |
7115
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|
963 The value of @code{(atan @var{arg})} is a number between @minus{}pi/2 |
9a9e88e65617
*** empty log message ***
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changeset
|
964 and pi/2 (exclusive) whose tangent is @var{arg}. |
6510 | 965 @end defun |
966 | |
967 @defun exp arg | |
968 This is the exponential function; it returns @i{e} to the power | |
969 @var{arg}. @i{e} is a fundamental mathematical constant also called the | |
970 base of natural logarithms. | |
971 @end defun | |
972 | |
973 @defun log arg &optional base | |
974 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base @var{base}. | |
975 If you don't specify @var{base}, the base @var{e} is used. If @var{arg} | |
976 is negative, the result is a NaN. | |
977 @end defun | |
978 | |
979 @ignore | |
980 @defun expm1 arg | |
981 This function returns @code{(1- (exp @var{arg}))}, but it is more | |
982 accurate than that when @var{arg} is negative and @code{(exp @var{arg})} | |
983 is close to 1. | |
984 @end defun | |
985 | |
986 @defun log1p arg | |
987 This function returns @code{(log (1+ @var{arg}))}, but it is more | |
988 accurate than that when @var{arg} is so small that adding 1 to it would | |
989 lose accuracy. | |
990 @end defun | |
991 @end ignore | |
992 | |
993 @defun log10 arg | |
994 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base 10. If | |
7115
9a9e88e65617
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|
995 @var{arg} is negative, the result is a NaN. @code{(log10 @var{x})} |
9a9e88e65617
*** empty log message ***
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6510
diff
changeset
|
996 @equiv{} @code{(log @var{x} 10)}, at least approximately. |
6510 | 997 @end defun |
998 | |
999 @defun expt x y | |
10306
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
1000 This function returns @var{x} raised to power @var{y}. If both |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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parents:
8017
diff
changeset
|
1001 arguments are integers and @var{y} is positive, the result is an |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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diff
changeset
|
1002 integer; in this case, it is truncated to fit the range of possible |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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changeset
|
1003 integer values. |
6510 | 1004 @end defun |
1005 | |
1006 @defun sqrt arg | |
1007 This returns the square root of @var{arg}. If @var{arg} is negative, | |
1008 the value is a NaN. | |
1009 @end defun | |
1010 | |
1011 @node Random Numbers | |
1012 @section Random Numbers | |
1013 @cindex random numbers | |
1014 | |
1015 A deterministic computer program cannot generate true random numbers. | |
1016 For most purposes, @dfn{pseudo-random numbers} suffice. A series of | |
1017 pseudo-random numbers is generated in a deterministic fashion. The | |
1018 numbers are not truly random, but they have certain properties that | |
1019 mimic a random series. For example, all possible values occur equally | |
1020 often in a pseudo-random series. | |
1021 | |
1022 In Emacs, pseudo-random numbers are generated from a ``seed'' number. | |
1023 Starting from any given seed, the @code{random} function always | |
1024 generates the same sequence of numbers. Emacs always starts with the | |
1025 same seed value, so the sequence of values of @code{random} is actually | |
1026 the same in each Emacs run! For example, in one operating system, the | |
1027 first call to @code{(random)} after you start Emacs always returns | |
1028 -1457731, and the second one always returns -7692030. This | |
1029 repeatability is helpful for debugging. | |
1030 | |
1031 If you want truly unpredictable random numbers, execute @code{(random | |
1032 t)}. This chooses a new seed based on the current time of day and on | |
1033 Emacs's process @sc{id} number. | |
1034 | |
1035 @defun random &optional limit | |
1036 This function returns a pseudo-random integer. Repeated calls return a | |
1037 series of pseudo-random integers. | |
1038 | |
12067 | 1039 If @var{limit} is a positive integer, the value is chosen to be |
12098 | 1040 nonnegative and less than @var{limit}. |
6510 | 1041 |
1042 If @var{limit} is @code{t}, it means to choose a new seed based on the | |
1043 current time of day and on Emacs's process @sc{id} number. | |
1044 @c "Emacs'" is incorrect usage! | |
1045 | |
1046 On some machines, any integer representable in Lisp may be the result | |
1047 of @code{random}. On other machines, the result can never be larger | |
1048 than a certain maximum or less than a certain (negative) minimum. | |
1049 @end defun |