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annotate lispref/objects.texi @ 22902:18839ab53285
(Info-find-node): Once again, use byte-to-position.
author | Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org> |
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date | Tue, 04 Aug 1998 09:40:04 +0000 |
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6447 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6447 | 4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
5 @setfilename ../info/objects | |
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6 @node Lisp Data Types, Numbers, Introduction, Top |
6447 | 7 @chapter Lisp Data Types |
8 @cindex object | |
9 @cindex Lisp object | |
10 @cindex type | |
11 @cindex data type | |
12 | |
13 A Lisp @dfn{object} is a piece of data used and manipulated by Lisp | |
14 programs. For our purposes, a @dfn{type} or @dfn{data type} is a set of | |
15 possible objects. | |
16 | |
17 Every object belongs to at least one type. Objects of the same type | |
18 have similar structures and may usually be used in the same contexts. | |
19 Types can overlap, and objects can belong to two or more types. | |
20 Consequently, we can ask whether an object belongs to a particular type, | |
21 but not for ``the'' type of an object. | |
22 | |
23 @cindex primitive type | |
24 A few fundamental object types are built into Emacs. These, from | |
25 which all other types are constructed, are called @dfn{primitive | |
26 types}. Each object belongs to one and only one primitive type. These | |
27 types include @dfn{integer}, @dfn{float}, @dfn{cons}, @dfn{symbol}, | |
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28 @dfn{string}, @dfn{vector}, @dfn{subr}, @dfn{byte-code function}, plus |
6447 | 29 several special types, such as @dfn{buffer}, that are related to |
30 editing. (@xref{Editing Types}.) | |
31 | |
32 Each primitive type has a corresponding Lisp function that checks | |
33 whether an object is a member of that type. | |
34 | |
35 Note that Lisp is unlike many other languages in that Lisp objects are | |
36 @dfn{self-typing}: the primitive type of the object is implicit in the | |
37 object itself. For example, if an object is a vector, nothing can treat | |
38 it as a number; Lisp knows it is a vector, not a number. | |
39 | |
40 In most languages, the programmer must declare the data type of each | |
41 variable, and the type is known by the compiler but not represented in | |
42 the data. Such type declarations do not exist in Emacs Lisp. A Lisp | |
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43 variable can have any type of value, and it remembers whatever value |
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44 you store in it, type and all. |
6447 | 45 |
46 This chapter describes the purpose, printed representation, and read | |
47 syntax of each of the standard types in GNU Emacs Lisp. Details on how | |
48 to use these types can be found in later chapters. | |
49 | |
50 @menu | |
51 * Printed Representation:: How Lisp objects are represented as text. | |
52 * Comments:: Comments and their formatting conventions. | |
53 * Programming Types:: Types found in all Lisp systems. | |
54 * Editing Types:: Types specific to Emacs. | |
55 * Type Predicates:: Tests related to types. | |
56 * Equality Predicates:: Tests of equality between any two objects. | |
57 @end menu | |
58 | |
59 @node Printed Representation | |
60 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
61 @section Printed Representation and Read Syntax | |
62 @cindex printed representation | |
63 @cindex read syntax | |
64 | |
65 The @dfn{printed representation} of an object is the format of the | |
66 output generated by the Lisp printer (the function @code{prin1}) for | |
67 that object. The @dfn{read syntax} of an object is the format of the | |
68 input accepted by the Lisp reader (the function @code{read}) for that | |
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69 object. @xref{Read and Print}. |
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70 |
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71 Most objects have more than one possible read syntax. Some types of |
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72 object have no read syntax, since it may not make sense to enter objects |
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73 of these types directly in a Lisp program. Except for these cases, the |
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74 printed representation of an object is also a read syntax for it. |
6447 | 75 |
76 In other languages, an expression is text; it has no other form. In | |
77 Lisp, an expression is primarily a Lisp object and only secondarily the | |
78 text that is the object's read syntax. Often there is no need to | |
79 emphasize this distinction, but you must keep it in the back of your | |
80 mind, or you will occasionally be very confused. | |
81 | |
82 @cindex hash notation | |
83 Every type has a printed representation. Some types have no read | |
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84 syntax---for example, the buffer type has none. Objects of these types |
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85 are printed in @dfn{hash notation}: the characters @samp{#<} followed by |
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86 a descriptive string (typically the type name followed by the name of |
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87 the object), and closed with a matching @samp{>}. Hash notation cannot |
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88 be read at all, so the Lisp reader signals the error |
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89 @code{invalid-read-syntax} whenever it encounters @samp{#<}. |
6447 | 90 @kindex invalid-read-syntax |
91 | |
92 @example | |
93 (current-buffer) | |
94 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> | |
95 @end example | |
96 | |
97 When you evaluate an expression interactively, the Lisp interpreter | |
98 first reads the textual representation of it, producing a Lisp object, | |
99 and then evaluates that object (@pxref{Evaluation}). However, | |
100 evaluation and reading are separate activities. Reading returns the | |
101 Lisp object represented by the text that is read; the object may or may | |
102 not be evaluated later. @xref{Input Functions}, for a description of | |
103 @code{read}, the basic function for reading objects. | |
104 | |
105 @node Comments | |
106 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
107 @section Comments | |
108 @cindex comments | |
109 @cindex @samp{;} in comment | |
110 | |
111 A @dfn{comment} is text that is written in a program only for the sake | |
112 of humans that read the program, and that has no effect on the meaning | |
113 of the program. In Lisp, a semicolon (@samp{;}) starts a comment if it | |
114 is not within a string or character constant. The comment continues to | |
115 the end of line. The Lisp reader discards comments; they do not become | |
116 part of the Lisp objects which represent the program within the Lisp | |
117 system. | |
118 | |
12098 | 119 The @samp{#@@@var{count}} construct, which skips the next @var{count} |
120 characters, is useful for program-generated comments containing binary | |
121 data. The Emacs Lisp byte compiler uses this in its output files | |
122 (@pxref{Byte Compilation}). It isn't meant for source files, however. | |
123 | |
6447 | 124 @xref{Comment Tips}, for conventions for formatting comments. |
125 | |
126 @node Programming Types | |
127 @section Programming Types | |
128 @cindex programming types | |
129 | |
130 There are two general categories of types in Emacs Lisp: those having | |
131 to do with Lisp programming, and those having to do with editing. The | |
132 former exist in many Lisp implementations, in one form or another. The | |
133 latter are unique to Emacs Lisp. | |
134 | |
135 @menu | |
136 * Integer Type:: Numbers without fractional parts. | |
137 * Floating Point Type:: Numbers with fractional parts and with a large range. | |
138 * Character Type:: The representation of letters, numbers and | |
139 control characters. | |
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140 * Symbol Type:: A multi-use object that refers to a function, |
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141 variable, or property list, and has a unique identity. |
6447 | 142 * Sequence Type:: Both lists and arrays are classified as sequences. |
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143 * Cons Cell Type:: Cons cells, and lists (which are made from cons cells). |
6447 | 144 * Array Type:: Arrays include strings and vectors. |
145 * String Type:: An (efficient) array of characters. | |
146 * Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays. | |
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147 * Char-Table Type:: One-dimensional sparse arrays indexed by characters. |
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148 * Bool-Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays of @code{t} or @code{nil}. |
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149 * Function Type:: A piece of executable code you can call from elsewhere. |
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150 * Macro Type:: A method of expanding an expression into another |
6447 | 151 expression, more fundamental but less pretty. |
152 * Primitive Function Type:: A function written in C, callable from Lisp. | |
153 * Byte-Code Type:: A function written in Lisp, then compiled. | |
154 * Autoload Type:: A type used for automatically loading seldom-used | |
155 functions. | |
156 @end menu | |
157 | |
158 @node Integer Type | |
159 @subsection Integer Type | |
160 | |
10559 | 161 The range of values for integers in Emacs Lisp is @minus{}134217728 to |
162 134217727 (28 bits; i.e., | |
6447 | 163 @ifinfo |
10559 | 164 -2**27 |
6447 | 165 @end ifinfo |
166 @tex | |
10559 | 167 $-2^{27}$ |
6447 | 168 @end tex |
169 to | |
170 @ifinfo | |
10559 | 171 2**27 - 1) |
6447 | 172 @end ifinfo |
173 @tex | |
10559 | 174 $2^{28}-1$) |
6447 | 175 @end tex |
10559 | 176 on most machines. (Some machines may provide a wider range.) It is |
177 important to note that the Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions do not check | |
178 for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 134217727)} is @minus{}134217728 on most | |
179 machines. | |
6447 | 180 |
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181 The read syntax for integers is a sequence of (base ten) digits with an |
6447 | 182 optional sign at the beginning and an optional period at the end. The |
183 printed representation produced by the Lisp interpreter never has a | |
184 leading @samp{+} or a final @samp{.}. | |
185 | |
186 @example | |
187 @group | |
188 -1 ; @r{The integer -1.} | |
189 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
190 1. ; @r{Also The integer 1.} | |
191 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} | |
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192 268435457 ; @r{Also the integer 1 on a 28-bit implementation.} |
6447 | 193 @end group |
194 @end example | |
195 | |
196 @xref{Numbers}, for more information. | |
197 | |
198 @node Floating Point Type | |
199 @subsection Floating Point Type | |
200 | |
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201 Emacs supports floating point numbers (though there is a compilation |
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202 option to disable them). The precise range of floating point numbers is |
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203 machine-specific. |
6447 | 204 |
205 The printed representation for floating point numbers requires either | |
206 a decimal point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or | |
207 both. For example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, | |
208 @samp{1.5e3}, and @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point | |
209 number whose value is 1500. They are all equivalent. | |
210 | |
211 @xref{Numbers}, for more information. | |
212 | |
213 @node Character Type | |
214 @subsection Character Type | |
215 @cindex @sc{ASCII} character codes | |
216 | |
217 A @dfn{character} in Emacs Lisp is nothing more than an integer. In | |
218 other words, characters are represented by their character codes. For | |
219 example, the character @kbd{A} is represented as the @w{integer 65}. | |
220 | |
221 Individual characters are not often used in programs. It is far more | |
222 common to work with @emph{strings}, which are sequences composed of | |
223 characters. @xref{String Type}. | |
224 | |
225 Characters in strings, buffers, and files are currently limited to the | |
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226 range of 0 to 524287---nineteen bits. But not all values in that range |
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227 are valid character codes. Codes 0 through 127 are ASCII codes; the |
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228 rest are non-ASCII (@pxref{Non-ASCII Characters}). Characters that represent |
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229 keyboard input have a much wider range, to encode modifier keys such as |
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230 Control, Meta and Shift. |
6447 | 231 |
232 @cindex read syntax for characters | |
233 @cindex printed representation for characters | |
234 @cindex syntax for characters | |
235 Since characters are really integers, the printed representation of a | |
236 character is a decimal number. This is also a possible read syntax for | |
237 a character, but writing characters that way in Lisp programs is a very | |
238 bad idea. You should @emph{always} use the special read syntax formats | |
239 that Emacs Lisp provides for characters. These syntax formats start | |
240 with a question mark. | |
241 | |
242 The usual read syntax for alphanumeric characters is a question mark | |
243 followed by the character; thus, @samp{?A} for the character | |
244 @kbd{A}, @samp{?B} for the character @kbd{B}, and @samp{?a} for the | |
245 character @kbd{a}. | |
246 | |
247 For example: | |
248 | |
249 @example | |
250 ?Q @result{} 81 ?q @result{} 113 | |
251 @end example | |
252 | |
253 You can use the same syntax for punctuation characters, but it is | |
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254 often a good idea to add a @samp{\} so that the Emacs commands for |
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255 editing Lisp code don't get confused. For example, @samp{?\ } is the |
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256 way to write the space character. If the character is @samp{\}, you |
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257 @emph{must} use a second @samp{\} to quote it: @samp{?\\}. |
6447 | 258 |
259 @cindex whitespace | |
260 @cindex bell character | |
261 @cindex @samp{\a} | |
262 @cindex backspace | |
263 @cindex @samp{\b} | |
264 @cindex tab | |
265 @cindex @samp{\t} | |
266 @cindex vertical tab | |
267 @cindex @samp{\v} | |
268 @cindex formfeed | |
269 @cindex @samp{\f} | |
270 @cindex newline | |
271 @cindex @samp{\n} | |
272 @cindex return | |
273 @cindex @samp{\r} | |
274 @cindex escape | |
275 @cindex @samp{\e} | |
276 You can express the characters Control-g, backspace, tab, newline, | |
277 vertical tab, formfeed, return, and escape as @samp{?\a}, @samp{?\b}, | |
278 @samp{?\t}, @samp{?\n}, @samp{?\v}, @samp{?\f}, @samp{?\r}, @samp{?\e}, | |
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279 respectively. Thus, |
6447 | 280 |
281 @example | |
282 ?\a @result{} 7 ; @r{@kbd{C-g}} | |
283 ?\b @result{} 8 ; @r{backspace, @key{BS}, @kbd{C-h}} | |
284 ?\t @result{} 9 ; @r{tab, @key{TAB}, @kbd{C-i}} | |
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285 ?\n @result{} 10 ; @r{newline, @kbd{C-j}} |
6447 | 286 ?\v @result{} 11 ; @r{vertical tab, @kbd{C-k}} |
287 ?\f @result{} 12 ; @r{formfeed character, @kbd{C-l}} | |
288 ?\r @result{} 13 ; @r{carriage return, @key{RET}, @kbd{C-m}} | |
289 ?\e @result{} 27 ; @r{escape character, @key{ESC}, @kbd{C-[}} | |
290 ?\\ @result{} 92 ; @r{backslash character, @kbd{\}} | |
291 @end example | |
292 | |
293 @cindex escape sequence | |
294 These sequences which start with backslash are also known as | |
295 @dfn{escape sequences}, because backslash plays the role of an escape | |
296 character; this usage has nothing to do with the character @key{ESC}. | |
297 | |
298 @cindex control characters | |
299 Control characters may be represented using yet another read syntax. | |
300 This consists of a question mark followed by a backslash, caret, and the | |
301 corresponding non-control character, in either upper or lower case. For | |
302 example, both @samp{?\^I} and @samp{?\^i} are valid read syntax for the | |
303 character @kbd{C-i}, the character whose value is 9. | |
304 | |
305 Instead of the @samp{^}, you can use @samp{C-}; thus, @samp{?\C-i} is | |
306 equivalent to @samp{?\^I} and to @samp{?\^i}: | |
307 | |
308 @example | |
309 ?\^I @result{} 9 ?\C-I @result{} 9 | |
310 @end example | |
311 | |
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312 In strings and buffers, the only control characters allowed are those |
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313 that exist in @sc{ASCII}; but for keyboard input purposes, you can turn |
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314 any character into a control character with @samp{C-}. The character |
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315 codes for these non-@sc{ASCII} control characters include the |
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316 @tex |
12098 | 317 $2^{26}$ |
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318 @end tex |
12098 | 319 @ifinfo |
320 2**26 | |
321 @end ifinfo | |
322 bit as well as the code for the corresponding non-control | |
6447 | 323 character. Ordinary terminals have no way of generating non-@sc{ASCII} |
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324 control characters, but you can generate them straightforwardly using X |
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325 and other window systems. |
6447 | 326 |
12098 | 327 For historical reasons, Emacs treats the @key{DEL} character as |
328 the control equivalent of @kbd{?}: | |
6447 | 329 |
330 @example | |
331 ?\^? @result{} 127 ?\C-? @result{} 127 | |
332 @end example | |
333 | |
12098 | 334 @noindent |
335 As a result, it is currently not possible to represent the character | |
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336 @kbd{Control-?}, which is a meaningful input character under X, using |
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337 @samp{\C-}. It is not easy to change this, as various Lisp files refer |
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338 to @key{DEL} in this way. |
12098 | 339 |
6447 | 340 For representing control characters to be found in files or strings, |
341 we recommend the @samp{^} syntax; for control characters in keyboard | |
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342 input, we prefer the @samp{C-} syntax. Which one you use does not |
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343 affect the meaning of the program, but may guide the understanding of |
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344 people who read it. |
6447 | 345 |
346 @cindex meta characters | |
347 A @dfn{meta character} is a character typed with the @key{META} | |
348 modifier key. The integer that represents such a character has the | |
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349 @tex |
12098 | 350 $2^{27}$ |
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351 @end tex |
12098 | 352 @ifinfo |
353 2**27 | |
354 @end ifinfo | |
355 bit set (which on most machines makes it a negative number). We | |
6447 | 356 use high bits for this and other modifiers to make possible a wide range |
357 of basic character codes. | |
358 | |
12098 | 359 In a string, the |
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360 @tex |
12098 | 361 $2^{7}$ |
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362 @end tex |
12098 | 363 @ifinfo |
364 2**7 | |
365 @end ifinfo | |
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366 bit attached to an ASCII character indicates a meta character; thus, the |
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367 meta characters that can fit in a string have codes in the range from |
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368 128 to 255, and are the meta versions of the ordinary @sc{ASCII} |
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369 characters. (In Emacs versions 18 and older, this convention was used |
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370 for characters outside of strings as well.) |
6447 | 371 |
372 The read syntax for meta characters uses @samp{\M-}. For example, | |
373 @samp{?\M-A} stands for @kbd{M-A}. You can use @samp{\M-} together with | |
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374 octal character codes (see below), with @samp{\C-}, or with any other |
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375 syntax for a character. Thus, you can write @kbd{M-A} as @samp{?\M-A}, |
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376 or as @samp{?\M-\101}. Likewise, you can write @kbd{C-M-b} as |
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377 @samp{?\M-\C-b}, @samp{?\C-\M-b}, or @samp{?\M-\002}. |
6447 | 378 |
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379 The case of a graphic character is indicated by its character code; |
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380 for example, @sc{ASCII} distinguishes between the characters @samp{a} |
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381 and @samp{A}. But @sc{ASCII} has no way to represent whether a control |
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382 character is upper case or lower case. Emacs uses the |
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383 @tex |
12098 | 384 $2^{25}$ |
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385 @end tex |
12098 | 386 @ifinfo |
387 2**25 | |
388 @end ifinfo | |
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389 bit to indicate that the shift key was used in typing a control |
12098 | 390 character. This distinction is possible only when you use X terminals |
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391 or other special terminals; ordinary terminals do not report the |
12098 | 392 distinction to the computer in any way. |
6447 | 393 |
394 @cindex hyper characters | |
395 @cindex super characters | |
396 @cindex alt characters | |
397 The X Window System defines three other modifier bits that can be set | |
398 in a character: @dfn{hyper}, @dfn{super} and @dfn{alt}. The syntaxes | |
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399 for these bits are @samp{\H-}, @samp{\s-} and @samp{\A-}. (Case is |
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400 significant in these prefixes.) Thus, @samp{?\H-\M-\A-x} represents |
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401 @kbd{Alt-Hyper-Meta-x}. |
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402 @tex |
12098 | 403 Numerically, the |
404 bit values are $2^{22}$ for alt, $2^{23}$ for super and $2^{24}$ for hyper. | |
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405 @end tex |
12098 | 406 @ifinfo |
407 Numerically, the | |
408 bit values are 2**22 for alt, 2**23 for super and 2**24 for hyper. | |
409 @end ifinfo | |
6447 | 410 |
411 @cindex @samp{?} in character constant | |
412 @cindex question mark in character constant | |
413 @cindex @samp{\} in character constant | |
414 @cindex backslash in character constant | |
415 @cindex octal character code | |
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416 Finally, the most general read syntax for a character represents the |
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417 character code in either octal or hex. To use octal, write a question |
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418 mark followed by a backslash and the octal character code (up to three |
6447 | 419 octal digits); thus, @samp{?\101} for the character @kbd{A}, |
420 @samp{?\001} for the character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\002} for the | |
421 character @kbd{C-b}. Although this syntax can represent any @sc{ASCII} | |
422 character, it is preferred only when the precise octal value is more | |
423 important than the @sc{ASCII} representation. | |
424 | |
425 @example | |
426 @group | |
427 ?\012 @result{} 10 ?\n @result{} 10 ?\C-j @result{} 10 | |
428 ?\101 @result{} 65 ?A @result{} 65 | |
429 @end group | |
430 @end example | |
431 | |
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432 To use hex, write a question mark followed by a backslash, @samp{x}, |
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433 and the hexadecimal character code. You can use any number of hex |
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434 digits, so you can represent any character code in this way. |
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435 Thus, @samp{?\x41} for the character @kbd{A}, @samp{?\x1} for the |
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436 character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\x8e0} for the character |
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437 @iftex |
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438 @samp{@`a}. |
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439 @end iftex |
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440 @ifinfo |
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441 @samp{a} with grave accent. |
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442 @end ifinfo |
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443 |
6447 | 444 A backslash is allowed, and harmless, preceding any character without |
445 a special escape meaning; thus, @samp{?\+} is equivalent to @samp{?+}. | |
446 There is no reason to add a backslash before most characters. However, | |
447 you should add a backslash before any of the characters | |
448 @samp{()\|;'`"#.,} to avoid confusing the Emacs commands for editing | |
449 Lisp code. Also add a backslash before whitespace characters such as | |
450 space, tab, newline and formfeed. However, it is cleaner to use one of | |
451 the easily readable escape sequences, such as @samp{\t}, instead of an | |
452 actual whitespace character such as a tab. | |
453 | |
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454 @node Symbol Type |
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455 @subsection Symbol Type |
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456 |
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457 A @dfn{symbol} in GNU Emacs Lisp is an object with a name. The symbol |
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458 name serves as the printed representation of the symbol. In ordinary |
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459 use, the name is unique---no two symbols have the same name. |
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460 |
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461 A symbol can serve as a variable, as a function name, or to hold a |
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462 property list. Or it may serve only to be distinct from all other Lisp |
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463 objects, so that its presence in a data structure may be recognized |
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464 reliably. In a given context, usually only one of these uses is |
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465 intended. But you can use one symbol in all of these ways, |
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466 independently. |
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467 |
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468 @cindex @samp{\} in symbols |
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469 @cindex backslash in symbols |
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470 A symbol name can contain any characters whatever. Most symbol names |
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471 are written with letters, digits, and the punctuation characters |
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472 @samp{-+=*/}. Such names require no special punctuation; the characters |
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473 of the name suffice as long as the name does not look like a number. |
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474 (If it does, write a @samp{\} at the beginning of the name to force |
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475 interpretation as a symbol.) The characters @samp{_~!@@$%^&:<>@{@}} are |
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476 less often used but also require no special punctuation. Any other |
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477 characters may be included in a symbol's name by escaping them with a |
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478 backslash. In contrast to its use in strings, however, a backslash in |
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479 the name of a symbol simply quotes the single character that follows the |
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480 backslash. For example, in a string, @samp{\t} represents a tab |
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481 character; in the name of a symbol, however, @samp{\t} merely quotes the |
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482 letter @samp{t}. To have a symbol with a tab character in its name, you |
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483 must actually use a tab (preceded with a backslash). But it's rare to |
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484 do such a thing. |
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485 |
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486 @cindex CL note---case of letters |
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487 @quotation |
7734 | 488 @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, lower case letters are always |
12098 | 489 ``folded'' to upper case, unless they are explicitly escaped. In Emacs |
490 Lisp, upper case and lower case letters are distinct. | |
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491 @end quotation |
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492 |
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493 Here are several examples of symbol names. Note that the @samp{+} in |
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494 the fifth example is escaped to prevent it from being read as a number. |
12098 | 495 This is not necessary in the sixth example because the rest of the name |
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496 makes it invalid as a number. |
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497 |
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498 @example |
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499 @group |
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500 foo ; @r{A symbol named @samp{foo}.} |
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501 FOO ; @r{A symbol named @samp{FOO}, different from @samp{foo}.} |
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502 char-to-string ; @r{A symbol named @samp{char-to-string}.} |
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503 @end group |
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504 @group |
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505 1+ ; @r{A symbol named @samp{1+}} |
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506 ; @r{(not @samp{+1}, which is an integer).} |
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507 @end group |
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508 @group |
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509 \+1 ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+1}} |
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510 ; @r{(not a very readable name).} |
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511 @end group |
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512 @group |
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513 \(*\ 1\ 2\) ; @r{A symbol named @samp{(* 1 2)} (a worse name).} |
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514 @c the @'s in this next line use up three characters, hence the |
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515 @c apparent misalignment of the comment. |
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516 +-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@} ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@}}.} |
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517 ; @r{These characters need not be escaped.} |
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518 @end group |
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519 @end example |
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520 |
6447 | 521 @node Sequence Type |
522 @subsection Sequence Types | |
523 | |
524 A @dfn{sequence} is a Lisp object that represents an ordered set of | |
525 elements. There are two kinds of sequence in Emacs Lisp, lists and | |
526 arrays. Thus, an object of type list or of type array is also | |
527 considered a sequence. | |
528 | |
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529 Arrays are further subdivided into strings, vectors, char-tables and |
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530 bool-vectors. Vectors can hold elements of any type, but string |
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531 elements must be characters, and bool-vector elements must be @code{t} |
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532 or @code{nil}. The characters in a string can have text properties like |
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533 characters in a buffer (@pxref{Text Properties}); vectors and |
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534 bool-vectors do not support text properties even when their elements |
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535 happen to be characters. Char-tables are like vectors except that they |
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536 are indexed by any valid character code. |
6447 | 537 |
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538 Lists, strings and the other array types are different, but they have |
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539 important similarities. For example, all have a length @var{l}, and all |
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540 have elements which can be indexed from zero to @var{l} minus one. |
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541 Several functions, called sequence functions, accept any kind of |
6447 | 542 sequence. For example, the function @code{elt} can be used to extract |
543 an element of a sequence, given its index. @xref{Sequences Arrays | |
544 Vectors}. | |
545 | |
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546 It is generally impossible to read the same sequence twice, since |
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547 sequences are always created anew upon reading. If you read the read |
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548 syntax for a sequence twice, you get two sequences with equal contents. |
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549 There is one exception: the empty list @code{()} always stands for the |
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550 same object, @code{nil}. |
6447 | 551 |
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552 @node Cons Cell Type |
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553 @subsection Cons Cell and List Types |
6447 | 554 @cindex address field of register |
555 @cindex decrement field of register | |
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556 @cindex pointers |
6447 | 557 |
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558 A @dfn{cons cell} is an object that consists of two pointers or slots, |
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559 called the @sc{car} slot and the @sc{cdr} slot. Each slot can |
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560 @dfn{point to} or hold to any Lisp object. We also say that the ``the |
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561 @sc{car} of this cons cell is'' whatever object its @sc{car} slot |
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562 currently points to, and likewise for the @sc{cdr}. |
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563 |
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564 A @dfn{list} is a series of cons cells, linked together so that the |
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565 @sc{cdr} slot of each cons cell holds either the next cons cell or the |
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566 empty list. @xref{Lists}, for functions that work on lists. Because |
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567 most cons cells are used as part of lists, the phrase @dfn{list |
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568 structure} has come to refer to any structure made out of cons cells. |
6447 | 569 |
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570 The names @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} derive from the history of Lisp. The |
6447 | 571 original Lisp implementation ran on an @w{IBM 704} computer which |
572 divided words into two parts, called the ``address'' part and the | |
573 ``decrement''; @sc{car} was an instruction to extract the contents of | |
574 the address part of a register, and @sc{cdr} an instruction to extract | |
575 the contents of the decrement. By contrast, ``cons cells'' are named | |
576 for the function @code{cons} that creates them, which in turn is named | |
577 for its purpose, the construction of cells. | |
578 | |
579 @cindex atom | |
580 Because cons cells are so central to Lisp, we also have a word for | |
581 ``an object which is not a cons cell''. These objects are called | |
582 @dfn{atoms}. | |
583 | |
584 @cindex parenthesis | |
585 The read syntax and printed representation for lists are identical, and | |
586 consist of a left parenthesis, an arbitrary number of elements, and a | |
587 right parenthesis. | |
588 | |
589 Upon reading, each object inside the parentheses becomes an element | |
590 of the list. That is, a cons cell is made for each element. The | |
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591 @sc{car} slot of the cons cell points to the element, and its @sc{cdr} |
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592 slot points to the next cons cell of the list, which holds the next |
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593 element in the list. The @sc{cdr} slot of the last cons cell is set to |
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594 point to @code{nil}. |
6447 | 595 |
596 @cindex box diagrams, for lists | |
597 @cindex diagrams, boxed, for lists | |
598 A list can be illustrated by a diagram in which the cons cells are | |
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599 shown as pairs of boxes, like dominoes. (The Lisp reader cannot read |
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600 such an illustration; unlike the textual notation, which can be |
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601 understood by both humans and computers, the box illustrations can be |
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602 understood only by humans.) This picture represents the three-element |
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603 list @code{(rose violet buttercup)}: |
6447 | 604 |
605 @example | |
606 @group | |
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607 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
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608 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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609 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 610 | | | |
611 | | | | |
612 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup | |
613 @end group | |
614 @end example | |
615 | |
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616 In this diagram, each box represents a slot that can point to any Lisp |
6447 | 617 object. Each pair of boxes represents a cons cell. Each arrow is a |
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618 pointer to a Lisp object, either an atom or another cons cell. |
6447 | 619 |
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620 In this example, the first box, which holds the @sc{car} of the first |
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621 cons cell, points to or ``contains'' @code{rose} (a symbol). The second |
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622 box, holding the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell, points to the next |
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623 pair of boxes, the second cons cell. The @sc{car} of the second cons |
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624 cell is @code{violet}, and its @sc{cdr} is the third cons cell. The |
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625 @sc{cdr} of the third (and last) cons cell is @code{nil}. |
6447 | 626 |
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627 Here is another diagram of the same list, @code{(rose violet |
6447 | 628 buttercup)}, sketched in a different manner: |
629 | |
630 @smallexample | |
631 @group | |
632 --------------- ---------------- ------------------- | |
633 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
634 | rose | o-------->| violet | o-------->| buttercup | nil | | |
635 | | | | | | | | | | |
636 --------------- ---------------- ------------------- | |
637 @end group | |
638 @end smallexample | |
639 | |
640 @cindex @samp{(@dots{})} in lists | |
641 @cindex @code{nil} in lists | |
642 @cindex empty list | |
643 A list with no elements in it is the @dfn{empty list}; it is identical | |
644 to the symbol @code{nil}. In other words, @code{nil} is both a symbol | |
645 and a list. | |
646 | |
647 Here are examples of lists written in Lisp syntax: | |
648 | |
649 @example | |
650 (A 2 "A") ; @r{A list of three elements.} | |
651 () ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} | |
652 nil ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} | |
653 ("A ()") ; @r{A list of one element: the string @code{"A ()"}.} | |
654 (A ()) ; @r{A list of two elements: @code{A} and the empty list.} | |
655 (A nil) ; @r{Equivalent to the previous.} | |
656 ((A B C)) ; @r{A list of one element} | |
657 ; @r{(which is a list of three elements).} | |
658 @end example | |
659 | |
660 Here is the list @code{(A ())}, or equivalently @code{(A nil)}, | |
661 depicted with boxes and arrows: | |
662 | |
663 @example | |
664 @group | |
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665 --- --- --- --- |
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666 | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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667 --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 668 | | |
669 | | | |
670 --> A --> nil | |
671 @end group | |
672 @end example | |
673 | |
674 @menu | |
675 * Dotted Pair Notation:: An alternative syntax for lists. | |
676 * Association List Type:: A specially constructed list. | |
677 @end menu | |
678 | |
679 @node Dotted Pair Notation | |
680 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
681 @subsubsection Dotted Pair Notation | |
682 @cindex dotted pair notation | |
683 @cindex @samp{.} in lists | |
684 | |
685 @dfn{Dotted pair notation} is an alternative syntax for cons cells | |
686 that represents the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} explicitly. In this syntax, | |
687 @code{(@var{a} .@: @var{b})} stands for a cons cell whose @sc{car} is | |
688 the object @var{a}, and whose @sc{cdr} is the object @var{b}. Dotted | |
689 pair notation is therefore more general than list syntax. In the dotted | |
690 pair notation, the list @samp{(1 2 3)} is written as @samp{(1 . (2 . (3 | |
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691 . nil)))}. For @code{nil}-terminated lists, you can use either |
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692 notation, but list notation is usually clearer and more convenient. |
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693 When printing a list, the dotted pair notation is only used if the |
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694 @sc{cdr} of a cons cell is not a list. |
6447 | 695 |
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696 Here's an example using boxes to illustrate dotted pair notation. |
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697 This example shows the pair @code{(rose . violet)}: |
6447 | 698 |
699 @example | |
700 @group | |
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701 --- --- |
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702 | | |--> violet |
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703 --- --- |
6447 | 704 | |
705 | | |
706 --> rose | |
707 @end group | |
708 @end example | |
709 | |
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710 You can combine dotted pair notation with list notation to represent |
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711 conveniently a chain of cons cells with a non-@code{nil} final @sc{cdr}. |
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712 You write a dot after the last element of the list, followed by the |
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713 @sc{cdr} of the final cons cell. For example, @code{(rose violet |
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714 . buttercup)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . buttercup))}. |
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715 The object looks like this: |
6447 | 716 |
717 @example | |
718 @group | |
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719 --- --- --- --- |
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720 | | |--> | | |--> buttercup |
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721 --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 722 | | |
723 | | | |
724 --> rose --> violet | |
725 @end group | |
726 @end example | |
727 | |
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728 The syntax @code{(rose .@: violet .@: buttercup)} is invalid because |
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729 there is nothing that it could mean. If anything, it would say to put |
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730 @code{buttercup} in the @sc{cdr} of a cons cell whose @sc{cdr} is already |
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731 used for @code{violet}. |
6447 | 732 |
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733 The list @code{(rose violet)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet))}, |
6447 | 734 and looks like this: |
735 | |
736 @example | |
737 @group | |
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738 --- --- --- --- |
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739 | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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740 --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 741 | | |
742 | | | |
743 --> rose --> violet | |
744 @end group | |
745 @end example | |
746 | |
747 Similarly, the three-element list @code{(rose violet buttercup)} | |
748 is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . (buttercup)))}. | |
749 @ifinfo | |
750 It looks like this: | |
751 | |
752 @example | |
753 @group | |
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754 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
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755 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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756 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 757 | | | |
758 | | | | |
759 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup | |
760 @end group | |
761 @end example | |
762 @end ifinfo | |
763 | |
764 @node Association List Type | |
765 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
766 @subsubsection Association List Type | |
767 | |
768 An @dfn{association list} or @dfn{alist} is a specially-constructed | |
769 list whose elements are cons cells. In each element, the @sc{car} is | |
770 considered a @dfn{key}, and the @sc{cdr} is considered an | |
771 @dfn{associated value}. (In some cases, the associated value is stored | |
772 in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr}.) Association lists are often used as | |
773 stacks, since it is easy to add or remove associations at the front of | |
774 the list. | |
775 | |
776 For example, | |
777 | |
778 @example | |
779 (setq alist-of-colors | |
780 '((rose . red) (lily . white) (buttercup . yellow))) | |
781 @end example | |
782 | |
783 @noindent | |
784 sets the variable @code{alist-of-colors} to an alist of three elements. In the | |
785 first element, @code{rose} is the key and @code{red} is the value. | |
786 | |
787 @xref{Association Lists}, for a further explanation of alists and for | |
788 functions that work on alists. | |
789 | |
790 @node Array Type | |
791 @subsection Array Type | |
792 | |
793 An @dfn{array} is composed of an arbitrary number of slots for | |
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794 pointing to other Lisp objects, arranged in a contiguous block of |
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795 memory. Accessing any element of an array takes approximately the same |
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796 amount of time. In contrast, accessing an element of a list requires |
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797 time proportional to the position of the element in the list. (Elements |
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798 at the end of a list take longer to access than elements at the |
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799 beginning of a list.) |
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800 |
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801 Emacs defines four types of array: strings, vectors, bool-vectors, and |
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802 char-tables. |
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803 |
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804 A string is an array of characters and a vector is an array of |
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805 arbitrary objects. A bool-vector can hold only @code{t} or @code{nil}. |
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806 These kinds of array may have any length up to the largest integer. |
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807 Char-tables are sparse arrays indexed by any valid character code; they |
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808 can hold arbitrary objects. |
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810 The first element of an array has index zero, the second element has |
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811 index 1, and so on. This is called @dfn{zero-origin} indexing. For |
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812 example, an array of four elements has indices 0, 1, 2, @w{and 3}. The |
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813 largest possible index value is one less than the length of the array. |
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814 Once an array is created, its length is fixed. |
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816 All Emacs Lisp arrays are one-dimensional. (Most other programming |
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817 languages support multidimensional arrays, but they are not essential; |
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818 you can get the same effect with an array of arrays.) Each type of |
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819 array has its own read syntax; see the following sections for details. |
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821 The array type is contained in the sequence type and |
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822 contains the string type, the vector type, the bool-vector type, and the |
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823 char-table type. |
6447 | 824 |
825 @node String Type | |
826 @subsection String Type | |
827 | |
828 A @dfn{string} is an array of characters. Strings are used for many | |
829 purposes in Emacs, as can be expected in a text editor; for example, as | |
830 the names of Lisp symbols, as messages for the user, and to represent | |
831 text extracted from buffers. Strings in Lisp are constants: evaluation | |
832 of a string returns the same string. | |
833 | |
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834 @xref{Strings and Characters}, for functions that operate on strings. |
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835 |
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836 @menu |
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837 * Syntax for Strings:: |
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838 * Non-ASCII in Strings:: |
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839 * Nonprinting Characters:: |
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840 * Text Props and Strings:: |
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841 @end menu |
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842 |
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843 @node Syntax for Strings |
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844 @subsubsection Syntax for Strings |
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845 |
6447 | 846 @cindex @samp{"} in strings |
847 @cindex double-quote in strings | |
848 @cindex @samp{\} in strings | |
849 @cindex backslash in strings | |
850 The read syntax for strings is a double-quote, an arbitrary number of | |
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851 characters, and another double-quote, @code{"like this"}. To include a |
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852 double-quote in a string, precede it with a backslash; thus, @code{"\""} |
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853 is a string containing just a single double-quote character. Likewise, |
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854 you can include a backslash by preceding it with another backslash, like |
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855 this: @code{"this \\ is a single embedded backslash"}. |
6447 | 856 |
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857 @cindex newline in strings |
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858 The newline character is not special in the read syntax for strings; |
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859 if you write a new line between the double-quotes, it becomes a |
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860 character in the string. But an escaped newline---one that is preceded |
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861 by @samp{\}---does not become part of the string; i.e., the Lisp reader |
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862 ignores an escaped newline while reading a string. An escaped space |
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863 @w{@samp{\ }} is likewise ignored. |
6447 | 864 |
865 @example | |
866 "It is useful to include newlines | |
867 in documentation strings, | |
868 but the newline is \ | |
869 ignored if escaped." | |
870 @result{} "It is useful to include newlines | |
871 in documentation strings, | |
872 but the newline is ignored if escaped." | |
873 @end example | |
874 | |
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875 @node Non-ASCII in Strings |
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876 @subsubsection Non-ASCII Characters in Strings |
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877 |
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878 You can include a non-@sc{ASCII} international character in a string |
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879 constant by writing it literally. There are two text representations |
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880 for non-@sc{ASCII} characters in Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte |
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881 and multibyte. If the string constant is read from a multibyte source, |
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882 such as a multibyte buffer or string, or a file that would be visited as |
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883 multibyte, then the character is read as a multibyte character, and that |
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884 makes the string multibyte. If the string constant is read from a |
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885 unibyte source, then the character is read as unibyte and that makes the |
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886 string unibyte. |
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887 |
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888 @c ??? Change this? |
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889 You can also represent a multibyte non-@sc{ASCII} character with its |
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890 character code, using a hex escape, @samp{\x@var{nnnnnnn}}, with as many |
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891 digits as necessary. (Multibyte non-@sc{ASCII} character codes are all |
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892 greater than 256.) Any character which is not a valid hex digit |
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893 terminates this construct. If the character that would follow is a hex |
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894 digit, write @w{@samp{\ }} (backslash and space) |
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895 to terminate the hex escape---for example, |
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896 @w{@samp{\x8e0\ }} represents one character, @samp{a} with grave accent. |
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897 @w{@samp{\ }} in a string constant is just like backslash-newline; it does |
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898 not contribute any character to the string, but it does terminate the |
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899 preceding hex escape. |
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900 |
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901 Using a multibyte hex escape forces the string to multibyte. You can |
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902 represent a unibyte non-@sc{ASCII} character with its character code, |
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903 which must be in the range from 128 (0200 octal) to 255 (0377 octal). |
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904 This forces a unibyte string. |
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905 |
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906 @xref{Text Representations}, for more information about the two |
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907 text representations. |
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908 |
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909 @node Nonprinting Characters |
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910 @subsubsection Nonprinting Characters in Strings |
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911 |
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912 You can use the same backslash escape-sequences in a string constant |
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913 as in character literals (but do not use the question mark that begins a |
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914 character constant). For example, you can write a string containing the |
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915 nonprinting characters tab and @kbd{C-a}, with commas and spaces between |
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916 them, like this: @code{"\t, \C-a"}. @xref{Character Type}, for a |
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917 description of the read syntax for characters. |
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918 |
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919 However, not all of the characters you can write with backslash |
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920 escape-sequences are valid in strings. The only control characters that |
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921 a string can hold are the @sc{ASCII} control characters. Strings do not |
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922 distinguish case in @sc{ASCII} control characters. |
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923 |
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924 Properly speaking, strings cannot hold meta characters; but when a |
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925 string is to be used as a key sequence, there is a special convention |
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926 that provides a way to represent meta versions of @sc{ASCII} characters in a |
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927 string. If you use the @samp{\M-} syntax to indicate a meta character |
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928 in a string constant, this sets the |
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929 @tex |
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930 $2^{7}$ |
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931 @end tex |
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932 @ifinfo |
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933 2**7 |
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934 @end ifinfo |
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935 bit of the character in the string. If the string is used in |
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936 @code{define-key} or @code{lookup-key}, this numeric code is translated |
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937 into the equivalent meta character. @xref{Character Type}. |
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938 |
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939 Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super, or alt |
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940 modifiers. |
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941 |
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942 @node Text Props and Strings |
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943 @subsubsection Text Properties in Strings |
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944 |
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945 A string can hold properties for the characters it contains, in |
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946 addition to the characters themselves. This enables programs that copy |
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947 text between strings and buffers to copy the text's properties with no |
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948 special effort. @xref{Text Properties}, for an explanation of what text |
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949 properties mean. Strings with text properties use a special read and |
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950 print syntax: |
6447 | 951 |
952 @example | |
953 #("@var{characters}" @var{property-data}...) | |
954 @end example | |
955 | |
956 @noindent | |
957 where @var{property-data} consists of zero or more elements, in groups | |
958 of three as follows: | |
959 | |
960 @example | |
961 @var{beg} @var{end} @var{plist} | |
962 @end example | |
963 | |
964 @noindent | |
965 The elements @var{beg} and @var{end} are integers, and together specify | |
966 a range of indices in the string; @var{plist} is the property list for | |
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967 that range. For example, |
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968 |
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969 @example |
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970 #("foo bar" 0 3 (face bold) 3 4 nil 4 7 (face italic)) |
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971 @end example |
6447 | 972 |
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973 @noindent |
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974 represents a string whose textual contents are @samp{foo bar}, in which |
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975 the first three characters have a @code{face} property with value |
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976 @code{bold}, and the last three have a @code{face} property with value |
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977 @code{italic}. (The fourth character has no text properties, so its |
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978 property list is @code{nil}. It is not actually necessary to mention |
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979 ranges with @code{nil} as the property list, since any characters not |
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980 mentioned in any range will default to having no properties.) |
6447 | 981 |
982 @node Vector Type | |
983 @subsection Vector Type | |
984 | |
985 A @dfn{vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type. It | |
986 takes a constant amount of time to access any element of a vector. (In | |
987 a list, the access time of an element is proportional to the distance of | |
988 the element from the beginning of the list.) | |
989 | |
990 The printed representation of a vector consists of a left square | |
991 bracket, the elements, and a right square bracket. This is also the | |
992 read syntax. Like numbers and strings, vectors are considered constants | |
993 for evaluation. | |
994 | |
995 @example | |
996 [1 "two" (three)] ; @r{A vector of three elements.} | |
997 @result{} [1 "two" (three)] | |
998 @end example | |
999 | |
1000 @xref{Vectors}, for functions that work with vectors. | |
1001 | |
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1002 @node Char-Table Type |
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1003 @subsection Char-Table Type |
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1004 |
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1005 A @dfn{char-table} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type, |
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1006 indexed by character codes. Char-tables have certain extra features to |
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1007 make them more useful for many jobs that involve assigning information |
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1008 to character codes---for example, a char-table can have a parent to |
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1009 inherit from, a default value, and a small number of extra slots to use for |
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1010 special purposes. A char-table can also specify a single value for |
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1011 a whole character set. |
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1012 |
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1013 The printed representation of a char-table is like a vector |
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1014 except that there is an extra @samp{#^} at the beginning. |
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1015 |
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1016 @xref{Char-Tables}, for special functions to operate on char-tables. |
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1017 Uses of char-tables include: |
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1018 |
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1019 @itemize @bullet |
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1020 @item |
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1021 Case tables (@pxref{Case Tables}). |
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1022 |
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1023 @item |
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1024 Character category tables (@pxref{Categories}). |
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1025 |
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1026 @item |
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1027 Display Tables (@pxref{Display Tables}). |
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1028 |
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1029 @item |
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1030 Syntax tables (@pxref{Syntax Tables}). |
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1031 @end itemize |
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1032 |
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1033 @node Bool-Vector Type |
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1034 @subsection Bool-Vector Type |
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1035 |
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1036 A @dfn{bool-vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements that |
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1037 must be @code{t} or @code{nil}. |
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1038 |
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1039 The printed representation of a Bool-vector is like a string, except |
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1040 that it begins with @samp{#&} followed by the length. The string |
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1041 constant that follows actually specifies the contents of the bool-vector |
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1042 as a bitmap---each ``character'' in the string contains 8 bits, which |
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1043 specify the next 8 elements of the bool-vector (1 stands for @code{t}, |
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1044 and 0 for @code{nil}). The least significant bits of the character |
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1045 correspond to the lowest indices in the bool-vector. If the length is not a |
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1046 multiple of 8, the printed representation shows extra elements, but |
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1047 these extras really make no difference. |
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1048 |
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1049 @example |
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1050 (make-bool-vector 3 t) |
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1051 @result{} #&3"\007" |
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1052 (make-bool-vector 3 nil) |
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1053 @result{} #&3"\0" |
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1054 ;; @r{These are equal since only the first 3 bits are used.} |
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1055 (equal #&3"\377" #&3"\007") |
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1056 @result{} t |
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1057 @end example |
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1058 |
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1059 @node Function Type |
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1060 @subsection Function Type |
6447 | 1061 |
1062 Just as functions in other programming languages are executable, | |
1063 @dfn{Lisp function} objects are pieces of executable code. However, | |
1064 functions in Lisp are primarily Lisp objects, and only secondarily the | |
1065 text which represents them. These Lisp objects are lambda expressions: | |
1066 lists whose first element is the symbol @code{lambda} (@pxref{Lambda | |
1067 Expressions}). | |
1068 | |
1069 In most programming languages, it is impossible to have a function | |
1070 without a name. In Lisp, a function has no intrinsic name. A lambda | |
1071 expression is also called an @dfn{anonymous function} (@pxref{Anonymous | |
1072 Functions}). A named function in Lisp is actually a symbol with a valid | |
1073 function in its function cell (@pxref{Defining Functions}). | |
1074 | |
1075 Most of the time, functions are called when their names are written in | |
1076 Lisp expressions in Lisp programs. However, you can construct or obtain | |
1077 a function object at run time and then call it with the primitive | |
1078 functions @code{funcall} and @code{apply}. @xref{Calling Functions}. | |
1079 | |
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1080 @node Macro Type |
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1081 @subsection Macro Type |
6447 | 1082 |
1083 A @dfn{Lisp macro} is a user-defined construct that extends the Lisp | |
1084 language. It is represented as an object much like a function, but with | |
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1085 different argument-passing semantics. A Lisp macro has the form of a |
6447 | 1086 list whose first element is the symbol @code{macro} and whose @sc{cdr} |
1087 is a Lisp function object, including the @code{lambda} symbol. | |
1088 | |
1089 Lisp macro objects are usually defined with the built-in | |
1090 @code{defmacro} function, but any list that begins with @code{macro} is | |
1091 a macro as far as Emacs is concerned. @xref{Macros}, for an explanation | |
1092 of how to write a macro. | |
1093 | |
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1094 @strong{Warning}: Lisp macros and keyboard macros (@pxref{Keyboard |
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1095 Macros}) are entirely different things. When we use the word ``macro'' |
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1096 without qualification, we mean a Lisp macro, not a keyboard macro. |
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1097 |
6447 | 1098 @node Primitive Function Type |
1099 @subsection Primitive Function Type | |
1100 @cindex special forms | |
1101 | |
1102 A @dfn{primitive function} is a function callable from Lisp but | |
1103 written in the C programming language. Primitive functions are also | |
1104 called @dfn{subrs} or @dfn{built-in functions}. (The word ``subr'' is | |
1105 derived from ``subroutine''.) Most primitive functions evaluate all | |
1106 their arguments when they are called. A primitive function that does | |
1107 not evaluate all its arguments is called a @dfn{special form} | |
1108 (@pxref{Special Forms}).@refill | |
1109 | |
1110 It does not matter to the caller of a function whether the function is | |
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1111 primitive. However, this does matter if you try to redefine a primitive |
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1112 with a function written in Lisp. The reason is that the primitive |
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1113 function may be called directly from C code. Calls to the redefined |
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1114 function from Lisp will use the new definition, but calls from C code |
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1115 may still use the built-in definition. Therefore, @strong{we discourage |
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1116 redefinition of primitive functions}. |
6447 | 1117 |
1118 The term @dfn{function} refers to all Emacs functions, whether written | |
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1119 in Lisp or C. @xref{Function Type}, for information about the |
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1120 functions written in Lisp. |
6447 | 1121 |
1122 Primitive functions have no read syntax and print in hash notation | |
1123 with the name of the subroutine. | |
1124 | |
1125 @example | |
1126 @group | |
1127 (symbol-function 'car) ; @r{Access the function cell} | |
1128 ; @r{of the symbol.} | |
1129 @result{} #<subr car> | |
1130 (subrp (symbol-function 'car)) ; @r{Is this a primitive function?} | |
1131 @result{} t ; @r{Yes.} | |
1132 @end group | |
1133 @end example | |
1134 | |
1135 @node Byte-Code Type | |
1136 @subsection Byte-Code Function Type | |
1137 | |
1138 The byte compiler produces @dfn{byte-code function objects}. | |
1139 Internally, a byte-code function object is much like a vector; however, | |
1140 the evaluator handles this data type specially when it appears as a | |
1141 function to be called. @xref{Byte Compilation}, for information about | |
1142 the byte compiler. | |
1143 | |
12098 | 1144 The printed representation and read syntax for a byte-code function |
1145 object is like that for a vector, with an additional @samp{#} before the | |
1146 opening @samp{[}. | |
6447 | 1147 |
1148 @node Autoload Type | |
1149 @subsection Autoload Type | |
1150 | |
1151 An @dfn{autoload object} is a list whose first element is the symbol | |
1152 @code{autoload}. It is stored as the function definition of a symbol as | |
1153 a placeholder for the real definition; it says that the real definition | |
1154 is found in a file of Lisp code that should be loaded when necessary. | |
1155 The autoload object contains the name of the file, plus some other | |
1156 information about the real definition. | |
1157 | |
1158 After the file has been loaded, the symbol should have a new function | |
1159 definition that is not an autoload object. The new definition is then | |
1160 called as if it had been there to begin with. From the user's point of | |
1161 view, the function call works as expected, using the function definition | |
1162 in the loaded file. | |
1163 | |
1164 An autoload object is usually created with the function | |
1165 @code{autoload}, which stores the object in the function cell of a | |
1166 symbol. @xref{Autoload}, for more details. | |
1167 | |
1168 @node Editing Types | |
1169 @section Editing Types | |
1170 @cindex editing types | |
1171 | |
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1172 The types in the previous section are used for general programming |
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1173 purposes, and most of them are common to most Lisp dialects. Emacs Lisp |
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1174 provides several additional data types for purposes connected with |
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1175 editing. |
6447 | 1176 |
1177 @menu | |
1178 * Buffer Type:: The basic object of editing. | |
1179 * Marker Type:: A position in a buffer. | |
1180 * Window Type:: Buffers are displayed in windows. | |
1181 * Frame Type:: Windows subdivide frames. | |
1182 * Window Configuration Type:: Recording the way a frame is subdivided. | |
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1183 * Frame Configuration Type:: Recording the status of all frames. |
6447 | 1184 * Process Type:: A process running on the underlying OS. |
1185 * Stream Type:: Receive or send characters. | |
1186 * Keymap Type:: What function a keystroke invokes. | |
1187 * Overlay Type:: How an overlay is represented. | |
1188 @end menu | |
1189 | |
1190 @node Buffer Type | |
1191 @subsection Buffer Type | |
1192 | |
1193 A @dfn{buffer} is an object that holds text that can be edited | |
1194 (@pxref{Buffers}). Most buffers hold the contents of a disk file | |
1195 (@pxref{Files}) so they can be edited, but some are used for other | |
1196 purposes. Most buffers are also meant to be seen by the user, and | |
1197 therefore displayed, at some time, in a window (@pxref{Windows}). But a | |
1198 buffer need not be displayed in any window. | |
1199 | |
1200 The contents of a buffer are much like a string, but buffers are not | |
1201 used like strings in Emacs Lisp, and the available operations are | |
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1202 different. For example, you can insert text efficiently into an |
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1203 existing buffer, whereas ``inserting'' text into a string requires |
6447 | 1204 concatenating substrings, and the result is an entirely new string |
1205 object. | |
1206 | |
1207 Each buffer has a designated position called @dfn{point} | |
1208 (@pxref{Positions}). At any time, one buffer is the @dfn{current | |
1209 buffer}. Most editing commands act on the contents of the current | |
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1210 buffer in the neighborhood of point. Many of the standard Emacs |
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1211 functions manipulate or test the characters in the current buffer; a |
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1212 whole chapter in this manual is devoted to describing these functions |
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1213 (@pxref{Text}). |
6447 | 1214 |
1215 Several other data structures are associated with each buffer: | |
1216 | |
1217 @itemize @bullet | |
1218 @item | |
1219 a local syntax table (@pxref{Syntax Tables}); | |
1220 | |
1221 @item | |
1222 a local keymap (@pxref{Keymaps}); and, | |
1223 | |
1224 @item | |
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1225 a list of buffer-local variable bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local Variables}). |
12098 | 1226 |
1227 @item | |
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1228 overlays (@pxref{Overlays}). |
12098 | 1229 |
1230 @item | |
1231 text properties for the text in the buffer (@pxref{Text Properties}). | |
6447 | 1232 @end itemize |
1233 | |
1234 @noindent | |
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1235 The local keymap and variable list contain entries that individually |
6447 | 1236 override global bindings or values. These are used to customize the |
1237 behavior of programs in different buffers, without actually changing the | |
1238 programs. | |
1239 | |
12098 | 1240 A buffer may be @dfn{indirect}, which means it shares the text |
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1241 of another buffer, but presents it differently. @xref{Indirect Buffers}. |
12098 | 1242 |
1243 Buffers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, showing the | |
6447 | 1244 buffer name. |
1245 | |
1246 @example | |
1247 @group | |
1248 (current-buffer) | |
1249 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> | |
1250 @end group | |
1251 @end example | |
1252 | |
1253 @node Marker Type | |
1254 @subsection Marker Type | |
1255 | |
1256 A @dfn{marker} denotes a position in a specific buffer. Markers | |
1257 therefore have two components: one for the buffer, and one for the | |
1258 position. Changes in the buffer's text automatically relocate the | |
1259 position value as necessary to ensure that the marker always points | |
1260 between the same two characters in the buffer. | |
1261 | |
1262 Markers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1263 current character position and the name of the buffer. | |
1264 | |
1265 @example | |
1266 @group | |
1267 (point-marker) | |
1268 @result{} #<marker at 10779 in objects.texi> | |
1269 @end group | |
1270 @end example | |
1271 | |
1272 @xref{Markers}, for information on how to test, create, copy, and move | |
1273 markers. | |
1274 | |
1275 @node Window Type | |
1276 @subsection Window Type | |
1277 | |
1278 A @dfn{window} describes the portion of the terminal screen that Emacs | |
1279 uses to display a buffer. Every window has one associated buffer, whose | |
1280 contents appear in the window. By contrast, a given buffer may appear | |
1281 in one window, no window, or several windows. | |
1282 | |
1283 Though many windows may exist simultaneously, at any time one window | |
1284 is designated the @dfn{selected window}. This is the window where the | |
1285 cursor is (usually) displayed when Emacs is ready for a command. The | |
1286 selected window usually displays the current buffer, but this is not | |
1287 necessarily the case. | |
1288 | |
1289 Windows are grouped on the screen into frames; each window belongs to | |
1290 one and only one frame. @xref{Frame Type}. | |
1291 | |
1292 Windows have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1293 window number and the name of the buffer being displayed. The window | |
1294 numbers exist to identify windows uniquely, since the buffer displayed | |
1295 in any given window can change frequently. | |
1296 | |
1297 @example | |
1298 @group | |
1299 (selected-window) | |
1300 @result{} #<window 1 on objects.texi> | |
1301 @end group | |
1302 @end example | |
1303 | |
1304 @xref{Windows}, for a description of the functions that work on windows. | |
1305 | |
1306 @node Frame Type | |
1307 @subsection Frame Type | |
1308 | |
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1309 A @dfn{frame} is a rectangle on the screen that contains one or more |
6447 | 1310 Emacs windows. A frame initially contains a single main window (plus |
1311 perhaps a minibuffer window) which you can subdivide vertically or | |
1312 horizontally into smaller windows. | |
1313 | |
1314 Frames have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1315 frame's title, plus its address in core (useful to identify the frame | |
1316 uniquely). | |
1317 | |
1318 @example | |
1319 @group | |
1320 (selected-frame) | |
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1321 @result{} #<frame emacs@@psilocin.gnu.org 0xdac80> |
6447 | 1322 @end group |
1323 @end example | |
1324 | |
1325 @xref{Frames}, for a description of the functions that work on frames. | |
1326 | |
1327 @node Window Configuration Type | |
1328 @subsection Window Configuration Type | |
1329 @cindex screen layout | |
1330 | |
1331 A @dfn{window configuration} stores information about the positions, | |
1332 sizes, and contents of the windows in a frame, so you can recreate the | |
1333 same arrangement of windows later. | |
1334 | |
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1335 Window configurations do not have a read syntax; their print syntax |
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1336 looks like @samp{#<window-configuration>}. @xref{Window |
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1337 Configurations}, for a description of several functions related to |
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1338 window configurations. |
6447 | 1339 |
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1340 @node Frame Configuration Type |
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1341 @subsection Frame Configuration Type |
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1342 @cindex screen layout |
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1343 |
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1344 A @dfn{frame configuration} stores information about the positions, |
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1345 sizes, and contents of the windows in all frames. It is actually |
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1346 a list whose @sc{car} is @code{frame-configuration} and whose |
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1347 @sc{cdr} is an alist. Each alist element describes one frame, |
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1348 which appears as the @sc{car} of that element. |
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1349 |
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1350 @xref{Frame Configurations}, for a description of several functions |
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1351 related to frame configurations. |
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1352 |
6447 | 1353 @node Process Type |
1354 @subsection Process Type | |
1355 | |
1356 The word @dfn{process} usually means a running program. Emacs itself | |
1357 runs in a process of this sort. However, in Emacs Lisp, a process is a | |
1358 Lisp object that designates a subprocess created by the Emacs process. | |
1359 Programs such as shells, GDB, ftp, and compilers, running in | |
1360 subprocesses of Emacs, extend the capabilities of Emacs. | |
1361 | |
1362 An Emacs subprocess takes textual input from Emacs and returns textual | |
1363 output to Emacs for further manipulation. Emacs can also send signals | |
1364 to the subprocess. | |
1365 | |
1366 Process objects have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, | |
1367 giving the name of the process: | |
1368 | |
1369 @example | |
1370 @group | |
1371 (process-list) | |
1372 @result{} (#<process shell>) | |
1373 @end group | |
1374 @end example | |
1375 | |
1376 @xref{Processes}, for information about functions that create, delete, | |
1377 return information about, send input or signals to, and receive output | |
1378 from processes. | |
1379 | |
1380 @node Stream Type | |
1381 @subsection Stream Type | |
1382 | |
1383 A @dfn{stream} is an object that can be used as a source or sink for | |
1384 characters---either to supply characters for input or to accept them as | |
1385 output. Many different types can be used this way: markers, buffers, | |
1386 strings, and functions. Most often, input streams (character sources) | |
1387 obtain characters from the keyboard, a buffer, or a file, and output | |
1388 streams (character sinks) send characters to a buffer, such as a | |
1389 @file{*Help*} buffer, or to the echo area. | |
1390 | |
1391 The object @code{nil}, in addition to its other meanings, may be used | |
1392 as a stream. It stands for the value of the variable | |
1393 @code{standard-input} or @code{standard-output}. Also, the object | |
1394 @code{t} as a stream specifies input using the minibuffer | |
1395 (@pxref{Minibuffers}) or output in the echo area (@pxref{The Echo | |
1396 Area}). | |
1397 | |
1398 Streams have no special printed representation or read syntax, and | |
1399 print as whatever primitive type they are. | |
1400 | |
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1401 @xref{Read and Print}, for a description of functions |
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1402 related to streams, including parsing and printing functions. |
6447 | 1403 |
1404 @node Keymap Type | |
1405 @subsection Keymap Type | |
1406 | |
1407 A @dfn{keymap} maps keys typed by the user to commands. This mapping | |
1408 controls how the user's command input is executed. A keymap is actually | |
1409 a list whose @sc{car} is the symbol @code{keymap}. | |
1410 | |
1411 @xref{Keymaps}, for information about creating keymaps, handling prefix | |
1412 keys, local as well as global keymaps, and changing key bindings. | |
1413 | |
1414 @node Overlay Type | |
1415 @subsection Overlay Type | |
1416 | |
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1417 An @dfn{overlay} specifies properties that apply to a part of a |
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1418 buffer. Each overlay applies to a specified range of the buffer, and |
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1419 contains a property list (a list whose elements are alternating property |
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1420 names and values). Overlay properties are used to present parts of the |
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1421 buffer temporarily in a different display style. Overlays have no read |
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1422 syntax, and print in hash notation, giving the buffer name and range of |
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1423 positions. |
6447 | 1424 |
12098 | 1425 @xref{Overlays}, for how to create and use overlays. |
6447 | 1426 |
1427 @node Type Predicates | |
1428 @section Type Predicates | |
1429 @cindex predicates | |
1430 @cindex type checking | |
1431 @kindex wrong-type-argument | |
1432 | |
1433 The Emacs Lisp interpreter itself does not perform type checking on | |
1434 the actual arguments passed to functions when they are called. It could | |
1435 not do so, since function arguments in Lisp do not have declared data | |
1436 types, as they do in other programming languages. It is therefore up to | |
1437 the individual function to test whether each actual argument belongs to | |
1438 a type that the function can use. | |
1439 | |
1440 All built-in functions do check the types of their actual arguments | |
1441 when appropriate, and signal a @code{wrong-type-argument} error if an | |
1442 argument is of the wrong type. For example, here is what happens if you | |
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1443 pass an argument to @code{+} that it cannot handle: |
6447 | 1444 |
1445 @example | |
1446 @group | |
1447 (+ 2 'a) | |
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1448 @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, a |
6447 | 1449 @end group |
1450 @end example | |
1451 | |
1452 @cindex type predicates | |
1453 @cindex testing types | |
12067 | 1454 If you want your program to handle different types differently, you |
1455 must do explicit type checking. The most common way to check the type | |
1456 of an object is to call a @dfn{type predicate} function. Emacs has a | |
1457 type predicate for each type, as well as some predicates for | |
1458 combinations of types. | |
1459 | |
1460 A type predicate function takes one argument; it returns @code{t} if | |
1461 the argument belongs to the appropriate type, and @code{nil} otherwise. | |
1462 Following a general Lisp convention for predicate functions, most type | |
1463 predicates' names end with @samp{p}. | |
1464 | |
1465 Here is an example which uses the predicates @code{listp} to check for | |
1466 a list and @code{symbolp} to check for a symbol. | |
6447 | 1467 |
12067 | 1468 @example |
1469 (defun add-on (x) | |
1470 (cond ((symbolp x) | |
1471 ;; If X is a symbol, put it on LIST. | |
1472 (setq list (cons x list))) | |
1473 ((listp x) | |
1474 ;; If X is a list, add its elements to LIST. | |
1475 (setq list (append x list))) | |
1476 (t | |
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1477 ;; We handle only symbols and lists. |
12067 | 1478 (error "Invalid argument %s in add-on" x)))) |
1479 @end example | |
1480 | |
1481 Here is a table of predefined type predicates, in alphabetical order, | |
6447 | 1482 with references to further information. |
1483 | |
1484 @table @code | |
1485 @item atom | |
1486 @xref{List-related Predicates, atom}. | |
1487 | |
1488 @item arrayp | |
1489 @xref{Array Functions, arrayp}. | |
1490 | |
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1491 @item bool-vector-p |
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1492 @xref{Bool-Vectors, bool-vector-p}. |
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1493 |
6447 | 1494 @item bufferp |
1495 @xref{Buffer Basics, bufferp}. | |
1496 | |
1497 @item byte-code-function-p | |
1498 @xref{Byte-Code Type, byte-code-function-p}. | |
1499 | |
1500 @item case-table-p | |
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1501 @xref{Case Tables, case-table-p}. |
6447 | 1502 |
1503 @item char-or-string-p | |
1504 @xref{Predicates for Strings, char-or-string-p}. | |
1505 | |
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1506 @item char-table-p |
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1507 @xref{Char-Tables, char-table-p}. |
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1508 |
6447 | 1509 @item commandp |
1510 @xref{Interactive Call, commandp}. | |
1511 | |
1512 @item consp | |
1513 @xref{List-related Predicates, consp}. | |
1514 | |
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1515 @item display-table-p |
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1516 @xref{Display Tables, display-table-p}. |
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1517 |
6447 | 1518 @item floatp |
1519 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, floatp}. | |
1520 | |
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1521 @item frame-configuration-p |
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1522 @xref{Frame Configurations, frame-configuration-p}. |
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1523 |
6447 | 1524 @item frame-live-p |
1525 @xref{Deleting Frames, frame-live-p}. | |
1526 | |
1527 @item framep | |
1528 @xref{Frames, framep}. | |
1529 | |
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1530 @item functionp |
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1531 @xref{Functions, functionp}. |
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1532 |
6447 | 1533 @item integer-or-marker-p |
1534 @xref{Predicates on Markers, integer-or-marker-p}. | |
1535 | |
1536 @item integerp | |
1537 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, integerp}. | |
1538 | |
1539 @item keymapp | |
1540 @xref{Creating Keymaps, keymapp}. | |
1541 | |
1542 @item listp | |
1543 @xref{List-related Predicates, listp}. | |
1544 | |
1545 @item markerp | |
1546 @xref{Predicates on Markers, markerp}. | |
1547 | |
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1548 @item wholenump |
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1549 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, wholenump}. |
6447 | 1550 |
1551 @item nlistp | |
1552 @xref{List-related Predicates, nlistp}. | |
1553 | |
1554 @item numberp | |
1555 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, numberp}. | |
1556 | |
1557 @item number-or-marker-p | |
1558 @xref{Predicates on Markers, number-or-marker-p}. | |
1559 | |
1560 @item overlayp | |
1561 @xref{Overlays, overlayp}. | |
1562 | |
1563 @item processp | |
1564 @xref{Processes, processp}. | |
1565 | |
1566 @item sequencep | |
1567 @xref{Sequence Functions, sequencep}. | |
1568 | |
1569 @item stringp | |
1570 @xref{Predicates for Strings, stringp}. | |
1571 | |
1572 @item subrp | |
1573 @xref{Function Cells, subrp}. | |
1574 | |
1575 @item symbolp | |
1576 @xref{Symbols, symbolp}. | |
1577 | |
1578 @item syntax-table-p | |
1579 @xref{Syntax Tables, syntax-table-p}. | |
1580 | |
1581 @item user-variable-p | |
1582 @xref{Defining Variables, user-variable-p}. | |
1583 | |
1584 @item vectorp | |
1585 @xref{Vectors, vectorp}. | |
1586 | |
1587 @item window-configuration-p | |
1588 @xref{Window Configurations, window-configuration-p}. | |
1589 | |
1590 @item window-live-p | |
1591 @xref{Deleting Windows, window-live-p}. | |
1592 | |
1593 @item windowp | |
1594 @xref{Basic Windows, windowp}. | |
1595 @end table | |
1596 | |
12067 | 1597 The most general way to check the type of an object is to call the |
1598 function @code{type-of}. Recall that each object belongs to one and | |
1599 only one primitive type; @code{type-of} tells you which one (@pxref{Lisp | |
1600 Data Types}). But @code{type-of} knows nothing about non-primitive | |
1601 types. In most cases, it is more convenient to use type predicates than | |
1602 @code{type-of}. | |
1603 | |
1604 @defun type-of object | |
1605 This function returns a symbol naming the primitive type of | |
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1606 @var{object}. The value is one of the symbols @code{symbol}, |
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1607 @code{integer}, @code{float}, @code{string}, @code{cons}, @code{vector}, |
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1608 @code{char-table}, @code{bool-vector}, @code{subr}, |
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1609 @code{compiled-function}, @code{marker}, @code{overlay}, @code{window}, |
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1610 @code{buffer}, @code{frame}, @code{process}, or |
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1611 @code{window-configuration}. |
12067 | 1612 |
1613 @example | |
1614 (type-of 1) | |
1615 @result{} integer | |
1616 (type-of 'nil) | |
1617 @result{} symbol | |
1618 (type-of '()) ; @r{@code{()} is @code{nil}.} | |
1619 @result{} symbol | |
1620 (type-of '(x)) | |
1621 @result{} cons | |
1622 @end example | |
1623 @end defun | |
1624 | |
6447 | 1625 @node Equality Predicates |
1626 @section Equality Predicates | |
1627 @cindex equality | |
1628 | |
1629 Here we describe two functions that test for equality between any two | |
1630 objects. Other functions test equality between objects of specific | |
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1631 types, e.g., strings. For these predicates, see the appropriate chapter |
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1632 describing the data type. |
6447 | 1633 |
1634 @defun eq object1 object2 | |
1635 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are | |
1636 the same object, @code{nil} otherwise. The ``same object'' means that a | |
1637 change in one will be reflected by the same change in the other. | |
1638 | |
1639 @code{eq} returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are | |
1640 integers with the same value. Also, since symbol names are normally | |
1641 unique, if the arguments are symbols with the same name, they are | |
1642 @code{eq}. For other types (e.g., lists, vectors, strings), two | |
1643 arguments with the same contents or elements are not necessarily | |
1644 @code{eq} to each other: they are @code{eq} only if they are the same | |
1645 object. | |
1646 | |
1647 @example | |
1648 @group | |
1649 (eq 'foo 'foo) | |
1650 @result{} t | |
1651 @end group | |
1652 | |
1653 @group | |
1654 (eq 456 456) | |
1655 @result{} t | |
1656 @end group | |
1657 | |
1658 @group | |
1659 (eq "asdf" "asdf") | |
1660 @result{} nil | |
1661 @end group | |
1662 | |
1663 @group | |
1664 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1665 @result{} nil | |
1666 @end group | |
1667 | |
1668 @group | |
1669 (setq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1670 @result{} (1 (2 (3))) | |
1671 (eq foo foo) | |
1672 @result{} t | |
1673 (eq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1674 @result{} nil | |
1675 @end group | |
1676 | |
1677 @group | |
1678 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1679 @result{} nil | |
1680 @end group | |
1681 | |
1682 @group | |
1683 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1684 @result{} nil | |
1685 @end group | |
1686 @end example | |
1687 | |
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1688 The @code{make-symbol} function returns an uninterned symbol, distinct |
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1689 from the symbol that is used if you write the name in a Lisp expression. |
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1690 Distinct symbols with the same name are not @code{eq}. @xref{Creating |
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1691 Symbols}. |
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1692 |
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1693 @example |
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1694 @group |
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1695 (eq (make-symbol "foo") 'foo) |
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1696 @result{} nil |
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1697 @end group |
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1698 @end example |
6447 | 1699 @end defun |
1700 | |
1701 @defun equal object1 object2 | |
1702 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} have | |
1703 equal components, @code{nil} otherwise. Whereas @code{eq} tests if its | |
1704 arguments are the same object, @code{equal} looks inside nonidentical | |
1705 arguments to see if their elements are the same. So, if two objects are | |
1706 @code{eq}, they are @code{equal}, but the converse is not always true. | |
1707 | |
1708 @example | |
1709 @group | |
1710 (equal 'foo 'foo) | |
1711 @result{} t | |
1712 @end group | |
1713 | |
1714 @group | |
1715 (equal 456 456) | |
1716 @result{} t | |
1717 @end group | |
1718 | |
1719 @group | |
1720 (equal "asdf" "asdf") | |
1721 @result{} t | |
1722 @end group | |
1723 @group | |
1724 (eq "asdf" "asdf") | |
1725 @result{} nil | |
1726 @end group | |
1727 | |
1728 @group | |
1729 (equal '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1730 @result{} t | |
1731 @end group | |
1732 @group | |
1733 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1734 @result{} nil | |
1735 @end group | |
1736 | |
1737 @group | |
1738 (equal [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1739 @result{} t | |
1740 @end group | |
1741 @group | |
1742 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1743 @result{} nil | |
1744 @end group | |
1745 | |
1746 @group | |
1747 (equal (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1748 @result{} t | |
1749 @end group | |
1750 | |
1751 @group | |
1752 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1753 @result{} nil | |
1754 @end group | |
1755 @end example | |
1756 | |
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1757 Comparison of strings is case-sensitive, but does not take account of |
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1758 text properties---it compares only the characters in the strings. |
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1759 A unibyte string never equals a multibyte string unless the |
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1760 contents are entirely @sc{ASCII} (@pxref{Text Representations}). |
6447 | 1761 |
1762 @example | |
1763 @group | |
1764 (equal "asdf" "ASDF") | |
1765 @result{} nil | |
1766 @end group | |
1767 @end example | |
12098 | 1768 |
1769 Two distinct buffers are never @code{equal}, even if their contents | |
1770 are the same. | |
6447 | 1771 @end defun |
1772 | |
1773 The test for equality is implemented recursively, and circular lists may | |
1774 therefore cause infinite recursion (leading to an error). |