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annotate lispref/functions.texi @ 30233:1e2f2a050a93
(malloc) [emacs]: Define as xmalloc.
author | Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org> |
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date | Fri, 14 Jul 2000 18:00:36 +0000 |
parents | 5b1d0cd10db8 |
children | fa2cc4f8942e |
rev | line source |
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6455 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
27189 | 3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999 |
4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc. | |
6455 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/functions | |
7 @node Functions, Macros, Variables, Top | |
8 @chapter Functions | |
9 | |
10 A Lisp program is composed mainly of Lisp functions. This chapter | |
11 explains what functions are, how they accept arguments, and how to | |
12 define them. | |
13 | |
14 @menu | |
15 * What Is a Function:: Lisp functions vs. primitives; terminology. | |
16 * Lambda Expressions:: How functions are expressed as Lisp objects. | |
17 * Function Names:: A symbol can serve as the name of a function. | |
18 * Defining Functions:: Lisp expressions for defining functions. | |
19 * Calling Functions:: How to use an existing function. | |
20 * Mapping Functions:: Applying a function to each element of a list, etc. | |
21 * Anonymous Functions:: Lambda expressions are functions with no names. | |
22 * Function Cells:: Accessing or setting the function definition | |
23 of a symbol. | |
24 * Inline Functions:: Defining functions that the compiler will open code. | |
25 * Related Topics:: Cross-references to specific Lisp primitives | |
26 that have a special bearing on how functions work. | |
27 @end menu | |
28 | |
29 @node What Is a Function | |
30 @section What Is a Function? | |
31 | |
32 In a general sense, a function is a rule for carrying on a computation | |
33 given several values called @dfn{arguments}. The result of the | |
34 computation is called the value of the function. The computation can | |
35 also have side effects: lasting changes in the values of variables or | |
36 the contents of data structures. | |
37 | |
38 Here are important terms for functions in Emacs Lisp and for other | |
39 function-like objects. | |
40 | |
41 @table @dfn | |
42 @item function | |
43 @cindex function | |
44 In Emacs Lisp, a @dfn{function} is anything that can be applied to | |
45 arguments in a Lisp program. In some cases, we use it more | |
46 specifically to mean a function written in Lisp. Special forms and | |
47 macros are not functions. | |
48 | |
49 @item primitive | |
50 @cindex primitive | |
51 @cindex subr | |
52 @cindex built-in function | |
53 A @dfn{primitive} is a function callable from Lisp that is written in C, | |
54 such as @code{car} or @code{append}. These functions are also called | |
55 @dfn{built-in} functions or @dfn{subrs}. (Special forms are also | |
56 considered primitives.) | |
57 | |
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58 Usually the reason we implement a function as a primitive is either |
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59 because it is fundamental, because it provides a low-level interface to |
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60 operating system services, or because it needs to run fast. Primitives |
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61 can be modified or added only by changing the C sources and recompiling |
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62 the editor. See @ref{Writing Emacs Primitives}. |
6455 | 63 |
64 @item lambda expression | |
65 A @dfn{lambda expression} is a function written in Lisp. | |
66 These are described in the following section. | |
27193 | 67 @ifnottex |
6455 | 68 @xref{Lambda Expressions}. |
27193 | 69 @end ifnottex |
6455 | 70 |
71 @item special form | |
72 A @dfn{special form} is a primitive that is like a function but does not | |
73 evaluate all of its arguments in the usual way. It may evaluate only | |
74 some of the arguments, or may evaluate them in an unusual order, or | |
75 several times. Many special forms are described in @ref{Control | |
76 Structures}. | |
77 | |
78 @item macro | |
79 @cindex macro | |
80 A @dfn{macro} is a construct defined in Lisp by the programmer. It | |
81 differs from a function in that it translates a Lisp expression that you | |
82 write into an equivalent expression to be evaluated instead of the | |
12098 | 83 original expression. Macros enable Lisp programmers to do the sorts of |
84 things that special forms can do. @xref{Macros}, for how to define and | |
85 use macros. | |
6455 | 86 |
87 @item command | |
88 @cindex command | |
89 A @dfn{command} is an object that @code{command-execute} can invoke; it | |
90 is a possible definition for a key sequence. Some functions are | |
91 commands; a function written in Lisp is a command if it contains an | |
92 interactive declaration (@pxref{Defining Commands}). Such a function | |
93 can be called from Lisp expressions like other functions; in this case, | |
94 the fact that the function is a command makes no difference. | |
95 | |
96 Keyboard macros (strings and vectors) are commands also, even though | |
97 they are not functions. A symbol is a command if its function | |
98 definition is a command; such symbols can be invoked with @kbd{M-x}. | |
99 The symbol is a function as well if the definition is a function. | |
100 @xref{Command Overview}. | |
101 | |
102 @item keystroke command | |
103 @cindex keystroke command | |
104 A @dfn{keystroke command} is a command that is bound to a key sequence | |
105 (typically one to three keystrokes). The distinction is made here | |
106 merely to avoid confusion with the meaning of ``command'' in non-Emacs | |
107 editors; for Lisp programs, the distinction is normally unimportant. | |
108 | |
109 @item byte-code function | |
110 A @dfn{byte-code function} is a function that has been compiled by the | |
111 byte compiler. @xref{Byte-Code Type}. | |
112 @end table | |
113 | |
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114 @defun functionp object |
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115 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is any kind of function, |
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116 or a special form or macro. |
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117 @end defun |
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118 |
6455 | 119 @defun subrp object |
120 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a built-in function | |
121 (i.e., a Lisp primitive). | |
122 | |
123 @example | |
124 @group | |
125 (subrp 'message) ; @r{@code{message} is a symbol,} | |
126 @result{} nil ; @r{not a subr object.} | |
127 @end group | |
128 @group | |
129 (subrp (symbol-function 'message)) | |
130 @result{} t | |
131 @end group | |
132 @end example | |
133 @end defun | |
134 | |
135 @defun byte-code-function-p object | |
136 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a byte-code | |
137 function. For example: | |
138 | |
139 @example | |
140 @group | |
141 (byte-code-function-p (symbol-function 'next-line)) | |
142 @result{} t | |
143 @end group | |
144 @end example | |
145 @end defun | |
146 | |
147 @node Lambda Expressions | |
148 @section Lambda Expressions | |
149 @cindex lambda expression | |
150 | |
151 A function written in Lisp is a list that looks like this: | |
152 | |
153 @example | |
154 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{}) | |
155 @r{[}@var{documentation-string}@r{]} | |
156 @r{[}@var{interactive-declaration}@r{]} | |
157 @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
158 @end example | |
159 | |
160 @noindent | |
12098 | 161 Such a list is called a @dfn{lambda expression}. In Emacs Lisp, it |
162 actually is valid as an expression---it evaluates to itself. In some | |
163 other Lisp dialects, a lambda expression is not a valid expression at | |
164 all. In either case, its main use is not to be evaluated as an | |
165 expression, but to be called as a function. | |
6455 | 166 |
167 @menu | |
168 * Lambda Components:: The parts of a lambda expression. | |
169 * Simple Lambda:: A simple example. | |
170 * Argument List:: Details and special features of argument lists. | |
171 * Function Documentation:: How to put documentation in a function. | |
172 @end menu | |
173 | |
174 @node Lambda Components | |
175 @subsection Components of a Lambda Expression | |
176 | |
27193 | 177 @ifnottex |
6455 | 178 |
179 A function written in Lisp (a ``lambda expression'') is a list that | |
180 looks like this: | |
181 | |
182 @example | |
183 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{}) | |
184 [@var{documentation-string}] | |
185 [@var{interactive-declaration}] | |
186 @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
187 @end example | |
27193 | 188 @end ifnottex |
6455 | 189 |
190 @cindex lambda list | |
191 The first element of a lambda expression is always the symbol | |
192 @code{lambda}. This indicates that the list represents a function. The | |
193 reason functions are defined to start with @code{lambda} is so that | |
194 other lists, intended for other uses, will not accidentally be valid as | |
195 functions. | |
196 | |
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197 The second element is a list of symbols---the argument variable names. |
6455 | 198 This is called the @dfn{lambda list}. When a Lisp function is called, |
199 the argument values are matched up against the variables in the lambda | |
200 list, which are given local bindings with the values provided. | |
201 @xref{Local Variables}. | |
202 | |
7193 | 203 The documentation string is a Lisp string object placed within the |
204 function definition to describe the function for the Emacs help | |
205 facilities. @xref{Function Documentation}. | |
6455 | 206 |
207 The interactive declaration is a list of the form @code{(interactive | |
208 @var{code-string})}. This declares how to provide arguments if the | |
209 function is used interactively. Functions with this declaration are called | |
210 @dfn{commands}; they can be called using @kbd{M-x} or bound to a key. | |
211 Functions not intended to be called in this way should not have interactive | |
212 declarations. @xref{Defining Commands}, for how to write an interactive | |
213 declaration. | |
214 | |
215 @cindex body of function | |
216 The rest of the elements are the @dfn{body} of the function: the Lisp | |
217 code to do the work of the function (or, as a Lisp programmer would say, | |
218 ``a list of Lisp forms to evaluate''). The value returned by the | |
219 function is the value returned by the last element of the body. | |
220 | |
221 @node Simple Lambda | |
222 @subsection A Simple Lambda-Expression Example | |
223 | |
224 Consider for example the following function: | |
225 | |
226 @example | |
227 (lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
228 @end example | |
229 | |
230 @noindent | |
231 We can call this function by writing it as the @sc{car} of an | |
232 expression, like this: | |
233 | |
234 @example | |
235 @group | |
236 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
237 1 2 3) | |
238 @end group | |
239 @end example | |
240 | |
241 @noindent | |
242 This call evaluates the body of the lambda expression with the variable | |
243 @code{a} bound to 1, @code{b} bound to 2, and @code{c} bound to 3. | |
244 Evaluation of the body adds these three numbers, producing the result 6; | |
245 therefore, this call to the function returns the value 6. | |
246 | |
247 Note that the arguments can be the results of other function calls, as in | |
248 this example: | |
249 | |
250 @example | |
251 @group | |
252 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
253 1 (* 2 3) (- 5 4)) | |
254 @end group | |
255 @end example | |
256 | |
257 @noindent | |
258 This evaluates the arguments @code{1}, @code{(* 2 3)}, and @code{(- 5 | |
7193 | 259 4)} from left to right. Then it applies the lambda expression to the |
260 argument values 1, 6 and 1 to produce the value 8. | |
6455 | 261 |
262 It is not often useful to write a lambda expression as the @sc{car} of | |
263 a form in this way. You can get the same result, of making local | |
264 variables and giving them values, using the special form @code{let} | |
265 (@pxref{Local Variables}). And @code{let} is clearer and easier to use. | |
266 In practice, lambda expressions are either stored as the function | |
267 definitions of symbols, to produce named functions, or passed as | |
268 arguments to other functions (@pxref{Anonymous Functions}). | |
269 | |
270 However, calls to explicit lambda expressions were very useful in the | |
271 old days of Lisp, before the special form @code{let} was invented. At | |
272 that time, they were the only way to bind and initialize local | |
273 variables. | |
274 | |
275 @node Argument List | |
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276 @subsection Other Features of Argument Lists |
6455 | 277 @kindex wrong-number-of-arguments |
278 @cindex argument binding | |
279 @cindex binding arguments | |
280 | |
281 Our simple sample function, @code{(lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))}, | |
282 specifies three argument variables, so it must be called with three | |
283 arguments: if you try to call it with only two arguments or four | |
284 arguments, you get a @code{wrong-number-of-arguments} error. | |
285 | |
286 It is often convenient to write a function that allows certain | |
287 arguments to be omitted. For example, the function @code{substring} | |
288 accepts three arguments---a string, the start index and the end | |
289 index---but the third argument defaults to the @var{length} of the | |
290 string if you omit it. It is also convenient for certain functions to | |
7193 | 291 accept an indefinite number of arguments, as the functions @code{list} |
6455 | 292 and @code{+} do. |
293 | |
294 @cindex optional arguments | |
295 @cindex rest arguments | |
296 @kindex &optional | |
297 @kindex &rest | |
298 To specify optional arguments that may be omitted when a function | |
299 is called, simply include the keyword @code{&optional} before the optional | |
300 arguments. To specify a list of zero or more extra arguments, include the | |
301 keyword @code{&rest} before one final argument. | |
302 | |
303 Thus, the complete syntax for an argument list is as follows: | |
304 | |
305 @example | |
306 @group | |
307 (@var{required-vars}@dots{} | |
308 @r{[}&optional @var{optional-vars}@dots{}@r{]} | |
309 @r{[}&rest @var{rest-var}@r{]}) | |
310 @end group | |
311 @end example | |
312 | |
313 @noindent | |
314 The square brackets indicate that the @code{&optional} and @code{&rest} | |
315 clauses, and the variables that follow them, are optional. | |
316 | |
317 A call to the function requires one actual argument for each of the | |
318 @var{required-vars}. There may be actual arguments for zero or more of | |
319 the @var{optional-vars}, and there cannot be any actual arguments beyond | |
320 that unless the lambda list uses @code{&rest}. In that case, there may | |
321 be any number of extra actual arguments. | |
322 | |
323 If actual arguments for the optional and rest variables are omitted, | |
7193 | 324 then they always default to @code{nil}. There is no way for the |
6455 | 325 function to distinguish between an explicit argument of @code{nil} and |
7193 | 326 an omitted argument. However, the body of the function is free to |
327 consider @code{nil} an abbreviation for some other meaningful value. | |
328 This is what @code{substring} does; @code{nil} as the third argument to | |
329 @code{substring} means to use the length of the string supplied. | |
6455 | 330 |
331 @cindex CL note---default optional arg | |
332 @quotation | |
333 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp allows the function to specify what | |
334 default value to use when an optional argument is omitted; Emacs Lisp | |
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335 always uses @code{nil}. Emacs Lisp does not support ``supplied-p'' |
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336 variables that tell you whether an argument was explicitly passed. |
6455 | 337 @end quotation |
338 | |
339 For example, an argument list that looks like this: | |
340 | |
341 @example | |
342 (a b &optional c d &rest e) | |
343 @end example | |
344 | |
345 @noindent | |
346 binds @code{a} and @code{b} to the first two actual arguments, which are | |
347 required. If one or two more arguments are provided, @code{c} and | |
348 @code{d} are bound to them respectively; any arguments after the first | |
349 four are collected into a list and @code{e} is bound to that list. If | |
350 there are only two arguments, @code{c} is @code{nil}; if two or three | |
351 arguments, @code{d} is @code{nil}; if four arguments or fewer, @code{e} | |
352 is @code{nil}. | |
353 | |
354 There is no way to have required arguments following optional | |
355 ones---it would not make sense. To see why this must be so, suppose | |
356 that @code{c} in the example were optional and @code{d} were required. | |
357 Suppose three actual arguments are given; which variable would the third | |
358 argument be for? Similarly, it makes no sense to have any more | |
359 arguments (either required or optional) after a @code{&rest} argument. | |
360 | |
361 Here are some examples of argument lists and proper calls: | |
362 | |
363 @smallexample | |
364 ((lambda (n) (1+ n)) ; @r{One required:} | |
365 1) ; @r{requires exactly one argument.} | |
366 @result{} 2 | |
367 ((lambda (n &optional n1) ; @r{One required and one optional:} | |
368 (if n1 (+ n n1) (1+ n))) ; @r{1 or 2 arguments.} | |
369 1 2) | |
370 @result{} 3 | |
371 ((lambda (n &rest ns) ; @r{One required and one rest:} | |
372 (+ n (apply '+ ns))) ; @r{1 or more arguments.} | |
373 1 2 3 4 5) | |
374 @result{} 15 | |
375 @end smallexample | |
376 | |
377 @node Function Documentation | |
378 @subsection Documentation Strings of Functions | |
379 @cindex documentation of function | |
380 | |
381 A lambda expression may optionally have a @dfn{documentation string} just | |
382 after the lambda list. This string does not affect execution of the | |
383 function; it is a kind of comment, but a systematized comment which | |
384 actually appears inside the Lisp world and can be used by the Emacs help | |
385 facilities. @xref{Documentation}, for how the @var{documentation-string} is | |
386 accessed. | |
387 | |
12098 | 388 It is a good idea to provide documentation strings for all the |
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389 functions in your program, even those that are called only from within |
12098 | 390 your program. Documentation strings are like comments, except that they |
391 are easier to access. | |
6455 | 392 |
393 The first line of the documentation string should stand on its own, | |
394 because @code{apropos} displays just this first line. It should consist | |
395 of one or two complete sentences that summarize the function's purpose. | |
396 | |
12098 | 397 The start of the documentation string is usually indented in the source file, |
398 but since these spaces come before the starting double-quote, they are not part of | |
6455 | 399 the string. Some people make a practice of indenting any additional |
7193 | 400 lines of the string so that the text lines up in the program source. |
401 @emph{This is a mistake.} The indentation of the following lines is | |
402 inside the string; what looks nice in the source code will look ugly | |
403 when displayed by the help commands. | |
6455 | 404 |
405 You may wonder how the documentation string could be optional, since | |
406 there are required components of the function that follow it (the body). | |
407 Since evaluation of a string returns that string, without any side effects, | |
408 it has no effect if it is not the last form in the body. Thus, in | |
409 practice, there is no confusion between the first form of the body and the | |
410 documentation string; if the only body form is a string then it serves both | |
411 as the return value and as the documentation. | |
412 | |
413 @node Function Names | |
414 @section Naming a Function | |
415 @cindex function definition | |
416 @cindex named function | |
417 @cindex function name | |
418 | |
419 In most computer languages, every function has a name; the idea of a | |
420 function without a name is nonsensical. In Lisp, a function in the | |
421 strictest sense has no name. It is simply a list whose first element is | |
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422 @code{lambda}, a byte-code function object, or a primitive subr-object. |
6455 | 423 |
424 However, a symbol can serve as the name of a function. This happens | |
425 when you put the function in the symbol's @dfn{function cell} | |
426 (@pxref{Symbol Components}). Then the symbol itself becomes a valid, | |
427 callable function, equivalent to the list or subr-object that its | |
428 function cell refers to. The contents of the function cell are also | |
429 called the symbol's @dfn{function definition}. The procedure of using a | |
430 symbol's function definition in place of the symbol is called | |
431 @dfn{symbol function indirection}; see @ref{Function Indirection}. | |
432 | |
433 In practice, nearly all functions are given names in this way and | |
434 referred to through their names. For example, the symbol @code{car} works | |
435 as a function and does what it does because the primitive subr-object | |
436 @code{#<subr car>} is stored in its function cell. | |
437 | |
438 We give functions names because it is convenient to refer to them by | |
439 their names in Lisp expressions. For primitive subr-objects such as | |
440 @code{#<subr car>}, names are the only way you can refer to them: there | |
441 is no read syntax for such objects. For functions written in Lisp, the | |
442 name is more convenient to use in a call than an explicit lambda | |
443 expression. Also, a function with a name can refer to itself---it can | |
444 be recursive. Writing the function's name in its own definition is much | |
445 more convenient than making the function definition point to itself | |
446 (something that is not impossible but that has various disadvantages in | |
447 practice). | |
448 | |
449 We often identify functions with the symbols used to name them. For | |
450 example, we often speak of ``the function @code{car}'', not | |
451 distinguishing between the symbol @code{car} and the primitive | |
452 subr-object that is its function definition. For most purposes, there | |
453 is no need to distinguish. | |
454 | |
455 Even so, keep in mind that a function need not have a unique name. While | |
456 a given function object @emph{usually} appears in the function cell of only | |
457 one symbol, this is just a matter of convenience. It is easy to store | |
458 it in several symbols using @code{fset}; then each of the symbols is | |
459 equally well a name for the same function. | |
460 | |
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461 A symbol used as a function name may also be used as a variable; these |
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462 two uses of a symbol are independent and do not conflict. (Some Lisp |
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463 dialects, such as Scheme, do not distinguish between a symbol's value |
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464 and its function definition; a symbol's value as a variable is also its |
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465 function definition.) If you have not given a symbol a function |
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466 definition, you cannot use it as a function; whether the symbol has a |
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467 value as a variable makes no difference to this. |
6455 | 468 |
469 @node Defining Functions | |
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470 @section Defining Functions |
6455 | 471 @cindex defining a function |
472 | |
473 We usually give a name to a function when it is first created. This | |
474 is called @dfn{defining a function}, and it is done with the | |
475 @code{defun} special form. | |
476 | |
477 @defspec defun name argument-list body-forms | |
478 @code{defun} is the usual way to define new Lisp functions. It | |
479 defines the symbol @var{name} as a function that looks like this: | |
480 | |
481 @example | |
482 (lambda @var{argument-list} . @var{body-forms}) | |
483 @end example | |
484 | |
485 @code{defun} stores this lambda expression in the function cell of | |
486 @var{name}. It returns the value @var{name}, but usually we ignore this | |
487 value. | |
488 | |
489 As described previously (@pxref{Lambda Expressions}), | |
490 @var{argument-list} is a list of argument names and may include the | |
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491 keywords @code{&optional} and @code{&rest}. Also, the first two of the |
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492 @var{body-forms} may be a documentation string and an interactive |
6455 | 493 declaration. |
494 | |
495 There is no conflict if the same symbol @var{name} is also used as a | |
496 variable, since the symbol's value cell is independent of the function | |
497 cell. @xref{Symbol Components}. | |
498 | |
499 Here are some examples: | |
500 | |
501 @example | |
502 @group | |
503 (defun foo () 5) | |
504 @result{} foo | |
505 @end group | |
506 @group | |
507 (foo) | |
508 @result{} 5 | |
509 @end group | |
510 | |
511 @group | |
512 (defun bar (a &optional b &rest c) | |
513 (list a b c)) | |
514 @result{} bar | |
515 @end group | |
516 @group | |
517 (bar 1 2 3 4 5) | |
518 @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5)) | |
519 @end group | |
520 @group | |
521 (bar 1) | |
522 @result{} (1 nil nil) | |
523 @end group | |
524 @group | |
525 (bar) | |
526 @error{} Wrong number of arguments. | |
527 @end group | |
528 | |
529 @group | |
530 (defun capitalize-backwards () | |
531 "Upcase the last letter of a word." | |
532 (interactive) | |
533 (backward-word 1) | |
534 (forward-word 1) | |
535 (backward-char 1) | |
536 (capitalize-word 1)) | |
537 @result{} capitalize-backwards | |
538 @end group | |
539 @end example | |
540 | |
541 Be careful not to redefine existing functions unintentionally. | |
542 @code{defun} redefines even primitive functions such as @code{car} | |
543 without any hesitation or notification. Redefining a function already | |
544 defined is often done deliberately, and there is no way to distinguish | |
545 deliberate redefinition from unintentional redefinition. | |
546 @end defspec | |
547 | |
548 @defun defalias name definition | |
549 This special form defines the symbol @var{name} as a function, with | |
7193 | 550 definition @var{definition} (which can be any valid Lisp function). |
12098 | 551 |
552 The proper place to use @code{defalias} is where a specific function | |
553 name is being defined---especially where that name appears explicitly in | |
554 the source file being loaded. This is because @code{defalias} records | |
555 which file defined the function, just like @code{defun} | |
556 (@pxref{Unloading}). | |
557 | |
558 By contrast, in programs that manipulate function definitions for other | |
559 purposes, it is better to use @code{fset}, which does not keep such | |
560 records. | |
6455 | 561 @end defun |
562 | |
12098 | 563 See also @code{defsubst}, which defines a function like @code{defun} |
564 and tells the Lisp compiler to open-code it. @xref{Inline Functions}. | |
565 | |
6455 | 566 @node Calling Functions |
567 @section Calling Functions | |
568 @cindex function invocation | |
569 @cindex calling a function | |
570 | |
571 Defining functions is only half the battle. Functions don't do | |
572 anything until you @dfn{call} them, i.e., tell them to run. Calling a | |
573 function is also known as @dfn{invocation}. | |
574 | |
7193 | 575 The most common way of invoking a function is by evaluating a list. |
576 For example, evaluating the list @code{(concat "a" "b")} calls the | |
577 function @code{concat} with arguments @code{"a"} and @code{"b"}. | |
578 @xref{Evaluation}, for a description of evaluation. | |
6455 | 579 |
580 When you write a list as an expression in your program, the function | |
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581 name it calls is written in your program. This means that you choose |
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582 which function to call, and how many arguments to give it, when you |
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583 write the program. Usually that's just what you want. Occasionally you |
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584 need to compute at run time which function to call. To do that, use the |
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585 function @code{funcall}. When you also need to determine at run time |
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586 how many arguments to pass, use @code{apply}. |
6455 | 587 |
588 @defun funcall function &rest arguments | |
589 @code{funcall} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, and returns | |
590 whatever @var{function} returns. | |
591 | |
592 Since @code{funcall} is a function, all of its arguments, including | |
593 @var{function}, are evaluated before @code{funcall} is called. This | |
594 means that you can use any expression to obtain the function to be | |
595 called. It also means that @code{funcall} does not see the expressions | |
596 you write for the @var{arguments}, only their values. These values are | |
597 @emph{not} evaluated a second time in the act of calling @var{function}; | |
598 @code{funcall} enters the normal procedure for calling a function at the | |
599 place where the arguments have already been evaluated. | |
600 | |
601 The argument @var{function} must be either a Lisp function or a | |
602 primitive function. Special forms and macros are not allowed, because | |
603 they make sense only when given the ``unevaluated'' argument | |
604 expressions. @code{funcall} cannot provide these because, as we saw | |
605 above, it never knows them in the first place. | |
606 | |
607 @example | |
608 @group | |
609 (setq f 'list) | |
610 @result{} list | |
611 @end group | |
612 @group | |
613 (funcall f 'x 'y 'z) | |
614 @result{} (x y z) | |
615 @end group | |
616 @group | |
617 (funcall f 'x 'y '(z)) | |
618 @result{} (x y (z)) | |
619 @end group | |
620 @group | |
621 (funcall 'and t nil) | |
622 @error{} Invalid function: #<subr and> | |
623 @end group | |
624 @end example | |
625 | |
26192 | 626 Compare these examples with the examples of @code{apply}. |
6455 | 627 @end defun |
628 | |
629 @defun apply function &rest arguments | |
630 @code{apply} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, just like | |
631 @code{funcall} but with one difference: the last of @var{arguments} is a | |
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632 list of objects, which are passed to @var{function} as separate |
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633 arguments, rather than a single list. We say that @code{apply} |
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634 @dfn{spreads} this list so that each individual element becomes an |
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635 argument. |
6455 | 636 |
637 @code{apply} returns the result of calling @var{function}. As with | |
638 @code{funcall}, @var{function} must either be a Lisp function or a | |
639 primitive function; special forms and macros do not make sense in | |
640 @code{apply}. | |
641 | |
642 @example | |
643 @group | |
644 (setq f 'list) | |
645 @result{} list | |
646 @end group | |
647 @group | |
648 (apply f 'x 'y 'z) | |
649 @error{} Wrong type argument: listp, z | |
650 @end group | |
651 @group | |
652 (apply '+ 1 2 '(3 4)) | |
653 @result{} 10 | |
654 @end group | |
655 @group | |
656 (apply '+ '(1 2 3 4)) | |
657 @result{} 10 | |
658 @end group | |
659 | |
660 @group | |
661 (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil)) | |
662 @result{} (a b c x y z) | |
663 @end group | |
664 @end example | |
665 | |
666 For an interesting example of using @code{apply}, see the description of | |
667 @code{mapcar}, in @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
668 @end defun | |
669 | |
670 @cindex functionals | |
671 It is common for Lisp functions to accept functions as arguments or | |
672 find them in data structures (especially in hook variables and property | |
673 lists) and call them using @code{funcall} or @code{apply}. Functions | |
674 that accept function arguments are often called @dfn{functionals}. | |
675 | |
12098 | 676 Sometimes, when you call a functional, it is useful to supply a no-op |
677 function as the argument. Here are two different kinds of no-op | |
6455 | 678 function: |
679 | |
680 @defun identity arg | |
681 This function returns @var{arg} and has no side effects. | |
682 @end defun | |
683 | |
684 @defun ignore &rest args | |
685 This function ignores any arguments and returns @code{nil}. | |
686 @end defun | |
687 | |
688 @node Mapping Functions | |
689 @section Mapping Functions | |
690 @cindex mapping functions | |
691 | |
692 A @dfn{mapping function} applies a given function to each element of a | |
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693 list or other collection. Emacs Lisp has several such functions; |
6455 | 694 @code{mapcar} and @code{mapconcat}, which scan a list, are described |
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695 here. @xref{Creating Symbols}, for the function @code{mapatoms} which |
26192 | 696 maps over the symbols in an obarray. @xref{Hash Access}, for the |
697 function @code{maphash} which maps over key/value associations in a | |
698 hash table. | |
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699 |
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700 These mapping functions do not allow char-tables because a char-table |
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701 is a sparse array whose nominal range of indices is very large. To map |
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702 over a char-table in a way that deals properly with its sparse nature, |
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703 use the function @code{map-char-table} (@pxref{Char-Tables}). |
6455 | 704 |
705 @defun mapcar function sequence | |
7193 | 706 @code{mapcar} applies @var{function} to each element of @var{sequence} |
707 in turn, and returns a list of the results. | |
6455 | 708 |
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709 The argument @var{sequence} can be any kind of sequence except a |
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710 char-table; that is, a list, a vector, a bool-vector, or a string. The |
6455 | 711 result is always a list. The length of the result is the same as the |
712 length of @var{sequence}. | |
713 | |
714 @smallexample | |
715 @group | |
716 @exdent @r{For example:} | |
717 | |
718 (mapcar 'car '((a b) (c d) (e f))) | |
719 @result{} (a c e) | |
720 (mapcar '1+ [1 2 3]) | |
721 @result{} (2 3 4) | |
722 (mapcar 'char-to-string "abc") | |
723 @result{} ("a" "b" "c") | |
724 @end group | |
725 | |
726 @group | |
727 ;; @r{Call each function in @code{my-hooks}.} | |
728 (mapcar 'funcall my-hooks) | |
729 @end group | |
730 | |
731 @group | |
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732 (defun mapcar* (function &rest args) |
6455 | 733 "Apply FUNCTION to successive cars of all ARGS. |
734 Return the list of results." | |
735 ;; @r{If no list is exhausted,} | |
736 (if (not (memq 'nil args)) | |
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737 ;; @r{apply function to @sc{car}s.} |
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738 (cons (apply function (mapcar 'car args)) |
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739 (apply 'mapcar* function |
6455 | 740 ;; @r{Recurse for rest of elements.} |
741 (mapcar 'cdr args))))) | |
742 @end group | |
743 | |
744 @group | |
745 (mapcar* 'cons '(a b c) '(1 2 3 4)) | |
746 @result{} ((a . 1) (b . 2) (c . 3)) | |
747 @end group | |
748 @end smallexample | |
749 @end defun | |
750 | |
28556 | 751 @defun mapc function sequence |
752 @tindex mapc | |
753 @code{mapc} is like @code{mapcar} except that @var{function} is used for | |
754 side-effects only---the values it returns are ignored, not collected | |
755 into a list. @code{mapc} always returns @var{sequence}. | |
756 @end defun | |
757 | |
6455 | 758 @defun mapconcat function sequence separator |
759 @code{mapconcat} applies @var{function} to each element of | |
760 @var{sequence}: the results, which must be strings, are concatenated. | |
761 Between each pair of result strings, @code{mapconcat} inserts the string | |
762 @var{separator}. Usually @var{separator} contains a space or comma or | |
763 other suitable punctuation. | |
764 | |
765 The argument @var{function} must be a function that can take one | |
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766 argument and return a string. The argument @var{sequence} can be any |
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767 kind of sequence except a char-table; that is, a list, a vector, a |
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768 bool-vector, or a string. |
6455 | 769 |
770 @smallexample | |
771 @group | |
772 (mapconcat 'symbol-name | |
773 '(The cat in the hat) | |
774 " ") | |
775 @result{} "The cat in the hat" | |
776 @end group | |
777 | |
778 @group | |
779 (mapconcat (function (lambda (x) (format "%c" (1+ x)))) | |
780 "HAL-8000" | |
781 "") | |
782 @result{} "IBM.9111" | |
783 @end group | |
784 @end smallexample | |
785 @end defun | |
786 | |
787 @node Anonymous Functions | |
788 @section Anonymous Functions | |
789 @cindex anonymous function | |
790 | |
791 In Lisp, a function is a list that starts with @code{lambda}, a | |
792 byte-code function compiled from such a list, or alternatively a | |
793 primitive subr-object; names are ``extra''. Although usually functions | |
794 are defined with @code{defun} and given names at the same time, it is | |
795 occasionally more concise to use an explicit lambda expression---an | |
796 anonymous function. Such a list is valid wherever a function name is. | |
797 | |
798 Any method of creating such a list makes a valid function. Even this: | |
799 | |
800 @smallexample | |
801 @group | |
802 (setq silly (append '(lambda (x)) (list (list '+ (* 3 4) 'x)))) | |
803 @result{} (lambda (x) (+ 12 x)) | |
804 @end group | |
805 @end smallexample | |
806 | |
807 @noindent | |
808 This computes a list that looks like @code{(lambda (x) (+ 12 x))} and | |
809 makes it the value (@emph{not} the function definition!) of | |
810 @code{silly}. | |
811 | |
812 Here is how we might call this function: | |
813 | |
814 @example | |
815 @group | |
816 (funcall silly 1) | |
817 @result{} 13 | |
818 @end group | |
819 @end example | |
820 | |
821 @noindent | |
822 (It does @emph{not} work to write @code{(silly 1)}, because this function | |
823 is not the @emph{function definition} of @code{silly}. We have not given | |
824 @code{silly} any function definition, just a value as a variable.) | |
825 | |
826 Most of the time, anonymous functions are constants that appear in | |
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827 your program. For example, you might want to pass one as an argument to |
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828 the function @code{mapcar}, which applies any given function to each |
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829 element of a list. |
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830 |
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831 Here we define a function @code{change-property} which |
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832 uses a function as its third argument: |
6455 | 833 |
834 @example | |
835 @group | |
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836 (defun change-property (symbol prop function) |
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837 (let ((value (get symbol prop))) |
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838 (put symbol prop (funcall function value)))) |
6455 | 839 @end group |
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840 @end example |
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841 |
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842 @noindent |
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843 Here we define a function that uses @code{change-property}, |
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844 passing it a function to double a number: |
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845 |
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846 @example |
6455 | 847 @group |
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848 (defun double-property (symbol prop) |
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849 (change-property symbol prop '(lambda (x) (* 2 x)))) |
6455 | 850 @end group |
851 @end example | |
852 | |
853 @noindent | |
854 In such cases, we usually use the special form @code{function} instead | |
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855 of simple quotation to quote the anonymous function, like this: |
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856 |
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857 @example |
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858 @group |
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859 (defun double-property (symbol prop) |
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860 (change-property symbol prop |
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861 (function (lambda (x) (* 2 x))))) |
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862 @end group |
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863 @end example |
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864 |
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865 Using @code{function} instead of @code{quote} makes a difference if you |
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866 compile the function @code{double-property}. For example, if you |
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867 compile the second definition of @code{double-property}, the anonymous |
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868 function is compiled as well. By contrast, if you compile the first |
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869 definition which uses ordinary @code{quote}, the argument passed to |
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870 @code{change-property} is the precise list shown: |
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871 |
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872 @example |
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873 (lambda (x) (* x 2)) |
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874 @end example |
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875 |
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876 @noindent |
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877 The Lisp compiler cannot assume this list is a function, even though it |
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878 looks like one, since it does not know what @code{change-property} will |
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879 do with the list. Perhaps it will check whether the @sc{car} of the third |
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880 element is the symbol @code{*}! Using @code{function} tells the |
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881 compiler it is safe to go ahead and compile the constant function. |
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882 |
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883 We sometimes write @code{function} instead of @code{quote} when |
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884 quoting the name of a function, but this usage is just a sort of |
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885 comment: |
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886 |
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887 @example |
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888 (function @var{symbol}) @equiv{} (quote @var{symbol}) @equiv{} '@var{symbol} |
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889 @end example |
6455 | 890 |
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891 @cindex @samp{#'} syntax |
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892 The read syntax @code{#'} is a short-hand for using @code{function}. |
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893 For example, |
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894 |
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895 @example |
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896 #'(lambda (x) (* x x)) |
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897 @end example |
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898 |
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899 @noindent |
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900 is equivalent to |
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901 |
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902 @example |
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903 (function (lambda (x) (* x x))) |
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904 @end example |
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905 |
6455 | 906 @defspec function function-object |
907 @cindex function quoting | |
908 This special form returns @var{function-object} without evaluating it. | |
909 In this, it is equivalent to @code{quote}. However, it serves as a | |
910 note to the Emacs Lisp compiler that @var{function-object} is intended | |
911 to be used only as a function, and therefore can safely be compiled. | |
912 Contrast this with @code{quote}, in @ref{Quoting}. | |
913 @end defspec | |
914 | |
915 See @code{documentation} in @ref{Accessing Documentation}, for a | |
916 realistic example using @code{function} and an anonymous function. | |
917 | |
918 @node Function Cells | |
919 @section Accessing Function Cell Contents | |
920 | |
921 The @dfn{function definition} of a symbol is the object stored in the | |
922 function cell of the symbol. The functions described here access, test, | |
923 and set the function cell of symbols. | |
924 | |
7193 | 925 See also the function @code{indirect-function} in @ref{Function |
926 Indirection}. | |
927 | |
6455 | 928 @defun symbol-function symbol |
929 @kindex void-function | |
930 This returns the object in the function cell of @var{symbol}. If the | |
931 symbol's function cell is void, a @code{void-function} error is | |
932 signaled. | |
933 | |
934 This function does not check that the returned object is a legitimate | |
935 function. | |
936 | |
937 @example | |
938 @group | |
939 (defun bar (n) (+ n 2)) | |
940 @result{} bar | |
941 @end group | |
942 @group | |
943 (symbol-function 'bar) | |
944 @result{} (lambda (n) (+ n 2)) | |
945 @end group | |
946 @group | |
947 (fset 'baz 'bar) | |
948 @result{} bar | |
949 @end group | |
950 @group | |
951 (symbol-function 'baz) | |
952 @result{} bar | |
953 @end group | |
954 @end example | |
955 @end defun | |
956 | |
957 @cindex void function cell | |
958 If you have never given a symbol any function definition, we say that | |
959 that symbol's function cell is @dfn{void}. In other words, the function | |
960 cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to call such a symbol | |
961 as a function, it signals a @code{void-function} error. | |
962 | |
963 Note that void is not the same as @code{nil} or the symbol | |
964 @code{void}. The symbols @code{nil} and @code{void} are Lisp objects, | |
965 and can be stored into a function cell just as any other object can be | |
966 (and they can be valid functions if you define them in turn with | |
7193 | 967 @code{defun}). A void function cell contains no object whatsoever. |
6455 | 968 |
969 You can test the voidness of a symbol's function definition with | |
970 @code{fboundp}. After you have given a symbol a function definition, you | |
971 can make it void once more using @code{fmakunbound}. | |
972 | |
973 @defun fboundp symbol | |
974 This function returns @code{t} if the symbol has an object in its | |
975 function cell, @code{nil} otherwise. It does not check that the object | |
976 is a legitimate function. | |
977 @end defun | |
978 | |
979 @defun fmakunbound symbol | |
980 This function makes @var{symbol}'s function cell void, so that a | |
981 subsequent attempt to access this cell will cause a @code{void-function} | |
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982 error. (See also @code{makunbound}, in @ref{Void Variables}.) |
6455 | 983 |
984 @example | |
985 @group | |
986 (defun foo (x) x) | |
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987 @result{} foo |
6455 | 988 @end group |
989 @group | |
7193 | 990 (foo 1) |
991 @result{}1 | |
992 @end group | |
993 @group | |
6455 | 994 (fmakunbound 'foo) |
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995 @result{} foo |
6455 | 996 @end group |
997 @group | |
998 (foo 1) | |
999 @error{} Symbol's function definition is void: foo | |
1000 @end group | |
1001 @end example | |
1002 @end defun | |
1003 | |
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1004 @defun fset symbol definition |
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1005 This function stores @var{definition} in the function cell of |
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1006 @var{symbol}. The result is @var{definition}. Normally |
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1007 @var{definition} should be a function or the name of a function, but |
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1008 this is not checked. The argument @var{symbol} is an ordinary evaluated |
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1009 argument. |
6455 | 1010 |
1011 There are three normal uses of this function: | |
1012 | |
1013 @itemize @bullet | |
1014 @item | |
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1015 Copying one symbol's function definition to another---in other words, |
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1016 making an alternate name for a function. (If you think of this as the |
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1017 definition of the new name, you should use @code{defalias} instead of |
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1018 @code{fset}; see @ref{Defining Functions}.) |
6455 | 1019 |
1020 @item | |
1021 Giving a symbol a function definition that is not a list and therefore | |
7193 | 1022 cannot be made with @code{defun}. For example, you can use @code{fset} |
1023 to give a symbol @code{s1} a function definition which is another symbol | |
1024 @code{s2}; then @code{s1} serves as an alias for whatever definition | |
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1025 @code{s2} presently has. (Once again use @code{defalias} instead of |
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1026 @code{fset} if you think of this as the definition of @code{s1}.) |
6455 | 1027 |
1028 @item | |
1029 In constructs for defining or altering functions. If @code{defun} | |
1030 were not a primitive, it could be written in Lisp (as a macro) using | |
1031 @code{fset}. | |
1032 @end itemize | |
1033 | |
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1034 Here are examples of these uses: |
6455 | 1035 |
1036 @example | |
1037 @group | |
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1038 ;; @r{Save @code{foo}'s definition in @code{old-foo}.} |
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1039 (fset 'old-foo (symbol-function 'foo)) |
6455 | 1040 @end group |
1041 | |
1042 @group | |
1043 ;; @r{Make the symbol @code{car} the function definition of @code{xfirst}.} | |
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1044 ;; @r{(Most likely, @code{defalias} would be better than @code{fset} here.)} |
6455 | 1045 (fset 'xfirst 'car) |
1046 @result{} car | |
1047 @end group | |
1048 @group | |
1049 (xfirst '(1 2 3)) | |
1050 @result{} 1 | |
1051 @end group | |
1052 @group | |
1053 (symbol-function 'xfirst) | |
1054 @result{} car | |
1055 @end group | |
1056 @group | |
1057 (symbol-function (symbol-function 'xfirst)) | |
1058 @result{} #<subr car> | |
1059 @end group | |
1060 | |
1061 @group | |
1062 ;; @r{Define a named keyboard macro.} | |
1063 (fset 'kill-two-lines "\^u2\^k") | |
1064 @result{} "\^u2\^k" | |
1065 @end group | |
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1066 |
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1067 @group |
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1068 ;; @r{Here is a function that alters other functions.} |
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1069 (defun copy-function-definition (new old) |
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1070 "Define NEW with the same function definition as OLD." |
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1071 (fset new (symbol-function old))) |
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1072 @end group |
6455 | 1073 @end example |
1074 @end defun | |
1075 | |
1076 When writing a function that extends a previously defined function, | |
12098 | 1077 the following idiom is sometimes used: |
6455 | 1078 |
1079 @example | |
1080 (fset 'old-foo (symbol-function 'foo)) | |
1081 (defun foo () | |
1082 "Just like old-foo, except more so." | |
1083 @group | |
1084 (old-foo) | |
1085 (more-so)) | |
1086 @end group | |
1087 @end example | |
1088 | |
1089 @noindent | |
1090 This does not work properly if @code{foo} has been defined to autoload. | |
1091 In such a case, when @code{foo} calls @code{old-foo}, Lisp attempts | |
1092 to define @code{old-foo} by loading a file. Since this presumably | |
1093 defines @code{foo} rather than @code{old-foo}, it does not produce the | |
1094 proper results. The only way to avoid this problem is to make sure the | |
1095 file is loaded before moving aside the old definition of @code{foo}. | |
1096 | |
12098 | 1097 But it is unmodular and unclean, in any case, for a Lisp file to |
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1098 redefine a function defined elsewhere. It is cleaner to use the advice |
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1099 facility (@pxref{Advising Functions}). |
12098 | 1100 |
6455 | 1101 @node Inline Functions |
1102 @section Inline Functions | |
1103 @cindex inline functions | |
1104 | |
1105 @findex defsubst | |
1106 You can define an @dfn{inline function} by using @code{defsubst} instead | |
1107 of @code{defun}. An inline function works just like an ordinary | |
1108 function except for one thing: when you compile a call to the function, | |
1109 the function's definition is open-coded into the caller. | |
1110 | |
1111 Making a function inline makes explicit calls run faster. But it also | |
1112 has disadvantages. For one thing, it reduces flexibility; if you change | |
1113 the definition of the function, calls already inlined still use the old | |
1114 definition until you recompile them. Since the flexibility of | |
1115 redefining functions is an important feature of Emacs, you should not | |
1116 make a function inline unless its speed is really crucial. | |
1117 | |
1118 Another disadvantage is that making a large function inline can increase | |
1119 the size of compiled code both in files and in memory. Since the speed | |
1120 advantage of inline functions is greatest for small functions, you | |
1121 generally should not make large functions inline. | |
1122 | |
1123 It's possible to define a macro to expand into the same code that an | |
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1124 inline function would execute. (@xref{Macros}.) But the macro would be |
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1125 limited to direct use in expressions---a macro cannot be called with |
6455 | 1126 @code{apply}, @code{mapcar} and so on. Also, it takes some work to |
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1127 convert an ordinary function into a macro. To convert it into an inline |
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1128 function is very easy; simply replace @code{defun} with @code{defsubst}. |
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1129 Since each argument of an inline function is evaluated exactly once, you |
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1130 needn't worry about how many times the body uses the arguments, as you |
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1131 do for macros. (@xref{Argument Evaluation}.) |
6455 | 1132 |
7193 | 1133 Inline functions can be used and open-coded later on in the same file, |
6455 | 1134 following the definition, just like macros. |
1135 | |
12098 | 1136 @c Emacs versions prior to 19 did not have inline functions. |
6455 | 1137 |
1138 @node Related Topics | |
1139 @section Other Topics Related to Functions | |
1140 | |
1141 Here is a table of several functions that do things related to | |
1142 function calling and function definitions. They are documented | |
1143 elsewhere, but we provide cross references here. | |
1144 | |
1145 @table @code | |
1146 @item apply | |
1147 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1148 | |
1149 @item autoload | |
1150 See @ref{Autoload}. | |
1151 | |
1152 @item call-interactively | |
1153 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1154 | |
1155 @item commandp | |
1156 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1157 | |
1158 @item documentation | |
1159 See @ref{Accessing Documentation}. | |
1160 | |
1161 @item eval | |
1162 See @ref{Eval}. | |
1163 | |
1164 @item funcall | |
1165 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1166 | |
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1167 @item function |
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1168 See @ref{Anonymous Functions}. |
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1169 |
6455 | 1170 @item ignore |
1171 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1172 | |
1173 @item indirect-function | |
1174 See @ref{Function Indirection}. | |
1175 | |
1176 @item interactive | |
1177 See @ref{Using Interactive}. | |
1178 | |
1179 @item interactive-p | |
1180 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1181 | |
1182 @item mapatoms | |
1183 See @ref{Creating Symbols}. | |
1184 | |
1185 @item mapcar | |
1186 See @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
1187 | |
21682
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1188 @item map-char-table |
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1189 See @ref{Char-Tables}. |
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1190 |
6455 | 1191 @item mapconcat |
1192 See @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
1193 | |
1194 @item undefined | |
1195 See @ref{Key Lookup}. | |
1196 @end table | |
1197 |