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annotate lispref/objects.texi @ 21439:2280d06ab327
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author | Dan Nicolaescu <done@ece.arizona.edu> |
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date | Wed, 08 Apr 1998 19:38:37 +0000 |
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6447 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6447 | 4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
5 @setfilename ../info/objects | |
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6 @node Lisp Data Types, Numbers, Introduction, Top |
6447 | 7 @chapter Lisp Data Types |
8 @cindex object | |
9 @cindex Lisp object | |
10 @cindex type | |
11 @cindex data type | |
12 | |
13 A Lisp @dfn{object} is a piece of data used and manipulated by Lisp | |
14 programs. For our purposes, a @dfn{type} or @dfn{data type} is a set of | |
15 possible objects. | |
16 | |
17 Every object belongs to at least one type. Objects of the same type | |
18 have similar structures and may usually be used in the same contexts. | |
19 Types can overlap, and objects can belong to two or more types. | |
20 Consequently, we can ask whether an object belongs to a particular type, | |
21 but not for ``the'' type of an object. | |
22 | |
23 @cindex primitive type | |
24 A few fundamental object types are built into Emacs. These, from | |
25 which all other types are constructed, are called @dfn{primitive | |
26 types}. Each object belongs to one and only one primitive type. These | |
27 types include @dfn{integer}, @dfn{float}, @dfn{cons}, @dfn{symbol}, | |
28 @dfn{string}, @dfn{vector}, @dfn{subr}, @dfn{byte-code function}, and | |
29 several special types, such as @dfn{buffer}, that are related to | |
30 editing. (@xref{Editing Types}.) | |
31 | |
32 Each primitive type has a corresponding Lisp function that checks | |
33 whether an object is a member of that type. | |
34 | |
35 Note that Lisp is unlike many other languages in that Lisp objects are | |
36 @dfn{self-typing}: the primitive type of the object is implicit in the | |
37 object itself. For example, if an object is a vector, nothing can treat | |
38 it as a number; Lisp knows it is a vector, not a number. | |
39 | |
40 In most languages, the programmer must declare the data type of each | |
41 variable, and the type is known by the compiler but not represented in | |
42 the data. Such type declarations do not exist in Emacs Lisp. A Lisp | |
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43 variable can have any type of value, and it remembers whatever value |
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44 you store in it, type and all. |
6447 | 45 |
46 This chapter describes the purpose, printed representation, and read | |
47 syntax of each of the standard types in GNU Emacs Lisp. Details on how | |
48 to use these types can be found in later chapters. | |
49 | |
50 @menu | |
51 * Printed Representation:: How Lisp objects are represented as text. | |
52 * Comments:: Comments and their formatting conventions. | |
53 * Programming Types:: Types found in all Lisp systems. | |
54 * Editing Types:: Types specific to Emacs. | |
55 * Type Predicates:: Tests related to types. | |
56 * Equality Predicates:: Tests of equality between any two objects. | |
57 @end menu | |
58 | |
59 @node Printed Representation | |
60 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
61 @section Printed Representation and Read Syntax | |
62 @cindex printed representation | |
63 @cindex read syntax | |
64 | |
65 The @dfn{printed representation} of an object is the format of the | |
66 output generated by the Lisp printer (the function @code{prin1}) for | |
67 that object. The @dfn{read syntax} of an object is the format of the | |
68 input accepted by the Lisp reader (the function @code{read}) for that | |
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69 object. @xref{Read and Print}. |
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70 |
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71 Most objects have more than one possible read syntax. Some types of |
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72 object have no read syntax; except for these cases, the printed |
6447 | 73 representation of an object is also a read syntax for it. |
74 | |
75 In other languages, an expression is text; it has no other form. In | |
76 Lisp, an expression is primarily a Lisp object and only secondarily the | |
77 text that is the object's read syntax. Often there is no need to | |
78 emphasize this distinction, but you must keep it in the back of your | |
79 mind, or you will occasionally be very confused. | |
80 | |
81 @cindex hash notation | |
82 Every type has a printed representation. Some types have no read | |
83 syntax, since it may not make sense to enter objects of these types | |
84 directly in a Lisp program. For example, the buffer type does not have | |
85 a read syntax. Objects of these types are printed in @dfn{hash | |
86 notation}: the characters @samp{#<} followed by a descriptive string | |
87 (typically the type name followed by the name of the object), and closed | |
88 with a matching @samp{>}. Hash notation cannot be read at all, so the | |
89 Lisp reader signals the error @code{invalid-read-syntax} whenever it | |
90 encounters @samp{#<}. | |
91 @kindex invalid-read-syntax | |
92 | |
93 @example | |
94 (current-buffer) | |
95 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> | |
96 @end example | |
97 | |
98 When you evaluate an expression interactively, the Lisp interpreter | |
99 first reads the textual representation of it, producing a Lisp object, | |
100 and then evaluates that object (@pxref{Evaluation}). However, | |
101 evaluation and reading are separate activities. Reading returns the | |
102 Lisp object represented by the text that is read; the object may or may | |
103 not be evaluated later. @xref{Input Functions}, for a description of | |
104 @code{read}, the basic function for reading objects. | |
105 | |
106 @node Comments | |
107 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
108 @section Comments | |
109 @cindex comments | |
110 @cindex @samp{;} in comment | |
111 | |
112 A @dfn{comment} is text that is written in a program only for the sake | |
113 of humans that read the program, and that has no effect on the meaning | |
114 of the program. In Lisp, a semicolon (@samp{;}) starts a comment if it | |
115 is not within a string or character constant. The comment continues to | |
116 the end of line. The Lisp reader discards comments; they do not become | |
117 part of the Lisp objects which represent the program within the Lisp | |
118 system. | |
119 | |
12098 | 120 The @samp{#@@@var{count}} construct, which skips the next @var{count} |
121 characters, is useful for program-generated comments containing binary | |
122 data. The Emacs Lisp byte compiler uses this in its output files | |
123 (@pxref{Byte Compilation}). It isn't meant for source files, however. | |
124 | |
6447 | 125 @xref{Comment Tips}, for conventions for formatting comments. |
126 | |
127 @node Programming Types | |
128 @section Programming Types | |
129 @cindex programming types | |
130 | |
131 There are two general categories of types in Emacs Lisp: those having | |
132 to do with Lisp programming, and those having to do with editing. The | |
133 former exist in many Lisp implementations, in one form or another. The | |
134 latter are unique to Emacs Lisp. | |
135 | |
136 @menu | |
137 * Integer Type:: Numbers without fractional parts. | |
138 * Floating Point Type:: Numbers with fractional parts and with a large range. | |
139 * Character Type:: The representation of letters, numbers and | |
140 control characters. | |
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141 * Symbol Type:: A multi-use object that refers to a function, |
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142 variable, or property list, and has a unique identity. |
6447 | 143 * Sequence Type:: Both lists and arrays are classified as sequences. |
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144 * Cons Cell Type:: Cons cells, and lists (which are made from cons cells). |
6447 | 145 * Array Type:: Arrays include strings and vectors. |
146 * String Type:: An (efficient) array of characters. | |
147 * Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays. | |
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148 * Char-Table Type:: One-dimensional sparse arrays indexed by characters. |
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149 * Bool-Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays of @code{t} or @code{nil}. |
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150 * Function Type:: A piece of executable code you can call from elsewhere. |
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151 * Macro Type:: A method of expanding an expression into another |
6447 | 152 expression, more fundamental but less pretty. |
153 * Primitive Function Type:: A function written in C, callable from Lisp. | |
154 * Byte-Code Type:: A function written in Lisp, then compiled. | |
155 * Autoload Type:: A type used for automatically loading seldom-used | |
156 functions. | |
157 @end menu | |
158 | |
159 @node Integer Type | |
160 @subsection Integer Type | |
161 | |
10559 | 162 The range of values for integers in Emacs Lisp is @minus{}134217728 to |
163 134217727 (28 bits; i.e., | |
6447 | 164 @ifinfo |
10559 | 165 -2**27 |
6447 | 166 @end ifinfo |
167 @tex | |
10559 | 168 $-2^{27}$ |
6447 | 169 @end tex |
170 to | |
171 @ifinfo | |
10559 | 172 2**27 - 1) |
6447 | 173 @end ifinfo |
174 @tex | |
10559 | 175 $2^{28}-1$) |
6447 | 176 @end tex |
10559 | 177 on most machines. (Some machines may provide a wider range.) It is |
178 important to note that the Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions do not check | |
179 for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 134217727)} is @minus{}134217728 on most | |
180 machines. | |
6447 | 181 |
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182 The read syntax for integers is a sequence of (base ten) digits with an |
6447 | 183 optional sign at the beginning and an optional period at the end. The |
184 printed representation produced by the Lisp interpreter never has a | |
185 leading @samp{+} or a final @samp{.}. | |
186 | |
187 @example | |
188 @group | |
189 -1 ; @r{The integer -1.} | |
190 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
191 1. ; @r{Also The integer 1.} | |
192 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} | |
10559 | 193 268435457 ; @r{Also the integer 1!} |
194 ; @r{ (on a 28-bit implementation)} | |
6447 | 195 @end group |
196 @end example | |
197 | |
198 @xref{Numbers}, for more information. | |
199 | |
200 @node Floating Point Type | |
201 @subsection Floating Point Type | |
202 | |
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203 Emacs supports floating point numbers (though there is a compilation |
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204 option to disable them). The precise range of floating point numbers is |
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205 machine-specific. |
6447 | 206 |
207 The printed representation for floating point numbers requires either | |
208 a decimal point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or | |
209 both. For example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, | |
210 @samp{1.5e3}, and @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point | |
211 number whose value is 1500. They are all equivalent. | |
212 | |
213 @xref{Numbers}, for more information. | |
214 | |
215 @node Character Type | |
216 @subsection Character Type | |
217 @cindex @sc{ASCII} character codes | |
218 | |
219 A @dfn{character} in Emacs Lisp is nothing more than an integer. In | |
220 other words, characters are represented by their character codes. For | |
221 example, the character @kbd{A} is represented as the @w{integer 65}. | |
222 | |
223 Individual characters are not often used in programs. It is far more | |
224 common to work with @emph{strings}, which are sequences composed of | |
225 characters. @xref{String Type}. | |
226 | |
227 Characters in strings, buffers, and files are currently limited to the | |
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228 range of 0 to 524287---nineteen bits. But not all values in that range |
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229 are valid character codes. Characters that represent keyboard input |
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230 have a much wider range, so they can modifier keys such as Control, Meta |
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231 and Shift. |
6447 | 232 |
233 @cindex read syntax for characters | |
234 @cindex printed representation for characters | |
235 @cindex syntax for characters | |
236 Since characters are really integers, the printed representation of a | |
237 character is a decimal number. This is also a possible read syntax for | |
238 a character, but writing characters that way in Lisp programs is a very | |
239 bad idea. You should @emph{always} use the special read syntax formats | |
240 that Emacs Lisp provides for characters. These syntax formats start | |
241 with a question mark. | |
242 | |
243 The usual read syntax for alphanumeric characters is a question mark | |
244 followed by the character; thus, @samp{?A} for the character | |
245 @kbd{A}, @samp{?B} for the character @kbd{B}, and @samp{?a} for the | |
246 character @kbd{a}. | |
247 | |
248 For example: | |
249 | |
250 @example | |
251 ?Q @result{} 81 ?q @result{} 113 | |
252 @end example | |
253 | |
254 You can use the same syntax for punctuation characters, but it is | |
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255 often a good idea to add a @samp{\} so that the Emacs commands for |
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256 editing Lisp code don't get confused. For example, @samp{?\ } is the |
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257 way to write the space character. If the character is @samp{\}, you |
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258 @emph{must} use a second @samp{\} to quote it: @samp{?\\}. |
6447 | 259 |
260 @cindex whitespace | |
261 @cindex bell character | |
262 @cindex @samp{\a} | |
263 @cindex backspace | |
264 @cindex @samp{\b} | |
265 @cindex tab | |
266 @cindex @samp{\t} | |
267 @cindex vertical tab | |
268 @cindex @samp{\v} | |
269 @cindex formfeed | |
270 @cindex @samp{\f} | |
271 @cindex newline | |
272 @cindex @samp{\n} | |
273 @cindex return | |
274 @cindex @samp{\r} | |
275 @cindex escape | |
276 @cindex @samp{\e} | |
277 You can express the characters Control-g, backspace, tab, newline, | |
278 vertical tab, formfeed, return, and escape as @samp{?\a}, @samp{?\b}, | |
279 @samp{?\t}, @samp{?\n}, @samp{?\v}, @samp{?\f}, @samp{?\r}, @samp{?\e}, | |
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280 respectively. Thus, |
6447 | 281 |
282 @example | |
283 ?\a @result{} 7 ; @r{@kbd{C-g}} | |
284 ?\b @result{} 8 ; @r{backspace, @key{BS}, @kbd{C-h}} | |
285 ?\t @result{} 9 ; @r{tab, @key{TAB}, @kbd{C-i}} | |
286 ?\n @result{} 10 ; @r{newline, @key{LFD}, @kbd{C-j}} | |
287 ?\v @result{} 11 ; @r{vertical tab, @kbd{C-k}} | |
288 ?\f @result{} 12 ; @r{formfeed character, @kbd{C-l}} | |
289 ?\r @result{} 13 ; @r{carriage return, @key{RET}, @kbd{C-m}} | |
290 ?\e @result{} 27 ; @r{escape character, @key{ESC}, @kbd{C-[}} | |
291 ?\\ @result{} 92 ; @r{backslash character, @kbd{\}} | |
292 @end example | |
293 | |
294 @cindex escape sequence | |
295 These sequences which start with backslash are also known as | |
296 @dfn{escape sequences}, because backslash plays the role of an escape | |
297 character; this usage has nothing to do with the character @key{ESC}. | |
298 | |
299 @cindex control characters | |
300 Control characters may be represented using yet another read syntax. | |
301 This consists of a question mark followed by a backslash, caret, and the | |
302 corresponding non-control character, in either upper or lower case. For | |
303 example, both @samp{?\^I} and @samp{?\^i} are valid read syntax for the | |
304 character @kbd{C-i}, the character whose value is 9. | |
305 | |
306 Instead of the @samp{^}, you can use @samp{C-}; thus, @samp{?\C-i} is | |
307 equivalent to @samp{?\^I} and to @samp{?\^i}: | |
308 | |
309 @example | |
310 ?\^I @result{} 9 ?\C-I @result{} 9 | |
311 @end example | |
312 | |
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313 In strings and buffers, the only control characters allowed are those |
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314 that exist in @sc{ASCII}; but for keyboard input purposes, you can turn |
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315 any character into a control character with @samp{C-}. The character |
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316 codes for these non-@sc{ASCII} control characters include the |
12098 | 317 @iftex |
318 $2^{26}$ | |
319 @end iftex | |
320 @ifinfo | |
321 2**26 | |
322 @end ifinfo | |
323 bit as well as the code for the corresponding non-control | |
6447 | 324 character. Ordinary terminals have no way of generating non-@sc{ASCII} |
325 control characters, but you can generate them straightforwardly using an | |
326 X terminal. | |
327 | |
12098 | 328 For historical reasons, Emacs treats the @key{DEL} character as |
329 the control equivalent of @kbd{?}: | |
6447 | 330 |
331 @example | |
332 ?\^? @result{} 127 ?\C-? @result{} 127 | |
333 @end example | |
334 | |
12098 | 335 @noindent |
336 As a result, it is currently not possible to represent the character | |
337 @kbd{Control-?}, which is a meaningful input character under X. It is | |
338 not easy to change this as various Lisp files refer to @key{DEL} in this | |
339 way. | |
340 | |
6447 | 341 For representing control characters to be found in files or strings, |
342 we recommend the @samp{^} syntax; for control characters in keyboard | |
343 input, we prefer the @samp{C-} syntax. This does not affect the meaning | |
344 of the program, but may guide the understanding of people who read it. | |
345 | |
346 @cindex meta characters | |
347 A @dfn{meta character} is a character typed with the @key{META} | |
348 modifier key. The integer that represents such a character has the | |
12098 | 349 @iftex |
350 $2^{27}$ | |
351 @end iftex | |
352 @ifinfo | |
353 2**27 | |
354 @end ifinfo | |
355 bit set (which on most machines makes it a negative number). We | |
6447 | 356 use high bits for this and other modifiers to make possible a wide range |
357 of basic character codes. | |
358 | |
12098 | 359 In a string, the |
360 @iftex | |
361 $2^{7}$ | |
362 @end iftex | |
363 @ifinfo | |
364 2**7 | |
365 @end ifinfo | |
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366 bit attached to an ASCII character indicates a meta character; thus, the |
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367 meta characters that can fit in a string have codes in the range from |
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368 128 to 255, and are the meta versions of the ordinary @sc{ASCII} |
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369 characters. (In Emacs versions 18 and older, this convention was used |
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370 for characters outside of strings as well.) |
6447 | 371 |
372 The read syntax for meta characters uses @samp{\M-}. For example, | |
373 @samp{?\M-A} stands for @kbd{M-A}. You can use @samp{\M-} together with | |
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374 octal character codes (see below), with @samp{\C-}, or with any other |
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375 syntax for a character. Thus, you can write @kbd{M-A} as @samp{?\M-A}, |
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376 or as @samp{?\M-\101}. Likewise, you can write @kbd{C-M-b} as |
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377 @samp{?\M-\C-b}, @samp{?\C-\M-b}, or @samp{?\M-\002}. |
6447 | 378 |
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379 The case of a graphic character is indicated by its character code; |
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380 for example, @sc{ASCII} distinguishes between the characters @samp{a} |
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381 and @samp{A}. But @sc{ASCII} has no way to represent whether a control |
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382 character is upper case or lower case. Emacs uses the |
12098 | 383 @iftex |
384 $2^{25}$ | |
385 @end iftex | |
386 @ifinfo | |
387 2**25 | |
388 @end ifinfo | |
389 bit to indicate that the shift key was used for typing a control | |
390 character. This distinction is possible only when you use X terminals | |
391 or other special terminals; ordinary terminals do not indicate the | |
392 distinction to the computer in any way. | |
6447 | 393 |
394 @cindex hyper characters | |
395 @cindex super characters | |
396 @cindex alt characters | |
397 The X Window System defines three other modifier bits that can be set | |
398 in a character: @dfn{hyper}, @dfn{super} and @dfn{alt}. The syntaxes | |
399 for these bits are @samp{\H-}, @samp{\s-} and @samp{\A-}. Thus, | |
12098 | 400 @samp{?\H-\M-\A-x} represents @kbd{Alt-Hyper-Meta-x}. |
401 @iftex | |
402 Numerically, the | |
403 bit values are $2^{22}$ for alt, $2^{23}$ for super and $2^{24}$ for hyper. | |
404 @end iftex | |
405 @ifinfo | |
406 Numerically, the | |
407 bit values are 2**22 for alt, 2**23 for super and 2**24 for hyper. | |
408 @end ifinfo | |
6447 | 409 |
410 @cindex @samp{?} in character constant | |
411 @cindex question mark in character constant | |
412 @cindex @samp{\} in character constant | |
413 @cindex backslash in character constant | |
414 @cindex octal character code | |
21007
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415 Finally, the most general read syntax for a character represents the |
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416 character code in either octal or hex. To use octal, write a question |
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417 mark followed by a backslash and the octal character code (up to three |
6447 | 418 octal digits); thus, @samp{?\101} for the character @kbd{A}, |
419 @samp{?\001} for the character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\002} for the | |
420 character @kbd{C-b}. Although this syntax can represent any @sc{ASCII} | |
421 character, it is preferred only when the precise octal value is more | |
422 important than the @sc{ASCII} representation. | |
423 | |
424 @example | |
425 @group | |
426 ?\012 @result{} 10 ?\n @result{} 10 ?\C-j @result{} 10 | |
427 ?\101 @result{} 65 ?A @result{} 65 | |
428 @end group | |
429 @end example | |
430 | |
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431 To use hex, write a question mark followed by a backslash, @samp{x}, |
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432 and the hexadecimal character code. You can use any number of hex |
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433 digits, so you can represent any character code in this way. |
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434 Thus, @samp{?\x41} for the character @kbd{A}, @samp{?\x1} for the |
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435 character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\x8c0} for the character |
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436 @iftex |
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437 @`a. |
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438 @end iftex |
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439 @ifinfo |
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440 @samp{a} with grave accent. |
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441 @end ifinfo |
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442 |
6447 | 443 A backslash is allowed, and harmless, preceding any character without |
444 a special escape meaning; thus, @samp{?\+} is equivalent to @samp{?+}. | |
445 There is no reason to add a backslash before most characters. However, | |
446 you should add a backslash before any of the characters | |
447 @samp{()\|;'`"#.,} to avoid confusing the Emacs commands for editing | |
448 Lisp code. Also add a backslash before whitespace characters such as | |
449 space, tab, newline and formfeed. However, it is cleaner to use one of | |
450 the easily readable escape sequences, such as @samp{\t}, instead of an | |
451 actual whitespace character such as a tab. | |
452 | |
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453 @node Symbol Type |
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454 @subsection Symbol Type |
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455 |
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456 A @dfn{symbol} in GNU Emacs Lisp is an object with a name. The symbol |
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457 name serves as the printed representation of the symbol. In ordinary |
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458 use, the name is unique---no two symbols have the same name. |
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459 |
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460 A symbol can serve as a variable, as a function name, or to hold a |
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461 property list. Or it may serve only to be distinct from all other Lisp |
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462 objects, so that its presence in a data structure may be recognized |
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463 reliably. In a given context, usually only one of these uses is |
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464 intended. But you can use one symbol in all of these ways, |
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465 independently. |
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466 |
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467 @cindex @samp{\} in symbols |
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468 @cindex backslash in symbols |
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469 A symbol name can contain any characters whatever. Most symbol names |
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470 are written with letters, digits, and the punctuation characters |
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471 @samp{-+=*/}. Such names require no special punctuation; the characters |
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472 of the name suffice as long as the name does not look like a number. |
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473 (If it does, write a @samp{\} at the beginning of the name to force |
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474 interpretation as a symbol.) The characters @samp{_~!@@$%^&:<>@{@}} are |
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475 less often used but also require no special punctuation. Any other |
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476 characters may be included in a symbol's name by escaping them with a |
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477 backslash. In contrast to its use in strings, however, a backslash in |
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478 the name of a symbol simply quotes the single character that follows the |
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479 backslash. For example, in a string, @samp{\t} represents a tab |
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480 character; in the name of a symbol, however, @samp{\t} merely quotes the |
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481 letter @kbd{t}. To have a symbol with a tab character in its name, you |
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482 must actually use a tab (preceded with a backslash). But it's rare to |
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483 do such a thing. |
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484 |
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485 @cindex CL note---case of letters |
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486 @quotation |
7734 | 487 @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, lower case letters are always |
12098 | 488 ``folded'' to upper case, unless they are explicitly escaped. In Emacs |
489 Lisp, upper case and lower case letters are distinct. | |
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490 @end quotation |
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491 |
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492 Here are several examples of symbol names. Note that the @samp{+} in |
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493 the fifth example is escaped to prevent it from being read as a number. |
12098 | 494 This is not necessary in the sixth example because the rest of the name |
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495 makes it invalid as a number. |
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496 |
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497 @example |
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498 @group |
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499 foo ; @r{A symbol named @samp{foo}.} |
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500 FOO ; @r{A symbol named @samp{FOO}, different from @samp{foo}.} |
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501 char-to-string ; @r{A symbol named @samp{char-to-string}.} |
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502 @end group |
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503 @group |
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504 1+ ; @r{A symbol named @samp{1+}} |
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505 ; @r{(not @samp{+1}, which is an integer).} |
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506 @end group |
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507 @group |
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508 \+1 ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+1}} |
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509 ; @r{(not a very readable name).} |
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510 @end group |
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511 @group |
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512 \(*\ 1\ 2\) ; @r{A symbol named @samp{(* 1 2)} (a worse name).} |
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513 @c the @'s in this next line use up three characters, hence the |
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514 @c apparent misalignment of the comment. |
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515 +-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@} ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@}}.} |
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516 ; @r{These characters need not be escaped.} |
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517 @end group |
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518 @end example |
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519 |
6447 | 520 @node Sequence Type |
521 @subsection Sequence Types | |
522 | |
523 A @dfn{sequence} is a Lisp object that represents an ordered set of | |
524 elements. There are two kinds of sequence in Emacs Lisp, lists and | |
525 arrays. Thus, an object of type list or of type array is also | |
526 considered a sequence. | |
527 | |
528 Arrays are further subdivided into strings and vectors. Vectors can | |
529 hold elements of any type, but string elements must be characters in the | |
530 range from 0 to 255. However, the characters in a string can have text | |
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531 properties like characters in a buffer (@pxref{Text Properties}); |
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532 vectors do not support text properties even when their elements happen |
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533 to be characters. |
6447 | 534 |
535 Lists, strings and vectors are different, but they have important | |
536 similarities. For example, all have a length @var{l}, and all have | |
537 elements which can be indexed from zero to @var{l} minus one. Also, | |
538 several functions, called sequence functions, accept any kind of | |
539 sequence. For example, the function @code{elt} can be used to extract | |
540 an element of a sequence, given its index. @xref{Sequences Arrays | |
541 Vectors}. | |
542 | |
543 It is impossible to read the same sequence twice, since sequences are | |
544 always created anew upon reading. If you read the read syntax for a | |
545 sequence twice, you get two sequences with equal contents. There is one | |
546 exception: the empty list @code{()} always stands for the same object, | |
547 @code{nil}. | |
548 | |
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549 @node Cons Cell Type |
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550 @subsection Cons Cell and List Types |
6447 | 551 @cindex address field of register |
552 @cindex decrement field of register | |
553 | |
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554 A @dfn{cons cell} is an object comprising two pointers named the |
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555 @sc{car} and the @sc{cdr}. Each of them can point to any Lisp object. |
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556 |
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557 A @dfn{list} is a series of cons cells, linked together so that the |
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558 @sc{cdr} of each cons cell points either to another cons cell or to the |
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559 empty list. @xref{Lists}, for functions that work on lists. Because |
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560 most cons cells are used as part of lists, the phrase @dfn{list |
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561 structure} has come to refer to any structure made out of cons cells. |
6447 | 562 |
563 The names @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} have only historical meaning now. The | |
564 original Lisp implementation ran on an @w{IBM 704} computer which | |
565 divided words into two parts, called the ``address'' part and the | |
566 ``decrement''; @sc{car} was an instruction to extract the contents of | |
567 the address part of a register, and @sc{cdr} an instruction to extract | |
568 the contents of the decrement. By contrast, ``cons cells'' are named | |
569 for the function @code{cons} that creates them, which in turn is named | |
570 for its purpose, the construction of cells. | |
571 | |
572 @cindex atom | |
573 Because cons cells are so central to Lisp, we also have a word for | |
574 ``an object which is not a cons cell''. These objects are called | |
575 @dfn{atoms}. | |
576 | |
577 @cindex parenthesis | |
578 The read syntax and printed representation for lists are identical, and | |
579 consist of a left parenthesis, an arbitrary number of elements, and a | |
580 right parenthesis. | |
581 | |
582 Upon reading, each object inside the parentheses becomes an element | |
583 of the list. That is, a cons cell is made for each element. The | |
584 @sc{car} of the cons cell points to the element, and its @sc{cdr} points | |
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585 to the next cons cell of the list, which holds the next element in the |
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586 list. The @sc{cdr} of the last cons cell is set to point to @code{nil}. |
6447 | 587 |
588 @cindex box diagrams, for lists | |
589 @cindex diagrams, boxed, for lists | |
590 A list can be illustrated by a diagram in which the cons cells are | |
591 shown as pairs of boxes. (The Lisp reader cannot read such an | |
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592 illustration; unlike the textual notation, which can be understood by |
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593 both humans and computers, the box illustrations can be understood only |
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594 by humans.) The following represents the three-element list @code{(rose |
6447 | 595 violet buttercup)}: |
596 | |
597 @example | |
598 @group | |
599 ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ | |
600 |___|___|--> |___|___|--> |___|___|--> nil | |
601 | | | | |
602 | | | | |
603 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup | |
604 @end group | |
605 @end example | |
606 | |
607 In this diagram, each box represents a slot that can refer to any Lisp | |
608 object. Each pair of boxes represents a cons cell. Each arrow is a | |
609 reference to a Lisp object, either an atom or another cons cell. | |
610 | |
611 In this example, the first box, the @sc{car} of the first cons cell, | |
612 refers to or ``contains'' @code{rose} (a symbol). The second box, the | |
613 @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell, refers to the next pair of boxes, the | |
614 second cons cell. The @sc{car} of the second cons cell refers to | |
615 @code{violet} and the @sc{cdr} refers to the third cons cell. The | |
616 @sc{cdr} of the third (and last) cons cell refers to @code{nil}. | |
617 | |
618 Here is another diagram of the same list, @code{(rose violet | |
619 buttercup)}, sketched in a different manner: | |
620 | |
621 @smallexample | |
622 @group | |
623 --------------- ---------------- ------------------- | |
624 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
625 | rose | o-------->| violet | o-------->| buttercup | nil | | |
626 | | | | | | | | | | |
627 --------------- ---------------- ------------------- | |
628 @end group | |
629 @end smallexample | |
630 | |
631 @cindex @samp{(@dots{})} in lists | |
632 @cindex @code{nil} in lists | |
633 @cindex empty list | |
634 A list with no elements in it is the @dfn{empty list}; it is identical | |
635 to the symbol @code{nil}. In other words, @code{nil} is both a symbol | |
636 and a list. | |
637 | |
638 Here are examples of lists written in Lisp syntax: | |
639 | |
640 @example | |
641 (A 2 "A") ; @r{A list of three elements.} | |
642 () ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} | |
643 nil ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} | |
644 ("A ()") ; @r{A list of one element: the string @code{"A ()"}.} | |
645 (A ()) ; @r{A list of two elements: @code{A} and the empty list.} | |
646 (A nil) ; @r{Equivalent to the previous.} | |
647 ((A B C)) ; @r{A list of one element} | |
648 ; @r{(which is a list of three elements).} | |
649 @end example | |
650 | |
651 Here is the list @code{(A ())}, or equivalently @code{(A nil)}, | |
652 depicted with boxes and arrows: | |
653 | |
654 @example | |
655 @group | |
656 ___ ___ ___ ___ | |
657 |___|___|--> |___|___|--> nil | |
658 | | | |
659 | | | |
660 --> A --> nil | |
661 @end group | |
662 @end example | |
663 | |
664 @menu | |
665 * Dotted Pair Notation:: An alternative syntax for lists. | |
666 * Association List Type:: A specially constructed list. | |
667 @end menu | |
668 | |
669 @node Dotted Pair Notation | |
670 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
671 @subsubsection Dotted Pair Notation | |
672 @cindex dotted pair notation | |
673 @cindex @samp{.} in lists | |
674 | |
675 @dfn{Dotted pair notation} is an alternative syntax for cons cells | |
676 that represents the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} explicitly. In this syntax, | |
677 @code{(@var{a} .@: @var{b})} stands for a cons cell whose @sc{car} is | |
678 the object @var{a}, and whose @sc{cdr} is the object @var{b}. Dotted | |
679 pair notation is therefore more general than list syntax. In the dotted | |
680 pair notation, the list @samp{(1 2 3)} is written as @samp{(1 . (2 . (3 | |
681 . nil)))}. For @code{nil}-terminated lists, the two notations produce | |
682 the same result, but list notation is usually clearer and more | |
683 convenient when it is applicable. When printing a list, the dotted pair | |
684 notation is only used if the @sc{cdr} of a cell is not a list. | |
685 | |
686 Here's how box notation can illustrate dotted pairs. This example | |
687 shows the pair @code{(rose . violet)}: | |
688 | |
689 @example | |
690 @group | |
691 ___ ___ | |
692 |___|___|--> violet | |
693 | | |
694 | | |
695 --> rose | |
696 @end group | |
697 @end example | |
698 | |
699 Dotted pair notation can be combined with list notation to represent a | |
700 chain of cons cells with a non-@code{nil} final @sc{cdr}. For example, | |
701 @code{(rose violet . buttercup)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet | |
702 . buttercup))}. The object looks like this: | |
703 | |
704 @example | |
705 @group | |
706 ___ ___ ___ ___ | |
707 |___|___|--> |___|___|--> buttercup | |
708 | | | |
709 | | | |
710 --> rose --> violet | |
711 @end group | |
712 @end example | |
713 | |
714 These diagrams make it evident why @w{@code{(rose .@: violet .@: | |
715 buttercup)}} is invalid syntax; it would require a cons cell that has | |
716 three parts rather than two. | |
717 | |
718 The list @code{(rose violet)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet))} | |
719 and looks like this: | |
720 | |
721 @example | |
722 @group | |
723 ___ ___ ___ ___ | |
724 |___|___|--> |___|___|--> nil | |
725 | | | |
726 | | | |
727 --> rose --> violet | |
728 @end group | |
729 @end example | |
730 | |
731 Similarly, the three-element list @code{(rose violet buttercup)} | |
732 is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . (buttercup)))}. | |
733 @ifinfo | |
734 It looks like this: | |
735 | |
736 @example | |
737 @group | |
738 ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ | |
739 |___|___|--> |___|___|--> |___|___|--> nil | |
740 | | | | |
741 | | | | |
742 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup | |
743 @end group | |
744 @end example | |
745 @end ifinfo | |
746 | |
747 @node Association List Type | |
748 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
749 @subsubsection Association List Type | |
750 | |
751 An @dfn{association list} or @dfn{alist} is a specially-constructed | |
752 list whose elements are cons cells. In each element, the @sc{car} is | |
753 considered a @dfn{key}, and the @sc{cdr} is considered an | |
754 @dfn{associated value}. (In some cases, the associated value is stored | |
755 in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr}.) Association lists are often used as | |
756 stacks, since it is easy to add or remove associations at the front of | |
757 the list. | |
758 | |
759 For example, | |
760 | |
761 @example | |
762 (setq alist-of-colors | |
763 '((rose . red) (lily . white) (buttercup . yellow))) | |
764 @end example | |
765 | |
766 @noindent | |
767 sets the variable @code{alist-of-colors} to an alist of three elements. In the | |
768 first element, @code{rose} is the key and @code{red} is the value. | |
769 | |
770 @xref{Association Lists}, for a further explanation of alists and for | |
771 functions that work on alists. | |
772 | |
773 @node Array Type | |
774 @subsection Array Type | |
775 | |
776 An @dfn{array} is composed of an arbitrary number of slots for | |
777 referring to other Lisp objects, arranged in a contiguous block of | |
7118
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778 memory. Accessing any element of an array takes the same amount of |
6447 | 779 time. In contrast, accessing an element of a list requires time |
780 proportional to the position of the element in the list. (Elements at | |
781 the end of a list take longer to access than elements at the beginning | |
782 of a list.) | |
783 | |
784 Emacs defines two types of array, strings and vectors. A string is an | |
785 array of characters and a vector is an array of arbitrary objects. Both | |
786 are one-dimensional. (Most other programming languages support | |
787 multidimensional arrays, but they are not essential; you can get the | |
788 same effect with an array of arrays.) Each type of array has its own | |
789 read syntax; see @ref{String Type}, and @ref{Vector Type}. | |
790 | |
791 An array may have any length up to the largest integer; but once | |
792 created, it has a fixed size. The first element of an array has index | |
793 zero, the second element has index 1, and so on. This is called | |
794 @dfn{zero-origin} indexing. For example, an array of four elements has | |
795 indices 0, 1, 2, @w{and 3}. | |
796 | |
797 The array type is contained in the sequence type and contains both the | |
798 string type and the vector type. | |
799 | |
800 @node String Type | |
801 @subsection String Type | |
802 | |
803 A @dfn{string} is an array of characters. Strings are used for many | |
804 purposes in Emacs, as can be expected in a text editor; for example, as | |
805 the names of Lisp symbols, as messages for the user, and to represent | |
806 text extracted from buffers. Strings in Lisp are constants: evaluation | |
807 of a string returns the same string. | |
808 | |
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809 @xref{Strings and Characters}, for functions that operate on strings. |
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810 |
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811 @menu |
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812 * Syntax for Strings:: |
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813 * Non-ASCII in Strings:: |
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814 * Nonprinting Characters:: |
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815 * Text Props and Strings:: |
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816 @end menu |
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817 |
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818 @node Syntax for Strings |
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819 @subsubsection Syntax for Strings |
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820 |
6447 | 821 @cindex @samp{"} in strings |
822 @cindex double-quote in strings | |
823 @cindex @samp{\} in strings | |
824 @cindex backslash in strings | |
825 The read syntax for strings is a double-quote, an arbitrary number of | |
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826 characters, and another double-quote, @code{"like this"}. To include a |
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827 double-quote in a string, precede it with a backslash; thus, @code{"\""} |
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828 is a string containing just a single double-quote character. Likewise, |
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829 you can include a backslash by preceding it with another backslash, like |
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830 this: @code{"this \\ is a single embedded backslash"}. |
6447 | 831 |
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832 @cindex newline in strings |
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833 The newline character is not special in the read syntax for strings; |
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834 if you write a new line between the double-quotes, it becomes a |
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835 character in the string. But an escaped newline---one that is preceded |
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836 by @samp{\}---does not become part of the string; i.e., the Lisp reader |
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837 ignores an escaped newline while reading a string. An escaped space |
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838 @w{@samp{\ }} is likewise ignored. |
6447 | 839 |
840 @example | |
841 "It is useful to include newlines | |
842 in documentation strings, | |
843 but the newline is \ | |
844 ignored if escaped." | |
845 @result{} "It is useful to include newlines | |
846 in documentation strings, | |
847 but the newline is ignored if escaped." | |
848 @end example | |
849 | |
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850 @node Non-ASCII in Strings |
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851 @subsubsection Non-ASCII Characters in Strings |
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852 |
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853 You can include a non-@sc{ASCII} international character in a string |
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854 constant by writing it literally. There are two text representations |
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855 for non-@sc{ASCII} characters in Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte |
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856 and multibyte. If the string constant is read from a multibyte source, |
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857 then the character is read as a multibyte character, and that makes the |
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858 string multibyte. If the string constant is read from a unibyte source, |
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859 then the character is read as unibyte and that makes the string unibyte. |
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860 |
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861 You can also represent a multibyte non-@sc{ASCII} character with its |
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862 character code, using a hex escape, @samp{\x@var{nnnnnnn}}, with as many |
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863 digits as necessary. (Multibyte non-@sc{ASCII} character codes are all |
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864 greater than 256.) Any character which is not a valid hex digit |
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865 terminates this construct. If the character that would follow is a hex |
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866 digit, write @samp{\ } to terminate the hex escape---for example, |
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867 @samp{\x8c0\ } represents one character, @samp{a} with grave accent. |
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868 @samp{\ } in a string constant is just like backslash-newline; it does |
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869 not contribute any character to the string, but it does terminate the |
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870 preceding hex escape. |
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871 |
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872 Using a multibyte hex escape forces the string to multibyte. You can |
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873 represent a unibyte non-@sc{ASCII} character with its character code, |
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874 which must be in the range from 128 (0200 octal) to 255 (0377 octal). |
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875 This forces a unibyte string. |
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876 |
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877 @xref{Text Representations}, for more information about the two |
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878 text representations. |
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879 |
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880 @node Nonprinting Characters |
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881 @subsubsection Nonprinting Characters in Strings |
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882 |
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883 Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super, or alt |
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884 modifiers; the only control or meta characters they can hold are the |
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885 @sc{ASCII} control characters. Strings do not distinguish case in |
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886 @sc{ASCII} control characters. |
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887 |
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888 You can use the same backslash escape-sequences in a string constant |
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889 as in character literals (but do not use the question mark that begins a |
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890 character constant). For example, you can write a string containing the |
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891 nonprinting characters tab, @kbd{C-a} and @kbd{M-C-a}, with commas and |
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892 spaces between them, like this: @code{"\t, \C-a, \M-\C-a"}. |
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893 @xref{Character Type}, for a description of the read syntax for |
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894 characters. |
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895 |
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896 If you use the @samp{\M-} syntax to indicate a meta character in a |
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897 string constant, this sets the |
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898 @iftex |
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899 $2^{7}$ |
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900 @end iftex |
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901 @ifinfo |
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902 2**7 |
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903 @end ifinfo |
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904 bit of the character in the string. This construct works only with |
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905 ASCII characters. Note that the same meta characters have a different |
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906 representation when not in a string. @xref{Character Type}. |
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907 |
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908 @node Text Props and Strings |
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909 @subsubsection Text Properties in Strings |
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910 |
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911 A string can hold properties for the characters it contains, in |
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912 addition to the characters themselves. This enables programs that copy |
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913 text between strings and buffers to copy the text's properties with no |
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914 special effort. @xref{Text Properties}, for an explanation of what text |
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915 properties mean. Strings with text properties use a special read and |
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916 print syntax: |
6447 | 917 |
918 @example | |
919 #("@var{characters}" @var{property-data}...) | |
920 @end example | |
921 | |
922 @noindent | |
923 where @var{property-data} consists of zero or more elements, in groups | |
924 of three as follows: | |
925 | |
926 @example | |
927 @var{beg} @var{end} @var{plist} | |
928 @end example | |
929 | |
930 @noindent | |
931 The elements @var{beg} and @var{end} are integers, and together specify | |
932 a range of indices in the string; @var{plist} is the property list for | |
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933 that range. For example, |
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934 |
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935 @example |
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936 #("foo bar" 0 3 (face bold) 3 4 nil 4 7 (face italic)) |
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937 @end example |
6447 | 938 |
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939 @noindent |
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940 represents a string whose textual contents are @samp{foo bar}, in which |
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941 the first three characters have a @code{face} property with value |
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942 @code{bold}, and the last three have a @code{face} property with value |
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943 @code{italic}. (The fourth character has no text properties so its |
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944 property list is @code{nil}.) |
6447 | 945 |
946 @node Vector Type | |
947 @subsection Vector Type | |
948 | |
949 A @dfn{vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type. It | |
950 takes a constant amount of time to access any element of a vector. (In | |
951 a list, the access time of an element is proportional to the distance of | |
952 the element from the beginning of the list.) | |
953 | |
954 The printed representation of a vector consists of a left square | |
955 bracket, the elements, and a right square bracket. This is also the | |
956 read syntax. Like numbers and strings, vectors are considered constants | |
957 for evaluation. | |
958 | |
959 @example | |
960 [1 "two" (three)] ; @r{A vector of three elements.} | |
961 @result{} [1 "two" (three)] | |
962 @end example | |
963 | |
964 @xref{Vectors}, for functions that work with vectors. | |
965 | |
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966 @node Char-Table Type |
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967 @subsection Char-Table Type |
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968 |
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969 A @dfn{char-table} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type, |
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970 indexed by character codes. Char-tables have certain extra features to |
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971 make them more useful for many jobs that involve assigning information |
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972 to character codes---for example, a char-table can have a parent to |
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973 inherit from, a default value, and a small number of extra slots to use for |
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974 special purposes. A char-table can also specify a single value for |
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975 a whole character set. |
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976 |
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977 The printed representation of a char-table is like a vector |
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978 except that there is an extra @samp{#} at the beginning. |
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979 |
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980 @xref{Char-Tables}, for special functions to operate on char-tables. |
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981 |
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982 @node Bool-Vector Type |
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983 @subsection Bool-Vector Type |
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984 |
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985 A @dfn{bool-vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements that |
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986 must be @code{t} or @code{nil}. |
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987 |
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988 The printed representation of a Bool-vector is like a string, except |
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989 that it begins with @samp{#&} followed by the length. The string |
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990 constant that follows actually specifies the contents of the bool-vector |
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991 as a bitmap---each ``character'' in the string contains 8 bits, which |
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992 specify the next 8 elements of the bool-vector (1 stands for @code{t}, |
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993 and 0 for @code{nil}). If the length is not a multiple of 8, the |
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994 printed representation describes extra elements, but these really |
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995 make no difference. |
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996 |
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997 @example |
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998 (make-bool-vector 3 t) |
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999 @result{} #&3"\377" |
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1000 (make-bool-vector 3 nil) |
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1001 @result{} #&3"\0"" |
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1002 @end example |
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1003 |
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1004 @node Function Type |
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1005 @subsection Function Type |
6447 | 1006 |
1007 Just as functions in other programming languages are executable, | |
1008 @dfn{Lisp function} objects are pieces of executable code. However, | |
1009 functions in Lisp are primarily Lisp objects, and only secondarily the | |
1010 text which represents them. These Lisp objects are lambda expressions: | |
1011 lists whose first element is the symbol @code{lambda} (@pxref{Lambda | |
1012 Expressions}). | |
1013 | |
1014 In most programming languages, it is impossible to have a function | |
1015 without a name. In Lisp, a function has no intrinsic name. A lambda | |
1016 expression is also called an @dfn{anonymous function} (@pxref{Anonymous | |
1017 Functions}). A named function in Lisp is actually a symbol with a valid | |
1018 function in its function cell (@pxref{Defining Functions}). | |
1019 | |
1020 Most of the time, functions are called when their names are written in | |
1021 Lisp expressions in Lisp programs. However, you can construct or obtain | |
1022 a function object at run time and then call it with the primitive | |
1023 functions @code{funcall} and @code{apply}. @xref{Calling Functions}. | |
1024 | |
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1025 @node Macro Type |
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1026 @subsection Macro Type |
6447 | 1027 |
1028 A @dfn{Lisp macro} is a user-defined construct that extends the Lisp | |
1029 language. It is represented as an object much like a function, but with | |
1030 different parameter-passing semantics. A Lisp macro has the form of a | |
1031 list whose first element is the symbol @code{macro} and whose @sc{cdr} | |
1032 is a Lisp function object, including the @code{lambda} symbol. | |
1033 | |
1034 Lisp macro objects are usually defined with the built-in | |
1035 @code{defmacro} function, but any list that begins with @code{macro} is | |
1036 a macro as far as Emacs is concerned. @xref{Macros}, for an explanation | |
1037 of how to write a macro. | |
1038 | |
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1039 @strong{Warning}: Lisp macros and keyboard macros (@pxref{Keyboard |
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1040 Macros}) are entirely different things. When we use the word ``macro'' |
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1041 without qualification, we mean a Lisp macro, not a keyboard macro. |
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1042 |
6447 | 1043 @node Primitive Function Type |
1044 @subsection Primitive Function Type | |
1045 @cindex special forms | |
1046 | |
1047 A @dfn{primitive function} is a function callable from Lisp but | |
1048 written in the C programming language. Primitive functions are also | |
1049 called @dfn{subrs} or @dfn{built-in functions}. (The word ``subr'' is | |
1050 derived from ``subroutine''.) Most primitive functions evaluate all | |
1051 their arguments when they are called. A primitive function that does | |
1052 not evaluate all its arguments is called a @dfn{special form} | |
1053 (@pxref{Special Forms}).@refill | |
1054 | |
1055 It does not matter to the caller of a function whether the function is | |
1056 primitive. However, this does matter if you try to substitute a | |
1057 function written in Lisp for a primitive of the same name. The reason | |
1058 is that the primitive function may be called directly from C code. | |
1059 Calls to the redefined function from Lisp will use the new definition, | |
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1060 but calls from C code may still use the built-in definition. Therefore, |
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1061 @strong{we discourage redefinition of primitive functions}. |
6447 | 1062 |
1063 The term @dfn{function} refers to all Emacs functions, whether written | |
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1064 in Lisp or C. @xref{Function Type}, for information about the |
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1065 functions written in Lisp. |
6447 | 1066 |
1067 Primitive functions have no read syntax and print in hash notation | |
1068 with the name of the subroutine. | |
1069 | |
1070 @example | |
1071 @group | |
1072 (symbol-function 'car) ; @r{Access the function cell} | |
1073 ; @r{of the symbol.} | |
1074 @result{} #<subr car> | |
1075 (subrp (symbol-function 'car)) ; @r{Is this a primitive function?} | |
1076 @result{} t ; @r{Yes.} | |
1077 @end group | |
1078 @end example | |
1079 | |
1080 @node Byte-Code Type | |
1081 @subsection Byte-Code Function Type | |
1082 | |
1083 The byte compiler produces @dfn{byte-code function objects}. | |
1084 Internally, a byte-code function object is much like a vector; however, | |
1085 the evaluator handles this data type specially when it appears as a | |
1086 function to be called. @xref{Byte Compilation}, for information about | |
1087 the byte compiler. | |
1088 | |
12098 | 1089 The printed representation and read syntax for a byte-code function |
1090 object is like that for a vector, with an additional @samp{#} before the | |
1091 opening @samp{[}. | |
6447 | 1092 |
1093 @node Autoload Type | |
1094 @subsection Autoload Type | |
1095 | |
1096 An @dfn{autoload object} is a list whose first element is the symbol | |
1097 @code{autoload}. It is stored as the function definition of a symbol as | |
1098 a placeholder for the real definition; it says that the real definition | |
1099 is found in a file of Lisp code that should be loaded when necessary. | |
1100 The autoload object contains the name of the file, plus some other | |
1101 information about the real definition. | |
1102 | |
1103 After the file has been loaded, the symbol should have a new function | |
1104 definition that is not an autoload object. The new definition is then | |
1105 called as if it had been there to begin with. From the user's point of | |
1106 view, the function call works as expected, using the function definition | |
1107 in the loaded file. | |
1108 | |
1109 An autoload object is usually created with the function | |
1110 @code{autoload}, which stores the object in the function cell of a | |
1111 symbol. @xref{Autoload}, for more details. | |
1112 | |
1113 @node Editing Types | |
1114 @section Editing Types | |
1115 @cindex editing types | |
1116 | |
1117 The types in the previous section are common to many Lisp dialects. | |
1118 Emacs Lisp provides several additional data types for purposes connected | |
1119 with editing. | |
1120 | |
1121 @menu | |
1122 * Buffer Type:: The basic object of editing. | |
1123 * Marker Type:: A position in a buffer. | |
1124 * Window Type:: Buffers are displayed in windows. | |
1125 * Frame Type:: Windows subdivide frames. | |
1126 * Window Configuration Type:: Recording the way a frame is subdivided. | |
1127 * Process Type:: A process running on the underlying OS. | |
1128 * Stream Type:: Receive or send characters. | |
1129 * Keymap Type:: What function a keystroke invokes. | |
1130 * Syntax Table Type:: What a character means. | |
1131 * Display Table Type:: How display tables are represented. | |
1132 * Overlay Type:: How an overlay is represented. | |
1133 @end menu | |
1134 | |
1135 @node Buffer Type | |
1136 @subsection Buffer Type | |
1137 | |
1138 A @dfn{buffer} is an object that holds text that can be edited | |
1139 (@pxref{Buffers}). Most buffers hold the contents of a disk file | |
1140 (@pxref{Files}) so they can be edited, but some are used for other | |
1141 purposes. Most buffers are also meant to be seen by the user, and | |
1142 therefore displayed, at some time, in a window (@pxref{Windows}). But a | |
1143 buffer need not be displayed in any window. | |
1144 | |
1145 The contents of a buffer are much like a string, but buffers are not | |
1146 used like strings in Emacs Lisp, and the available operations are | |
1147 different. For example, insertion of text into a buffer is very | |
1148 efficient, whereas ``inserting'' text into a string requires | |
1149 concatenating substrings, and the result is an entirely new string | |
1150 object. | |
1151 | |
1152 Each buffer has a designated position called @dfn{point} | |
1153 (@pxref{Positions}). At any time, one buffer is the @dfn{current | |
1154 buffer}. Most editing commands act on the contents of the current | |
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1155 buffer in the neighborhood of point. Many of the standard Emacs |
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1156 functions manipulate or test the characters in the current buffer; a |
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1157 whole chapter in this manual is devoted to describing these functions |
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1158 (@pxref{Text}). |
6447 | 1159 |
1160 Several other data structures are associated with each buffer: | |
1161 | |
1162 @itemize @bullet | |
1163 @item | |
1164 a local syntax table (@pxref{Syntax Tables}); | |
1165 | |
1166 @item | |
1167 a local keymap (@pxref{Keymaps}); and, | |
1168 | |
1169 @item | |
1170 a local variable binding list (@pxref{Buffer-Local Variables}). | |
12098 | 1171 |
1172 @item | |
1173 a list of overlays (@pxref{Overlays}). | |
1174 | |
1175 @item | |
1176 text properties for the text in the buffer (@pxref{Text Properties}). | |
6447 | 1177 @end itemize |
1178 | |
1179 @noindent | |
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1180 The local keymap and variable list contain entries that individually |
6447 | 1181 override global bindings or values. These are used to customize the |
1182 behavior of programs in different buffers, without actually changing the | |
1183 programs. | |
1184 | |
12098 | 1185 A buffer may be @dfn{indirect}, which means it shares the text |
1186 of another buffer. @xref{Indirect Buffers}. | |
1187 | |
1188 Buffers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, showing the | |
6447 | 1189 buffer name. |
1190 | |
1191 @example | |
1192 @group | |
1193 (current-buffer) | |
1194 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> | |
1195 @end group | |
1196 @end example | |
1197 | |
1198 @node Marker Type | |
1199 @subsection Marker Type | |
1200 | |
1201 A @dfn{marker} denotes a position in a specific buffer. Markers | |
1202 therefore have two components: one for the buffer, and one for the | |
1203 position. Changes in the buffer's text automatically relocate the | |
1204 position value as necessary to ensure that the marker always points | |
1205 between the same two characters in the buffer. | |
1206 | |
1207 Markers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1208 current character position and the name of the buffer. | |
1209 | |
1210 @example | |
1211 @group | |
1212 (point-marker) | |
1213 @result{} #<marker at 10779 in objects.texi> | |
1214 @end group | |
1215 @end example | |
1216 | |
1217 @xref{Markers}, for information on how to test, create, copy, and move | |
1218 markers. | |
1219 | |
1220 @node Window Type | |
1221 @subsection Window Type | |
1222 | |
1223 A @dfn{window} describes the portion of the terminal screen that Emacs | |
1224 uses to display a buffer. Every window has one associated buffer, whose | |
1225 contents appear in the window. By contrast, a given buffer may appear | |
1226 in one window, no window, or several windows. | |
1227 | |
1228 Though many windows may exist simultaneously, at any time one window | |
1229 is designated the @dfn{selected window}. This is the window where the | |
1230 cursor is (usually) displayed when Emacs is ready for a command. The | |
1231 selected window usually displays the current buffer, but this is not | |
1232 necessarily the case. | |
1233 | |
1234 Windows are grouped on the screen into frames; each window belongs to | |
1235 one and only one frame. @xref{Frame Type}. | |
1236 | |
1237 Windows have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1238 window number and the name of the buffer being displayed. The window | |
1239 numbers exist to identify windows uniquely, since the buffer displayed | |
1240 in any given window can change frequently. | |
1241 | |
1242 @example | |
1243 @group | |
1244 (selected-window) | |
1245 @result{} #<window 1 on objects.texi> | |
1246 @end group | |
1247 @end example | |
1248 | |
1249 @xref{Windows}, for a description of the functions that work on windows. | |
1250 | |
1251 @node Frame Type | |
1252 @subsection Frame Type | |
1253 | |
1254 A @var{frame} is a rectangle on the screen that contains one or more | |
1255 Emacs windows. A frame initially contains a single main window (plus | |
1256 perhaps a minibuffer window) which you can subdivide vertically or | |
1257 horizontally into smaller windows. | |
1258 | |
1259 Frames have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1260 frame's title, plus its address in core (useful to identify the frame | |
1261 uniquely). | |
1262 | |
1263 @example | |
1264 @group | |
1265 (selected-frame) | |
1266 @result{} #<frame xemacs@@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu 0xdac80> | |
1267 @end group | |
1268 @end example | |
1269 | |
1270 @xref{Frames}, for a description of the functions that work on frames. | |
1271 | |
1272 @node Window Configuration Type | |
1273 @subsection Window Configuration Type | |
1274 @cindex screen layout | |
1275 | |
1276 A @dfn{window configuration} stores information about the positions, | |
1277 sizes, and contents of the windows in a frame, so you can recreate the | |
1278 same arrangement of windows later. | |
1279 | |
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1280 Window configurations do not have a read syntax; their print syntax |
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1281 looks like @samp{#<window-configuration>}. @xref{Window |
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1282 Configurations}, for a description of several functions related to |
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1283 window configurations. |
6447 | 1284 |
1285 @node Process Type | |
1286 @subsection Process Type | |
1287 | |
1288 The word @dfn{process} usually means a running program. Emacs itself | |
1289 runs in a process of this sort. However, in Emacs Lisp, a process is a | |
1290 Lisp object that designates a subprocess created by the Emacs process. | |
1291 Programs such as shells, GDB, ftp, and compilers, running in | |
1292 subprocesses of Emacs, extend the capabilities of Emacs. | |
1293 | |
1294 An Emacs subprocess takes textual input from Emacs and returns textual | |
1295 output to Emacs for further manipulation. Emacs can also send signals | |
1296 to the subprocess. | |
1297 | |
1298 Process objects have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, | |
1299 giving the name of the process: | |
1300 | |
1301 @example | |
1302 @group | |
1303 (process-list) | |
1304 @result{} (#<process shell>) | |
1305 @end group | |
1306 @end example | |
1307 | |
1308 @xref{Processes}, for information about functions that create, delete, | |
1309 return information about, send input or signals to, and receive output | |
1310 from processes. | |
1311 | |
1312 @node Stream Type | |
1313 @subsection Stream Type | |
1314 | |
1315 A @dfn{stream} is an object that can be used as a source or sink for | |
1316 characters---either to supply characters for input or to accept them as | |
1317 output. Many different types can be used this way: markers, buffers, | |
1318 strings, and functions. Most often, input streams (character sources) | |
1319 obtain characters from the keyboard, a buffer, or a file, and output | |
1320 streams (character sinks) send characters to a buffer, such as a | |
1321 @file{*Help*} buffer, or to the echo area. | |
1322 | |
1323 The object @code{nil}, in addition to its other meanings, may be used | |
1324 as a stream. It stands for the value of the variable | |
1325 @code{standard-input} or @code{standard-output}. Also, the object | |
1326 @code{t} as a stream specifies input using the minibuffer | |
1327 (@pxref{Minibuffers}) or output in the echo area (@pxref{The Echo | |
1328 Area}). | |
1329 | |
1330 Streams have no special printed representation or read syntax, and | |
1331 print as whatever primitive type they are. | |
1332 | |
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1333 @xref{Read and Print}, for a description of functions |
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1334 related to streams, including parsing and printing functions. |
6447 | 1335 |
1336 @node Keymap Type | |
1337 @subsection Keymap Type | |
1338 | |
1339 A @dfn{keymap} maps keys typed by the user to commands. This mapping | |
1340 controls how the user's command input is executed. A keymap is actually | |
1341 a list whose @sc{car} is the symbol @code{keymap}. | |
1342 | |
1343 @xref{Keymaps}, for information about creating keymaps, handling prefix | |
1344 keys, local as well as global keymaps, and changing key bindings. | |
1345 | |
1346 @node Syntax Table Type | |
1347 @subsection Syntax Table Type | |
1348 | |
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1349 A @dfn{syntax table} is a char-table which specifies the syntax of |
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1350 each character, for word and list parsing. Each element of the syntax |
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1351 table defines how one character is interpreted when it appears in a |
6447 | 1352 buffer. For example, in C mode (@pxref{Major Modes}), the @samp{+} |
1353 character is punctuation, but in Lisp mode it is a valid character in a | |
1354 symbol. These modes specify different interpretations by changing the | |
1355 syntax table entry for @samp{+}, at index 43 in the syntax table. | |
1356 | |
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1357 Syntax tables are used only to control primitives that scan text in |
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1358 buffers, not for reading Lisp expressions. The syntax that the Lisp |
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1359 interpreter uses to read expressions is built into the Emacs source code |
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1360 and cannot be changed; thus, to change the list delimiters to be |
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1361 @samp{@{} and @samp{@}} instead of @samp{(} and @samp{)} would be |
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1362 impossible. (Some Lisp systems provide ways to redefine the read |
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1363 syntax, but we decided to leave this feature out of Emacs Lisp for |
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1364 simplicity.) |
6447 | 1365 |
1366 @xref{Syntax Tables}, for details about syntax classes and how to make | |
1367 and modify syntax tables. | |
1368 | |
1369 @node Display Table Type | |
1370 @subsection Display Table Type | |
1371 | |
1372 A @dfn{display table} specifies how to display each character code. | |
1373 Each buffer and each window can have its own display table. A display | |
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1374 table is actually a char-table. @xref{Display Tables}. |
6447 | 1375 |
1376 @node Overlay Type | |
1377 @subsection Overlay Type | |
1378 | |
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1379 An @dfn{overlay} specifies properties that apply to a part of a |
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1380 buffer. Each overlay applies to a specified range of the buffer, and |
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1381 contains a property list (a list whose elements are alternating property |
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1382 names and values). Overlay properties are used to present parts of the |
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1383 buffer temporarily in a different display style. Overlays have no read |
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1384 syntax, and print in hash notation, giving the buffer name and range of |
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1385 positions. |
6447 | 1386 |
12098 | 1387 @xref{Overlays}, for how to create and use overlays. |
6447 | 1388 |
1389 @node Type Predicates | |
1390 @section Type Predicates | |
1391 @cindex predicates | |
1392 @cindex type checking | |
1393 @kindex wrong-type-argument | |
1394 | |
1395 The Emacs Lisp interpreter itself does not perform type checking on | |
1396 the actual arguments passed to functions when they are called. It could | |
1397 not do so, since function arguments in Lisp do not have declared data | |
1398 types, as they do in other programming languages. It is therefore up to | |
1399 the individual function to test whether each actual argument belongs to | |
1400 a type that the function can use. | |
1401 | |
1402 All built-in functions do check the types of their actual arguments | |
1403 when appropriate, and signal a @code{wrong-type-argument} error if an | |
1404 argument is of the wrong type. For example, here is what happens if you | |
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1405 pass an argument to @code{+} that it cannot handle: |
6447 | 1406 |
1407 @example | |
1408 @group | |
1409 (+ 2 'a) | |
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1410 @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, a |
6447 | 1411 @end group |
1412 @end example | |
1413 | |
1414 @cindex type predicates | |
1415 @cindex testing types | |
12067 | 1416 If you want your program to handle different types differently, you |
1417 must do explicit type checking. The most common way to check the type | |
1418 of an object is to call a @dfn{type predicate} function. Emacs has a | |
1419 type predicate for each type, as well as some predicates for | |
1420 combinations of types. | |
1421 | |
1422 A type predicate function takes one argument; it returns @code{t} if | |
1423 the argument belongs to the appropriate type, and @code{nil} otherwise. | |
1424 Following a general Lisp convention for predicate functions, most type | |
1425 predicates' names end with @samp{p}. | |
1426 | |
1427 Here is an example which uses the predicates @code{listp} to check for | |
1428 a list and @code{symbolp} to check for a symbol. | |
6447 | 1429 |
12067 | 1430 @example |
1431 (defun add-on (x) | |
1432 (cond ((symbolp x) | |
1433 ;; If X is a symbol, put it on LIST. | |
1434 (setq list (cons x list))) | |
1435 ((listp x) | |
1436 ;; If X is a list, add its elements to LIST. | |
1437 (setq list (append x list))) | |
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1438 @need 3000 |
12067 | 1439 (t |
1440 ;; We only handle symbols and lists. | |
1441 (error "Invalid argument %s in add-on" x)))) | |
1442 @end example | |
1443 | |
1444 Here is a table of predefined type predicates, in alphabetical order, | |
6447 | 1445 with references to further information. |
1446 | |
1447 @table @code | |
1448 @item atom | |
1449 @xref{List-related Predicates, atom}. | |
1450 | |
1451 @item arrayp | |
1452 @xref{Array Functions, arrayp}. | |
1453 | |
1454 @item bufferp | |
1455 @xref{Buffer Basics, bufferp}. | |
1456 | |
1457 @item byte-code-function-p | |
1458 @xref{Byte-Code Type, byte-code-function-p}. | |
1459 | |
1460 @item case-table-p | |
1461 @xref{Case Table, case-table-p}. | |
1462 | |
1463 @item char-or-string-p | |
1464 @xref{Predicates for Strings, char-or-string-p}. | |
1465 | |
1466 @item commandp | |
1467 @xref{Interactive Call, commandp}. | |
1468 | |
1469 @item consp | |
1470 @xref{List-related Predicates, consp}. | |
1471 | |
1472 @item floatp | |
1473 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, floatp}. | |
1474 | |
1475 @item frame-live-p | |
1476 @xref{Deleting Frames, frame-live-p}. | |
1477 | |
1478 @item framep | |
1479 @xref{Frames, framep}. | |
1480 | |
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1481 @item functionp |
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1482 @xref{Functions, functionp}. |
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1483 |
6447 | 1484 @item integer-or-marker-p |
1485 @xref{Predicates on Markers, integer-or-marker-p}. | |
1486 | |
1487 @item integerp | |
1488 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, integerp}. | |
1489 | |
1490 @item keymapp | |
1491 @xref{Creating Keymaps, keymapp}. | |
1492 | |
1493 @item listp | |
1494 @xref{List-related Predicates, listp}. | |
1495 | |
1496 @item markerp | |
1497 @xref{Predicates on Markers, markerp}. | |
1498 | |
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1499 @item wholenump |
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1500 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, wholenump}. |
6447 | 1501 |
1502 @item nlistp | |
1503 @xref{List-related Predicates, nlistp}. | |
1504 | |
1505 @item numberp | |
1506 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, numberp}. | |
1507 | |
1508 @item number-or-marker-p | |
1509 @xref{Predicates on Markers, number-or-marker-p}. | |
1510 | |
1511 @item overlayp | |
1512 @xref{Overlays, overlayp}. | |
1513 | |
1514 @item processp | |
1515 @xref{Processes, processp}. | |
1516 | |
1517 @item sequencep | |
1518 @xref{Sequence Functions, sequencep}. | |
1519 | |
1520 @item stringp | |
1521 @xref{Predicates for Strings, stringp}. | |
1522 | |
1523 @item subrp | |
1524 @xref{Function Cells, subrp}. | |
1525 | |
1526 @item symbolp | |
1527 @xref{Symbols, symbolp}. | |
1528 | |
1529 @item syntax-table-p | |
1530 @xref{Syntax Tables, syntax-table-p}. | |
1531 | |
1532 @item user-variable-p | |
1533 @xref{Defining Variables, user-variable-p}. | |
1534 | |
1535 @item vectorp | |
1536 @xref{Vectors, vectorp}. | |
1537 | |
1538 @item window-configuration-p | |
1539 @xref{Window Configurations, window-configuration-p}. | |
1540 | |
1541 @item window-live-p | |
1542 @xref{Deleting Windows, window-live-p}. | |
1543 | |
1544 @item windowp | |
1545 @xref{Basic Windows, windowp}. | |
1546 @end table | |
1547 | |
12067 | 1548 The most general way to check the type of an object is to call the |
1549 function @code{type-of}. Recall that each object belongs to one and | |
1550 only one primitive type; @code{type-of} tells you which one (@pxref{Lisp | |
1551 Data Types}). But @code{type-of} knows nothing about non-primitive | |
1552 types. In most cases, it is more convenient to use type predicates than | |
1553 @code{type-of}. | |
1554 | |
1555 @defun type-of object | |
1556 This function returns a symbol naming the primitive type of | |
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1557 @var{object}. The value is one of the symbols @code{symbol}, |
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1558 @code{integer}, @code{float}, @code{string}, @code{cons}, @code{vector}, |
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1559 @code{marker}, @code{overlay}, @code{window}, @code{buffer}, |
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1560 @code{subr}, @code{compiled-function}, @code{process}, or |
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1561 @code{window-configuration}. |
12067 | 1562 |
1563 @example | |
1564 (type-of 1) | |
1565 @result{} integer | |
1566 (type-of 'nil) | |
1567 @result{} symbol | |
1568 (type-of '()) ; @r{@code{()} is @code{nil}.} | |
1569 @result{} symbol | |
1570 (type-of '(x)) | |
1571 @result{} cons | |
1572 @end example | |
1573 @end defun | |
1574 | |
6447 | 1575 @node Equality Predicates |
1576 @section Equality Predicates | |
1577 @cindex equality | |
1578 | |
1579 Here we describe two functions that test for equality between any two | |
1580 objects. Other functions test equality between objects of specific | |
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1581 types, e.g., strings. For these predicates, see the appropriate chapter |
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1582 describing the data type. |
6447 | 1583 |
1584 @defun eq object1 object2 | |
1585 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are | |
1586 the same object, @code{nil} otherwise. The ``same object'' means that a | |
1587 change in one will be reflected by the same change in the other. | |
1588 | |
1589 @code{eq} returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are | |
1590 integers with the same value. Also, since symbol names are normally | |
1591 unique, if the arguments are symbols with the same name, they are | |
1592 @code{eq}. For other types (e.g., lists, vectors, strings), two | |
1593 arguments with the same contents or elements are not necessarily | |
1594 @code{eq} to each other: they are @code{eq} only if they are the same | |
1595 object. | |
1596 | |
1597 (The @code{make-symbol} function returns an uninterned symbol that is | |
1598 not interned in the standard @code{obarray}. When uninterned symbols | |
1599 are in use, symbol names are no longer unique. Distinct symbols with | |
1600 the same name are not @code{eq}. @xref{Creating Symbols}.) | |
1601 | |
1602 @example | |
1603 @group | |
1604 (eq 'foo 'foo) | |
1605 @result{} t | |
1606 @end group | |
1607 | |
1608 @group | |
1609 (eq 456 456) | |
1610 @result{} t | |
1611 @end group | |
1612 | |
1613 @group | |
1614 (eq "asdf" "asdf") | |
1615 @result{} nil | |
1616 @end group | |
1617 | |
1618 @group | |
1619 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1620 @result{} nil | |
1621 @end group | |
1622 | |
1623 @group | |
1624 (setq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1625 @result{} (1 (2 (3))) | |
1626 (eq foo foo) | |
1627 @result{} t | |
1628 (eq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1629 @result{} nil | |
1630 @end group | |
1631 | |
1632 @group | |
1633 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1634 @result{} nil | |
1635 @end group | |
1636 | |
1637 @group | |
1638 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1639 @result{} nil | |
1640 @end group | |
1641 @end example | |
1642 | |
1643 @end defun | |
1644 | |
1645 @defun equal object1 object2 | |
1646 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} have | |
1647 equal components, @code{nil} otherwise. Whereas @code{eq} tests if its | |
1648 arguments are the same object, @code{equal} looks inside nonidentical | |
1649 arguments to see if their elements are the same. So, if two objects are | |
1650 @code{eq}, they are @code{equal}, but the converse is not always true. | |
1651 | |
1652 @example | |
1653 @group | |
1654 (equal 'foo 'foo) | |
1655 @result{} t | |
1656 @end group | |
1657 | |
1658 @group | |
1659 (equal 456 456) | |
1660 @result{} t | |
1661 @end group | |
1662 | |
1663 @group | |
1664 (equal "asdf" "asdf") | |
1665 @result{} t | |
1666 @end group | |
1667 @group | |
1668 (eq "asdf" "asdf") | |
1669 @result{} nil | |
1670 @end group | |
1671 | |
1672 @group | |
1673 (equal '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1674 @result{} t | |
1675 @end group | |
1676 @group | |
1677 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1678 @result{} nil | |
1679 @end group | |
1680 | |
1681 @group | |
1682 (equal [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1683 @result{} t | |
1684 @end group | |
1685 @group | |
1686 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1687 @result{} nil | |
1688 @end group | |
1689 | |
1690 @group | |
1691 (equal (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1692 @result{} t | |
1693 @end group | |
1694 | |
1695 @group | |
1696 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1697 @result{} nil | |
1698 @end group | |
1699 @end example | |
1700 | |
21007
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1701 Comparison of strings is case-sensitive, but does not take account of |
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parents:
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changeset
|
1702 text properties---it compares only the characters in the strings. |
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
16736
diff
changeset
|
1703 A unibyte string never equals a multibyte string unless the |
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
16736
diff
changeset
|
1704 contents are entirely @sc{ASCII} (@pxref{Text Representations}). |
6447 | 1705 |
1706 @example | |
1707 @group | |
1708 (equal "asdf" "ASDF") | |
1709 @result{} nil | |
1710 @end group | |
1711 @end example | |
12098 | 1712 |
1713 Two distinct buffers are never @code{equal}, even if their contents | |
1714 are the same. | |
6447 | 1715 @end defun |
1716 | |
1717 The test for equality is implemented recursively, and circular lists may | |
1718 therefore cause infinite recursion (leading to an error). |