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annotate doc/lispref/strings.texi @ 105148:23b427643575
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date | Tue, 22 Sep 2009 19:49:50 +0000 |
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84100 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2001, | |
100974 | 4 @c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
84100 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
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6 @setfilename ../../info/strings |
84100 | 7 @node Strings and Characters, Lists, Numbers, Top |
8 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
9 @chapter Strings and Characters | |
10 @cindex strings | |
11 @cindex character arrays | |
12 @cindex characters | |
13 @cindex bytes | |
14 | |
15 A string in Emacs Lisp is an array that contains an ordered sequence | |
16 of characters. Strings are used as names of symbols, buffers, and | |
17 files; to send messages to users; to hold text being copied between | |
18 buffers; and for many other purposes. Because strings are so important, | |
19 Emacs Lisp has many functions expressly for manipulating them. Emacs | |
20 Lisp programs use strings more often than individual characters. | |
21 | |
22 @xref{Strings of Events}, for special considerations for strings of | |
23 keyboard character events. | |
24 | |
25 @menu | |
26 * Basics: String Basics. Basic properties of strings and characters. | |
27 * Predicates for Strings:: Testing whether an object is a string or char. | |
28 * Creating Strings:: Functions to allocate new strings. | |
29 * Modifying Strings:: Altering the contents of an existing string. | |
30 * Text Comparison:: Comparing characters or strings. | |
31 * String Conversion:: Converting to and from characters and strings. | |
32 * Formatting Strings:: @code{format}: Emacs's analogue of @code{printf}. | |
33 * Case Conversion:: Case conversion functions. | |
34 * Case Tables:: Customizing case conversion. | |
35 @end menu | |
36 | |
37 @node String Basics | |
38 @section String and Character Basics | |
39 | |
40 Characters are represented in Emacs Lisp as integers; | |
41 whether an integer is a character or not is determined only by how it is | |
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42 used. Thus, strings really contain integers. @xref{Character Codes}, |
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43 for details about character representation in Emacs. |
84100 | 44 |
45 The length of a string (like any array) is fixed, and cannot be | |
46 altered once the string exists. Strings in Lisp are @emph{not} | |
47 terminated by a distinguished character code. (By contrast, strings in | |
48 C are terminated by a character with @acronym{ASCII} code 0.) | |
49 | |
50 Since strings are arrays, and therefore sequences as well, you can | |
51 operate on them with the general array and sequence functions. | |
52 (@xref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}.) For example, you can access or | |
53 change individual characters in a string using the functions @code{aref} | |
54 and @code{aset} (@pxref{Array Functions}). | |
55 | |
56 There are two text representations for non-@acronym{ASCII} characters in | |
57 Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte and multibyte (@pxref{Text | |
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58 Representations}). For most Lisp programming, you don't need to be |
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59 concerned with these two representations. |
84100 | 60 |
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61 Sometimes key sequences are represented as unibyte strings. When a |
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62 unibyte string is a key sequence, string elements in the range 128 to |
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63 255 represent meta characters (which are large integers) rather than |
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64 character codes in the range 128 to 255. Strings cannot hold |
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65 characters that have the hyper, super or alt modifiers; they can hold |
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66 @acronym{ASCII} control characters, but no other control characters. |
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67 They do not distinguish case in @acronym{ASCII} control characters. |
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68 If you want to store such characters in a sequence, such as a key |
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69 sequence, you must use a vector instead of a string. @xref{Character |
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70 Type}, for more information about keyboard input characters. |
84100 | 71 |
72 Strings are useful for holding regular expressions. You can also | |
73 match regular expressions against strings with @code{string-match} | |
74 (@pxref{Regexp Search}). The functions @code{match-string} | |
75 (@pxref{Simple Match Data}) and @code{replace-match} (@pxref{Replacing | |
76 Match}) are useful for decomposing and modifying strings after | |
77 matching regular expressions against them. | |
78 | |
79 Like a buffer, a string can contain text properties for the characters | |
80 in it, as well as the characters themselves. @xref{Text Properties}. | |
81 All the Lisp primitives that copy text from strings to buffers or other | |
82 strings also copy the properties of the characters being copied. | |
83 | |
84 @xref{Text}, for information about functions that display strings or | |
85 copy them into buffers. @xref{Character Type}, and @ref{String Type}, | |
86 for information about the syntax of characters and strings. | |
87 @xref{Non-ASCII Characters}, for functions to convert between text | |
88 representations and to encode and decode character codes. | |
89 | |
90 @node Predicates for Strings | |
91 @section The Predicates for Strings | |
92 | |
93 For more information about general sequence and array predicates, | |
94 see @ref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}, and @ref{Arrays}. | |
95 | |
96 @defun stringp object | |
97 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a string, @code{nil} | |
98 otherwise. | |
99 @end defun | |
100 | |
101 @defun string-or-null-p object | |
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102 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a string or |
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103 @code{nil}. It returns @code{nil} otherwise. |
84100 | 104 @end defun |
105 | |
106 @defun char-or-string-p object | |
107 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a string or a | |
108 character (i.e., an integer), @code{nil} otherwise. | |
109 @end defun | |
110 | |
111 @node Creating Strings | |
112 @section Creating Strings | |
113 | |
114 The following functions create strings, either from scratch, or by | |
115 putting strings together, or by taking them apart. | |
116 | |
117 @defun make-string count character | |
118 This function returns a string made up of @var{count} repetitions of | |
119 @var{character}. If @var{count} is negative, an error is signaled. | |
120 | |
121 @example | |
122 (make-string 5 ?x) | |
123 @result{} "xxxxx" | |
124 (make-string 0 ?x) | |
125 @result{} "" | |
126 @end example | |
127 | |
128 Other functions to compare with this one include @code{char-to-string} | |
129 (@pxref{String Conversion}), @code{make-vector} (@pxref{Vectors}), and | |
130 @code{make-list} (@pxref{Building Lists}). | |
131 @end defun | |
132 | |
133 @defun string &rest characters | |
134 This returns a string containing the characters @var{characters}. | |
135 | |
136 @example | |
137 (string ?a ?b ?c) | |
138 @result{} "abc" | |
139 @end example | |
140 @end defun | |
141 | |
142 @defun substring string start &optional end | |
143 This function returns a new string which consists of those characters | |
144 from @var{string} in the range from (and including) the character at the | |
145 index @var{start} up to (but excluding) the character at the index | |
146 @var{end}. The first character is at index zero. | |
147 | |
148 @example | |
149 @group | |
150 (substring "abcdefg" 0 3) | |
151 @result{} "abc" | |
152 @end group | |
153 @end example | |
154 | |
155 @noindent | |
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156 In the above example, the index for @samp{a} is 0, the index for |
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157 @samp{b} is 1, and the index for @samp{c} is 2. The index 3---which |
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158 is the the fourth character in the string---marks the character |
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159 position up to which the substring is copied. Thus, @samp{abc} is |
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160 copied from the string @code{"abcdefg"}. |
84100 | 161 |
162 A negative number counts from the end of the string, so that @minus{}1 | |
163 signifies the index of the last character of the string. For example: | |
164 | |
165 @example | |
166 @group | |
167 (substring "abcdefg" -3 -1) | |
168 @result{} "ef" | |
169 @end group | |
170 @end example | |
171 | |
172 @noindent | |
173 In this example, the index for @samp{e} is @minus{}3, the index for | |
174 @samp{f} is @minus{}2, and the index for @samp{g} is @minus{}1. | |
175 Therefore, @samp{e} and @samp{f} are included, and @samp{g} is excluded. | |
176 | |
177 When @code{nil} is used for @var{end}, it stands for the length of the | |
178 string. Thus, | |
179 | |
180 @example | |
181 @group | |
182 (substring "abcdefg" -3 nil) | |
183 @result{} "efg" | |
184 @end group | |
185 @end example | |
186 | |
187 Omitting the argument @var{end} is equivalent to specifying @code{nil}. | |
188 It follows that @code{(substring @var{string} 0)} returns a copy of all | |
189 of @var{string}. | |
190 | |
191 @example | |
192 @group | |
193 (substring "abcdefg" 0) | |
194 @result{} "abcdefg" | |
195 @end group | |
196 @end example | |
197 | |
198 @noindent | |
199 But we recommend @code{copy-sequence} for this purpose (@pxref{Sequence | |
200 Functions}). | |
201 | |
202 If the characters copied from @var{string} have text properties, the | |
203 properties are copied into the new string also. @xref{Text Properties}. | |
204 | |
205 @code{substring} also accepts a vector for the first argument. | |
206 For example: | |
207 | |
208 @example | |
209 (substring [a b (c) "d"] 1 3) | |
210 @result{} [b (c)] | |
211 @end example | |
212 | |
213 A @code{wrong-type-argument} error is signaled if @var{start} is not | |
214 an integer or if @var{end} is neither an integer nor @code{nil}. An | |
215 @code{args-out-of-range} error is signaled if @var{start} indicates a | |
216 character following @var{end}, or if either integer is out of range | |
217 for @var{string}. | |
218 | |
219 Contrast this function with @code{buffer-substring} (@pxref{Buffer | |
220 Contents}), which returns a string containing a portion of the text in | |
221 the current buffer. The beginning of a string is at index 0, but the | |
222 beginning of a buffer is at index 1. | |
223 @end defun | |
224 | |
225 @defun substring-no-properties string &optional start end | |
226 This works like @code{substring} but discards all text properties from | |
227 the value. Also, @var{start} may be omitted or @code{nil}, which is | |
228 equivalent to 0. Thus, @w{@code{(substring-no-properties | |
229 @var{string})}} returns a copy of @var{string}, with all text | |
230 properties removed. | |
231 @end defun | |
232 | |
233 @defun concat &rest sequences | |
234 @cindex copying strings | |
235 @cindex concatenating strings | |
236 This function returns a new string consisting of the characters in the | |
237 arguments passed to it (along with their text properties, if any). The | |
238 arguments may be strings, lists of numbers, or vectors of numbers; they | |
239 are not themselves changed. If @code{concat} receives no arguments, it | |
240 returns an empty string. | |
241 | |
242 @example | |
243 (concat "abc" "-def") | |
244 @result{} "abc-def" | |
245 (concat "abc" (list 120 121) [122]) | |
246 @result{} "abcxyz" | |
247 ;; @r{@code{nil} is an empty sequence.} | |
248 (concat "abc" nil "-def") | |
249 @result{} "abc-def" | |
250 (concat "The " "quick brown " "fox.") | |
251 @result{} "The quick brown fox." | |
252 (concat) | |
253 @result{} "" | |
254 @end example | |
255 | |
256 @noindent | |
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257 This function always constructs a new string that is not @code{eq} to |
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258 any existing string, except when the result is the empty string (to |
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259 save space, Emacs makes only one empty multibyte string). |
84100 | 260 |
261 For information about other concatenation functions, see the | |
262 description of @code{mapconcat} in @ref{Mapping Functions}, | |
263 @code{vconcat} in @ref{Vector Functions}, and @code{append} in @ref{Building | |
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264 Lists}. For concatenating individual command-line arguments into a |
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265 string to be used as a shell command, see @ref{Shell Arguments, |
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266 combine-and-quote-strings}. |
84100 | 267 @end defun |
268 | |
269 @defun split-string string &optional separators omit-nulls | |
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270 This function splits @var{string} into substrings based on the regular |
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271 expression @var{separators} (@pxref{Regular Expressions}). Each match |
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272 for @var{separators} defines a splitting point; the substrings between |
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273 splitting points are made into a list, which is returned. |
84100 | 274 |
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275 If @var{omit-nulls} is @code{nil} (or omitted), the result contains |
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276 null strings whenever there are two consecutive matches for |
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277 @var{separators}, or a match is adjacent to the beginning or end of |
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278 @var{string}. If @var{omit-nulls} is @code{t}, these null strings are |
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279 omitted from the result. |
84100 | 280 |
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281 If @var{separators} is @code{nil} (or omitted), the default is the |
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282 value of @code{split-string-default-separators}. |
84100 | 283 |
284 As a special case, when @var{separators} is @code{nil} (or omitted), | |
285 null strings are always omitted from the result. Thus: | |
286 | |
287 @example | |
288 (split-string " two words ") | |
289 @result{} ("two" "words") | |
290 @end example | |
291 | |
292 The result is not @code{("" "two" "words" "")}, which would rarely be | |
293 useful. If you need such a result, use an explicit value for | |
294 @var{separators}: | |
295 | |
296 @example | |
297 (split-string " two words " | |
298 split-string-default-separators) | |
299 @result{} ("" "two" "words" "") | |
300 @end example | |
301 | |
302 More examples: | |
303 | |
304 @example | |
305 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o") | |
306 @result{} ("S" "up is g" "" "d f" "" "d") | |
307 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o" t) | |
308 @result{} ("S" "up is g" "d f" "d") | |
309 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o+") | |
310 @result{} ("S" "up is g" "d f" "d") | |
311 @end example | |
312 | |
313 Empty matches do count, except that @code{split-string} will not look | |
314 for a final empty match when it already reached the end of the string | |
315 using a non-empty match or when @var{string} is empty: | |
316 | |
317 @example | |
318 (split-string "aooob" "o*") | |
319 @result{} ("" "a" "" "b" "") | |
320 (split-string "ooaboo" "o*") | |
321 @result{} ("" "" "a" "b" "") | |
322 (split-string "" "") | |
323 @result{} ("") | |
324 @end example | |
325 | |
326 However, when @var{separators} can match the empty string, | |
327 @var{omit-nulls} is usually @code{t}, so that the subtleties in the | |
328 three previous examples are rarely relevant: | |
329 | |
330 @example | |
331 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o*" t) | |
332 @result{} ("S" "u" "p" " " "i" "s" " " "g" "d" " " "f" "d") | |
333 (split-string "Nice doggy!" "" t) | |
334 @result{} ("N" "i" "c" "e" " " "d" "o" "g" "g" "y" "!") | |
335 (split-string "" "" t) | |
336 @result{} nil | |
337 @end example | |
338 | |
339 Somewhat odd, but predictable, behavior can occur for certain | |
340 ``non-greedy'' values of @var{separators} that can prefer empty | |
341 matches over non-empty matches. Again, such values rarely occur in | |
342 practice: | |
343 | |
344 @example | |
345 (split-string "ooo" "o*" t) | |
346 @result{} nil | |
347 (split-string "ooo" "\\|o+" t) | |
348 @result{} ("o" "o" "o") | |
349 @end example | |
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350 |
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351 If you need to split a string that is a shell command, where |
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352 individual arguments could be quoted, see @ref{Shell Arguments, |
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353 split-string-and-unquote}. |
84100 | 354 @end defun |
355 | |
356 @defvar split-string-default-separators | |
357 The default value of @var{separators} for @code{split-string}. Its | |
358 usual value is @w{@code{"[ \f\t\n\r\v]+"}}. | |
359 @end defvar | |
360 | |
361 @node Modifying Strings | |
362 @section Modifying Strings | |
363 | |
364 The most basic way to alter the contents of an existing string is with | |
365 @code{aset} (@pxref{Array Functions}). @code{(aset @var{string} | |
366 @var{idx} @var{char})} stores @var{char} into @var{string} at index | |
367 @var{idx}. Each character occupies one or more bytes, and if @var{char} | |
368 needs a different number of bytes from the character already present at | |
369 that index, @code{aset} signals an error. | |
370 | |
371 A more powerful function is @code{store-substring}: | |
372 | |
373 @defun store-substring string idx obj | |
374 This function alters part of the contents of the string @var{string}, by | |
375 storing @var{obj} starting at index @var{idx}. The argument @var{obj} | |
376 may be either a character or a (smaller) string. | |
377 | |
378 Since it is impossible to change the length of an existing string, it is | |
379 an error if @var{obj} doesn't fit within @var{string}'s actual length, | |
380 or if any new character requires a different number of bytes from the | |
381 character currently present at that point in @var{string}. | |
382 @end defun | |
383 | |
384 To clear out a string that contained a password, use | |
385 @code{clear-string}: | |
386 | |
387 @defun clear-string string | |
388 This makes @var{string} a unibyte string and clears its contents to | |
389 zeros. It may also change @var{string}'s length. | |
390 @end defun | |
391 | |
392 @need 2000 | |
393 @node Text Comparison | |
394 @section Comparison of Characters and Strings | |
395 @cindex string equality | |
396 | |
397 @defun char-equal character1 character2 | |
398 This function returns @code{t} if the arguments represent the same | |
399 character, @code{nil} otherwise. This function ignores differences | |
400 in case if @code{case-fold-search} is non-@code{nil}. | |
401 | |
402 @example | |
403 (char-equal ?x ?x) | |
404 @result{} t | |
405 (let ((case-fold-search nil)) | |
406 (char-equal ?x ?X)) | |
407 @result{} nil | |
408 @end example | |
409 @end defun | |
410 | |
411 @defun string= string1 string2 | |
412 This function returns @code{t} if the characters of the two strings | |
413 match exactly. Symbols are also allowed as arguments, in which case | |
414 their print names are used. | |
415 Case is always significant, regardless of @code{case-fold-search}. | |
416 | |
417 @example | |
418 (string= "abc" "abc") | |
419 @result{} t | |
420 (string= "abc" "ABC") | |
421 @result{} nil | |
422 (string= "ab" "ABC") | |
423 @result{} nil | |
424 @end example | |
425 | |
426 The function @code{string=} ignores the text properties of the two | |
427 strings. When @code{equal} (@pxref{Equality Predicates}) compares two | |
428 strings, it uses @code{string=}. | |
429 | |
430 For technical reasons, a unibyte and a multibyte string are | |
431 @code{equal} if and only if they contain the same sequence of | |
432 character codes and all these codes are either in the range 0 through | |
433 127 (@acronym{ASCII}) or 160 through 255 (@code{eight-bit-graphic}). | |
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434 However, when a unibyte string is converted to a multibyte string, all |
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435 characters with codes in the range 160 through 255 are converted to |
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436 characters with higher codes, whereas @acronym{ASCII} characters |
84100 | 437 remain unchanged. Thus, a unibyte string and its conversion to |
438 multibyte are only @code{equal} if the string is all @acronym{ASCII}. | |
439 Character codes 160 through 255 are not entirely proper in multibyte | |
440 text, even though they can occur. As a consequence, the situation | |
441 where a unibyte and a multibyte string are @code{equal} without both | |
442 being all @acronym{ASCII} is a technical oddity that very few Emacs | |
443 Lisp programmers ever get confronted with. @xref{Text | |
444 Representations}. | |
445 @end defun | |
446 | |
447 @defun string-equal string1 string2 | |
448 @code{string-equal} is another name for @code{string=}. | |
449 @end defun | |
450 | |
451 @cindex lexical comparison | |
452 @defun string< string1 string2 | |
453 @c (findex string< causes problems for permuted index!!) | |
454 This function compares two strings a character at a time. It | |
455 scans both the strings at the same time to find the first pair of corresponding | |
456 characters that do not match. If the lesser character of these two is | |
457 the character from @var{string1}, then @var{string1} is less, and this | |
458 function returns @code{t}. If the lesser character is the one from | |
459 @var{string2}, then @var{string1} is greater, and this function returns | |
460 @code{nil}. If the two strings match entirely, the value is @code{nil}. | |
461 | |
462 Pairs of characters are compared according to their character codes. | |
463 Keep in mind that lower case letters have higher numeric values in the | |
464 @acronym{ASCII} character set than their upper case counterparts; digits and | |
465 many punctuation characters have a lower numeric value than upper case | |
466 letters. An @acronym{ASCII} character is less than any non-@acronym{ASCII} | |
467 character; a unibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character is always less than any | |
468 multibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character (@pxref{Text Representations}). | |
469 | |
470 @example | |
471 @group | |
472 (string< "abc" "abd") | |
473 @result{} t | |
474 (string< "abd" "abc") | |
475 @result{} nil | |
476 (string< "123" "abc") | |
477 @result{} t | |
478 @end group | |
479 @end example | |
480 | |
481 When the strings have different lengths, and they match up to the | |
482 length of @var{string1}, then the result is @code{t}. If they match up | |
483 to the length of @var{string2}, the result is @code{nil}. A string of | |
484 no characters is less than any other string. | |
485 | |
486 @example | |
487 @group | |
488 (string< "" "abc") | |
489 @result{} t | |
490 (string< "ab" "abc") | |
491 @result{} t | |
492 (string< "abc" "") | |
493 @result{} nil | |
494 (string< "abc" "ab") | |
495 @result{} nil | |
496 (string< "" "") | |
497 @result{} nil | |
498 @end group | |
499 @end example | |
500 | |
501 Symbols are also allowed as arguments, in which case their print names | |
502 are used. | |
503 @end defun | |
504 | |
505 @defun string-lessp string1 string2 | |
506 @code{string-lessp} is another name for @code{string<}. | |
507 @end defun | |
508 | |
509 @defun compare-strings string1 start1 end1 string2 start2 end2 &optional ignore-case | |
510 This function compares the specified part of @var{string1} with the | |
511 specified part of @var{string2}. The specified part of @var{string1} | |
512 runs from index @var{start1} up to index @var{end1} (@code{nil} means | |
513 the end of the string). The specified part of @var{string2} runs from | |
514 index @var{start2} up to index @var{end2} (@code{nil} means the end of | |
515 the string). | |
516 | |
517 The strings are both converted to multibyte for the comparison | |
518 (@pxref{Text Representations}) so that a unibyte string and its | |
519 conversion to multibyte are always regarded as equal. If | |
520 @var{ignore-case} is non-@code{nil}, then case is ignored, so that | |
521 upper case letters can be equal to lower case letters. | |
522 | |
523 If the specified portions of the two strings match, the value is | |
524 @code{t}. Otherwise, the value is an integer which indicates how many | |
525 leading characters agree, and which string is less. Its absolute value | |
526 is one plus the number of characters that agree at the beginning of the | |
527 two strings. The sign is negative if @var{string1} (or its specified | |
528 portion) is less. | |
529 @end defun | |
530 | |
531 @defun assoc-string key alist &optional case-fold | |
532 This function works like @code{assoc}, except that @var{key} must be a | |
533 string or symbol, and comparison is done using @code{compare-strings}. | |
534 Symbols are converted to strings before testing. | |
535 If @var{case-fold} is non-@code{nil}, it ignores case differences. | |
536 Unlike @code{assoc}, this function can also match elements of the alist | |
537 that are strings or symbols rather than conses. In particular, @var{alist} can | |
538 be a list of strings or symbols rather than an actual alist. | |
539 @xref{Association Lists}. | |
540 @end defun | |
541 | |
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542 See also the function @code{compare-buffer-substrings} in |
84100 | 543 @ref{Comparing Text}, for a way to compare text in buffers. The |
544 function @code{string-match}, which matches a regular expression | |
545 against a string, can be used for a kind of string comparison; see | |
546 @ref{Regexp Search}. | |
547 | |
548 @node String Conversion | |
549 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
550 @section Conversion of Characters and Strings | |
551 @cindex conversion of strings | |
552 | |
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553 This section describes functions for converting between characters, |
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554 strings and integers. @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting Strings}) and |
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555 @code{prin1-to-string} (@pxref{Output Functions}) can also convert |
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556 Lisp objects into strings. @code{read-from-string} (@pxref{Input |
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557 Functions}) can ``convert'' a string representation of a Lisp object |
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558 into an object. The functions @code{string-make-multibyte} and |
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559 @code{string-make-unibyte} convert the text representation of a string |
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560 (@pxref{Converting Representations}). |
84100 | 561 |
562 @xref{Documentation}, for functions that produce textual descriptions | |
563 of text characters and general input events | |
564 (@code{single-key-description} and @code{text-char-description}). These | |
565 are used primarily for making help messages. | |
566 | |
567 @defun char-to-string character | |
568 @cindex character to string | |
569 This function returns a new string containing one character, | |
570 @var{character}. This function is semi-obsolete because the function | |
571 @code{string} is more general. @xref{Creating Strings}. | |
572 @end defun | |
573 | |
574 @defun string-to-char string | |
575 @cindex string to character | |
576 This function returns the first character in @var{string}. If the | |
577 string is empty, the function returns 0. The value is also 0 when the | |
578 first character of @var{string} is the null character, @acronym{ASCII} code | |
579 0. | |
580 | |
581 @example | |
582 (string-to-char "ABC") | |
583 @result{} 65 | |
584 | |
585 (string-to-char "xyz") | |
586 @result{} 120 | |
587 (string-to-char "") | |
588 @result{} 0 | |
589 @group | |
590 (string-to-char "\000") | |
591 @result{} 0 | |
592 @end group | |
593 @end example | |
594 | |
595 This function may be eliminated in the future if it does not seem useful | |
596 enough to retain. | |
597 @end defun | |
598 | |
599 @defun number-to-string number | |
600 @cindex integer to string | |
601 @cindex integer to decimal | |
602 This function returns a string consisting of the printed base-ten | |
603 representation of @var{number}, which may be an integer or a floating | |
604 point number. The returned value starts with a minus sign if the argument is | |
605 negative. | |
606 | |
607 @example | |
608 (number-to-string 256) | |
609 @result{} "256" | |
610 @group | |
611 (number-to-string -23) | |
612 @result{} "-23" | |
613 @end group | |
614 (number-to-string -23.5) | |
615 @result{} "-23.5" | |
616 @end example | |
617 | |
618 @cindex int-to-string | |
619 @code{int-to-string} is a semi-obsolete alias for this function. | |
620 | |
621 See also the function @code{format} in @ref{Formatting Strings}. | |
622 @end defun | |
623 | |
624 @defun string-to-number string &optional base | |
625 @cindex string to number | |
626 This function returns the numeric value of the characters in | |
627 @var{string}. If @var{base} is non-@code{nil}, it must be an integer | |
628 between 2 and 16 (inclusive), and integers are converted in that base. | |
629 If @var{base} is @code{nil}, then base ten is used. Floating point | |
630 conversion only works in base ten; we have not implemented other | |
631 radices for floating point numbers, because that would be much more | |
632 work and does not seem useful. If @var{string} looks like an integer | |
633 but its value is too large to fit into a Lisp integer, | |
634 @code{string-to-number} returns a floating point result. | |
635 | |
636 The parsing skips spaces and tabs at the beginning of @var{string}, | |
637 then reads as much of @var{string} as it can interpret as a number in | |
638 the given base. (On some systems it ignores other whitespace at the | |
639 beginning, not just spaces and tabs.) If the first character after | |
640 the ignored whitespace is neither a digit in the given base, nor a | |
641 plus or minus sign, nor the leading dot of a floating point number, | |
642 this function returns 0. | |
643 | |
644 @example | |
645 (string-to-number "256") | |
646 @result{} 256 | |
647 (string-to-number "25 is a perfect square.") | |
648 @result{} 25 | |
649 (string-to-number "X256") | |
650 @result{} 0 | |
651 (string-to-number "-4.5") | |
652 @result{} -4.5 | |
653 (string-to-number "1e5") | |
654 @result{} 100000.0 | |
655 @end example | |
656 | |
657 @findex string-to-int | |
658 @code{string-to-int} is an obsolete alias for this function. | |
659 @end defun | |
660 | |
661 Here are some other functions that can convert to or from a string: | |
662 | |
663 @table @code | |
664 @item concat | |
665 @code{concat} can convert a vector or a list into a string. | |
666 @xref{Creating Strings}. | |
667 | |
668 @item vconcat | |
669 @code{vconcat} can convert a string into a vector. @xref{Vector | |
670 Functions}. | |
671 | |
672 @item append | |
673 @code{append} can convert a string into a list. @xref{Building Lists}. | |
674 @end table | |
675 | |
676 @node Formatting Strings | |
677 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
678 @section Formatting Strings | |
679 @cindex formatting strings | |
680 @cindex strings, formatting them | |
681 | |
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682 @dfn{Formatting} means constructing a string by substituting |
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683 computed values at various places in a constant string. This constant |
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684 string controls how the other values are printed, as well as where |
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685 they appear; it is called a @dfn{format string}. |
84100 | 686 |
687 Formatting is often useful for computing messages to be displayed. In | |
688 fact, the functions @code{message} and @code{error} provide the same | |
689 formatting feature described here; they differ from @code{format} only | |
690 in how they use the result of formatting. | |
691 | |
692 @defun format string &rest objects | |
693 This function returns a new string that is made by copying | |
694 @var{string} and then replacing any format specification | |
695 in the copy with encodings of the corresponding @var{objects}. The | |
696 arguments @var{objects} are the computed values to be formatted. | |
697 | |
698 The characters in @var{string}, other than the format specifications, | |
699 are copied directly into the output, including their text properties, | |
700 if any. | |
701 @end defun | |
702 | |
703 @cindex @samp{%} in format | |
704 @cindex format specification | |
705 A format specification is a sequence of characters beginning with a | |
706 @samp{%}. Thus, if there is a @samp{%d} in @var{string}, the | |
707 @code{format} function replaces it with the printed representation of | |
708 one of the values to be formatted (one of the arguments @var{objects}). | |
709 For example: | |
710 | |
711 @example | |
712 @group | |
713 (format "The value of fill-column is %d." fill-column) | |
714 @result{} "The value of fill-column is 72." | |
715 @end group | |
716 @end example | |
717 | |
718 Since @code{format} interprets @samp{%} characters as format | |
719 specifications, you should @emph{never} pass an arbitrary string as | |
720 the first argument. This is particularly true when the string is | |
721 generated by some Lisp code. Unless the string is @emph{known} to | |
722 never include any @samp{%} characters, pass @code{"%s"}, described | |
723 below, as the first argument, and the string as the second, like this: | |
724 | |
725 @example | |
726 (format "%s" @var{arbitrary-string}) | |
727 @end example | |
728 | |
729 If @var{string} contains more than one format specification, the | |
730 format specifications correspond to successive values from | |
731 @var{objects}. Thus, the first format specification in @var{string} | |
732 uses the first such value, the second format specification uses the | |
733 second such value, and so on. Any extra format specifications (those | |
734 for which there are no corresponding values) cause an error. Any | |
735 extra values to be formatted are ignored. | |
736 | |
737 Certain format specifications require values of particular types. If | |
738 you supply a value that doesn't fit the requirements, an error is | |
739 signaled. | |
740 | |
741 Here is a table of valid format specifications: | |
742 | |
743 @table @samp | |
744 @item %s | |
745 Replace the specification with the printed representation of the object, | |
746 made without quoting (that is, using @code{princ}, not | |
747 @code{prin1}---@pxref{Output Functions}). Thus, strings are represented | |
748 by their contents alone, with no @samp{"} characters, and symbols appear | |
749 without @samp{\} characters. | |
750 | |
751 If the object is a string, its text properties are | |
752 copied into the output. The text properties of the @samp{%s} itself | |
753 are also copied, but those of the object take priority. | |
754 | |
755 @item %S | |
756 Replace the specification with the printed representation of the object, | |
757 made with quoting (that is, using @code{prin1}---@pxref{Output | |
758 Functions}). Thus, strings are enclosed in @samp{"} characters, and | |
759 @samp{\} characters appear where necessary before special characters. | |
760 | |
761 @item %o | |
762 @cindex integer to octal | |
763 Replace the specification with the base-eight representation of an | |
764 integer. | |
765 | |
766 @item %d | |
767 Replace the specification with the base-ten representation of an | |
768 integer. | |
769 | |
770 @item %x | |
771 @itemx %X | |
772 @cindex integer to hexadecimal | |
773 Replace the specification with the base-sixteen representation of an | |
774 integer. @samp{%x} uses lower case and @samp{%X} uses upper case. | |
775 | |
776 @item %c | |
777 Replace the specification with the character which is the value given. | |
778 | |
779 @item %e | |
780 Replace the specification with the exponential notation for a floating | |
781 point number. | |
782 | |
783 @item %f | |
784 Replace the specification with the decimal-point notation for a floating | |
785 point number. | |
786 | |
787 @item %g | |
788 Replace the specification with notation for a floating point number, | |
789 using either exponential notation or decimal-point notation, whichever | |
790 is shorter. | |
791 | |
792 @item %% | |
793 Replace the specification with a single @samp{%}. This format | |
794 specification is unusual in that it does not use a value. For example, | |
795 @code{(format "%% %d" 30)} returns @code{"% 30"}. | |
796 @end table | |
797 | |
798 Any other format character results in an @samp{Invalid format | |
799 operation} error. | |
800 | |
801 Here are several examples: | |
802 | |
803 @example | |
804 @group | |
805 (format "The name of this buffer is %s." (buffer-name)) | |
806 @result{} "The name of this buffer is strings.texi." | |
807 | |
808 (format "The buffer object prints as %s." (current-buffer)) | |
809 @result{} "The buffer object prints as strings.texi." | |
810 | |
811 (format "The octal value of %d is %o, | |
812 and the hex value is %x." 18 18 18) | |
813 @result{} "The octal value of 18 is 22, | |
814 and the hex value is 12." | |
815 @end group | |
816 @end example | |
817 | |
818 @cindex field width | |
819 @cindex padding | |
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820 A specification can have a @dfn{width}, which is a decimal number |
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821 between the @samp{%} and the specification character. If the printed |
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822 representation of the object contains fewer characters than this |
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823 width, @code{format} extends it with padding. The width specifier is |
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824 ignored for the @samp{%%} specification. Any padding introduced by |
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825 the width specifier normally consists of spaces inserted on the left: |
84100 | 826 |
827 @example | |
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828 (format "%5d is padded on the left with spaces" 123) |
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(Formatting Strings): Treat - and 0 as flag characters.
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829 @result{} " 123 is padded on the left with spaces" |
84100 | 830 @end example |
831 | |
832 @noindent | |
833 If the width is too small, @code{format} does not truncate the | |
834 object's printed representation. Thus, you can use a width to specify | |
835 a minimum spacing between columns with no risk of losing information. | |
92239
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|
836 In the following three examples, @samp{%7s} specifies a minimum width |
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837 of 7. In the first case, the string inserted in place of @samp{%7s} |
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|
838 has only 3 letters, and needs 4 blank spaces as padding. In the |
666925f0747b
(Formatting Strings): Treat - and 0 as flag characters.
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|
839 second case, the string @code{"specification"} is 13 letters wide but |
666925f0747b
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|
840 is not truncated. |
84100 | 841 |
92239
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842 @example |
84100 | 843 @group |
844 (format "The word `%7s' actually has %d letters in it." | |
845 "foo" (length "foo")) | |
846 @result{} "The word ` foo' actually has 3 letters in it." | |
847 (format "The word `%7s' actually has %d letters in it." | |
848 "specification" (length "specification")) | |
849 @result{} "The word `specification' actually has 13 letters in it." | |
850 @end group | |
92239
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851 @end example |
84100 | 852 |
92239
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|
853 @cindex flags in format specifications |
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854 Immediately after the @samp{%} and before the optional width |
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855 specifier, you can also put certain @dfn{flag characters}. |
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|
856 |
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|
857 The flag @samp{+} inserts a plus sign before a positive number, so |
666925f0747b
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|
858 that it always has a sign. A space character as flag inserts a space |
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859 before a positive number. (Otherwise, positive numbers start with the |
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860 first digit.) These flags are useful for ensuring that positive |
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861 numbers and negative numbers use the same number of columns. They are |
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862 ignored except for @samp{%d}, @samp{%e}, @samp{%f}, @samp{%g}, and if |
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863 both flags are used, @samp{+} takes precedence. |
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|
864 |
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865 The flag @samp{#} specifies an ``alternate form'' which depends on |
666925f0747b
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866 the format in use. For @samp{%o}, it ensures that the result begins |
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(Formatting Strings): Treat - and 0 as flag characters.
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867 with a @samp{0}. For @samp{%x} and @samp{%X}, it prefixes the result |
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868 with @samp{0x} or @samp{0X}. For @samp{%e}, @samp{%f}, and @samp{%g}, |
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869 the @samp{#} flag means include a decimal point even if the precision |
666925f0747b
(Formatting Strings): Treat - and 0 as flag characters.
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|
870 is zero. |
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Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
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|
871 |
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872 The flag @samp{-} causes the padding inserted by the width |
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873 specifier, if any, to be inserted on the right rather than the left. |
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(Formatting Strings): Treat - and 0 as flag characters.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
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|
874 The flag @samp{0} ensures that the padding consists of @samp{0} |
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|
875 characters instead of spaces, inserted on the left. These flags are |
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(Formatting Strings): Treat - and 0 as flag characters.
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|
876 ignored for specification characters for which they do not make sense: |
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(Formatting Strings): Treat - and 0 as flag characters.
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|
877 @samp{%s}, @samp{%S} and @samp{%c} accept the @samp{0} flag, but still |
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|
878 pad with @emph{spaces} on the left. If both @samp{-} and @samp{0} are |
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879 present and valid, @samp{-} takes precedence. |
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|
880 |
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881 @example |
84100 | 882 @group |
92239
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|
883 (format "%06d is padded on the left with zeros" 123) |
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884 @result{} "000123 is padded on the left with zeros" |
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885 |
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886 (format "%-6d is padded on the right" 123) |
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887 @result{} "123 is padded on the right" |
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888 |
84100 | 889 (format "The word `%-7s' actually has %d letters in it." |
890 "foo" (length "foo")) | |
891 @result{} "The word `foo ' actually has 3 letters in it." | |
892 @end group | |
92239
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893 @end example |
84100 | 894 |
895 @cindex precision in format specifications | |
896 All the specification characters allow an optional @dfn{precision} | |
897 before the character (after the width, if present). The precision is | |
898 a decimal-point @samp{.} followed by a digit-string. For the | |
899 floating-point specifications (@samp{%e}, @samp{%f}, @samp{%g}), the | |
900 precision specifies how many decimal places to show; if zero, the | |
901 decimal-point itself is also omitted. For @samp{%s} and @samp{%S}, | |
902 the precision truncates the string to the given width, so @samp{%.3s} | |
903 shows only the first three characters of the representation for | |
904 @var{object}. Precision has no effect for other specification | |
905 characters. | |
906 | |
907 @node Case Conversion | |
908 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
909 @section Case Conversion in Lisp | |
910 @cindex upper case | |
911 @cindex lower case | |
912 @cindex character case | |
913 @cindex case conversion in Lisp | |
914 | |
915 The character case functions change the case of single characters or | |
916 of the contents of strings. The functions normally convert only | |
917 alphabetic characters (the letters @samp{A} through @samp{Z} and | |
918 @samp{a} through @samp{z}, as well as non-@acronym{ASCII} letters); other | |
919 characters are not altered. You can specify a different case | |
920 conversion mapping by specifying a case table (@pxref{Case Tables}). | |
921 | |
922 These functions do not modify the strings that are passed to them as | |
923 arguments. | |
924 | |
925 The examples below use the characters @samp{X} and @samp{x} which have | |
926 @acronym{ASCII} codes 88 and 120 respectively. | |
927 | |
928 @defun downcase string-or-char | |
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929 This function converts @var{string-or-char}, which should be either a |
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930 character or a string, to lower case. |
84100 | 931 |
102181
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932 When @var{string-or-char} is a string, this function returns a new |
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933 string in which each letter in the argument that is upper case is |
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934 converted to lower case. When @var{string-or-char} is a character, |
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935 this function returns the corresponding lower case character (an |
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|
936 integer); if the original character is lower case, or is not a letter, |
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|
937 the return value is equal to the original character. |
84100 | 938 |
939 @example | |
940 (downcase "The cat in the hat") | |
941 @result{} "the cat in the hat" | |
942 | |
943 (downcase ?X) | |
944 @result{} 120 | |
945 @end example | |
946 @end defun | |
947 | |
948 @defun upcase string-or-char | |
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949 This function converts @var{string-or-char}, which should be either a |
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|
950 character or a string, to upper case. |
84100 | 951 |
102181
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|
952 When @var{string-or-char} is a string, this function returns a new |
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|
953 string in which each letter in the argument that is lower case is |
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954 converted to upper case. When @var{string-or-char} is a character, |
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955 this function returns the corresponding upper case character (an an |
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|
956 integer); if the original character is upper case, or is not a letter, |
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957 the return value is equal to the original character. |
84100 | 958 |
959 @example | |
960 (upcase "The cat in the hat") | |
961 @result{} "THE CAT IN THE HAT" | |
962 | |
963 (upcase ?x) | |
964 @result{} 88 | |
965 @end example | |
966 @end defun | |
967 | |
968 @defun capitalize string-or-char | |
969 @cindex capitalization | |
970 This function capitalizes strings or characters. If | |
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971 @var{string-or-char} is a string, the function returns a new string |
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972 whose contents are a copy of @var{string-or-char} in which each word |
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973 has been capitalized. This means that the first character of each |
84100 | 974 word is converted to upper case, and the rest are converted to lower |
975 case. | |
976 | |
977 The definition of a word is any sequence of consecutive characters that | |
978 are assigned to the word constituent syntax class in the current syntax | |
979 table (@pxref{Syntax Class Table}). | |
980 | |
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981 When @var{string-or-char} is a character, this function does the same |
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982 thing as @code{upcase}. |
84100 | 983 |
984 @example | |
985 @group | |
986 (capitalize "The cat in the hat") | |
987 @result{} "The Cat In The Hat" | |
988 @end group | |
989 | |
990 @group | |
991 (capitalize "THE 77TH-HATTED CAT") | |
992 @result{} "The 77th-Hatted Cat" | |
993 @end group | |
994 | |
995 @group | |
996 (capitalize ?x) | |
997 @result{} 88 | |
998 @end group | |
999 @end example | |
1000 @end defun | |
1001 | |
1002 @defun upcase-initials string-or-char | |
1003 If @var{string-or-char} is a string, this function capitalizes the | |
1004 initials of the words in @var{string-or-char}, without altering any | |
1005 letters other than the initials. It returns a new string whose | |
1006 contents are a copy of @var{string-or-char}, in which each word has | |
1007 had its initial letter converted to upper case. | |
1008 | |
1009 The definition of a word is any sequence of consecutive characters that | |
1010 are assigned to the word constituent syntax class in the current syntax | |
1011 table (@pxref{Syntax Class Table}). | |
1012 | |
1013 When the argument to @code{upcase-initials} is a character, | |
1014 @code{upcase-initials} has the same result as @code{upcase}. | |
1015 | |
1016 @example | |
1017 @group | |
1018 (upcase-initials "The CAT in the hAt") | |
1019 @result{} "The CAT In The HAt" | |
1020 @end group | |
1021 @end example | |
1022 @end defun | |
1023 | |
1024 @xref{Text Comparison}, for functions that compare strings; some of | |
1025 them ignore case differences, or can optionally ignore case differences. | |
1026 | |
1027 @node Case Tables | |
1028 @section The Case Table | |
1029 | |
1030 You can customize case conversion by installing a special @dfn{case | |
1031 table}. A case table specifies the mapping between upper case and lower | |
1032 case letters. It affects both the case conversion functions for Lisp | |
1033 objects (see the previous section) and those that apply to text in the | |
1034 buffer (@pxref{Case Changes}). Each buffer has a case table; there is | |
1035 also a standard case table which is used to initialize the case table | |
1036 of new buffers. | |
1037 | |
1038 A case table is a char-table (@pxref{Char-Tables}) whose subtype is | |
1039 @code{case-table}. This char-table maps each character into the | |
1040 corresponding lower case character. It has three extra slots, which | |
1041 hold related tables: | |
1042 | |
1043 @table @var | |
1044 @item upcase | |
1045 The upcase table maps each character into the corresponding upper | |
1046 case character. | |
1047 @item canonicalize | |
1048 The canonicalize table maps all of a set of case-related characters | |
1049 into a particular member of that set. | |
1050 @item equivalences | |
1051 The equivalences table maps each one of a set of case-related characters | |
1052 into the next character in that set. | |
1053 @end table | |
1054 | |
1055 In simple cases, all you need to specify is the mapping to lower-case; | |
1056 the three related tables will be calculated automatically from that one. | |
1057 | |
1058 For some languages, upper and lower case letters are not in one-to-one | |
1059 correspondence. There may be two different lower case letters with the | |
1060 same upper case equivalent. In these cases, you need to specify the | |
1061 maps for both lower case and upper case. | |
1062 | |
1063 The extra table @var{canonicalize} maps each character to a canonical | |
1064 equivalent; any two characters that are related by case-conversion have | |
1065 the same canonical equivalent character. For example, since @samp{a} | |
1066 and @samp{A} are related by case-conversion, they should have the same | |
1067 canonical equivalent character (which should be either @samp{a} for both | |
1068 of them, or @samp{A} for both of them). | |
1069 | |
1070 The extra table @var{equivalences} is a map that cyclically permutes | |
1071 each equivalence class (of characters with the same canonical | |
1072 equivalent). (For ordinary @acronym{ASCII}, this would map @samp{a} into | |
1073 @samp{A} and @samp{A} into @samp{a}, and likewise for each set of | |
1074 equivalent characters.) | |
1075 | |
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1076 When constructing a case table, you can provide @code{nil} for |
84100 | 1077 @var{canonicalize}; then Emacs fills in this slot from the lower case |
1078 and upper case mappings. You can also provide @code{nil} for | |
1079 @var{equivalences}; then Emacs fills in this slot from | |
1080 @var{canonicalize}. In a case table that is actually in use, those | |
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1081 components are non-@code{nil}. Do not try to specify |
8cd0e73c30f7
(Creating Strings): Copyedits. Remove obsolete Emacs 20 usage of `concat'.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
100974
diff
changeset
|
1082 @var{equivalences} without also specifying @var{canonicalize}. |
84100 | 1083 |
1084 Here are the functions for working with case tables: | |
1085 | |
1086 @defun case-table-p object | |
1087 This predicate returns non-@code{nil} if @var{object} is a valid case | |
1088 table. | |
1089 @end defun | |
1090 | |
1091 @defun set-standard-case-table table | |
1092 This function makes @var{table} the standard case table, so that it will | |
1093 be used in any buffers created subsequently. | |
1094 @end defun | |
1095 | |
1096 @defun standard-case-table | |
1097 This returns the standard case table. | |
1098 @end defun | |
1099 | |
1100 @defun current-case-table | |
1101 This function returns the current buffer's case table. | |
1102 @end defun | |
1103 | |
1104 @defun set-case-table table | |
1105 This sets the current buffer's case table to @var{table}. | |
1106 @end defun | |
1107 | |
1108 @defmac with-case-table table body@dots{} | |
1109 The @code{with-case-table} macro saves the current case table, makes | |
1110 @var{table} the current case table, evaluates the @var{body} forms, | |
1111 and finally restores the case table. The return value is the value of | |
1112 the last form in @var{body}. The case table is restored even in case | |
1113 of an abnormal exit via @code{throw} or error (@pxref{Nonlocal | |
1114 Exits}). | |
1115 @end defmac | |
1116 | |
102181
8cd0e73c30f7
(Creating Strings): Copyedits. Remove obsolete Emacs 20 usage of `concat'.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
100974
diff
changeset
|
1117 Some language environments modify the case conversions of |
84100 | 1118 @acronym{ASCII} characters; for example, in the Turkish language |
1119 environment, the @acronym{ASCII} character @samp{I} is downcased into | |
1120 a Turkish ``dotless i''. This can interfere with code that requires | |
1121 ordinary ASCII case conversion, such as implementations of | |
1122 @acronym{ASCII}-based network protocols. In that case, use the | |
1123 @code{with-case-table} macro with the variable @var{ascii-case-table}, | |
1124 which stores the unmodified case table for the @acronym{ASCII} | |
1125 character set. | |
1126 | |
1127 @defvar ascii-case-table | |
1128 The case table for the @acronym{ASCII} character set. This should not be | |
1129 modified by any language environment settings. | |
1130 @end defvar | |
1131 | |
1132 The following three functions are convenient subroutines for packages | |
1133 that define non-@acronym{ASCII} character sets. They modify the specified | |
1134 case table @var{case-table}; they also modify the standard syntax table. | |
1135 @xref{Syntax Tables}. Normally you would use these functions to change | |
1136 the standard case table. | |
1137 | |
1138 @defun set-case-syntax-pair uc lc case-table | |
1139 This function specifies a pair of corresponding letters, one upper case | |
1140 and one lower case. | |
1141 @end defun | |
1142 | |
1143 @defun set-case-syntax-delims l r case-table | |
1144 This function makes characters @var{l} and @var{r} a matching pair of | |
1145 case-invariant delimiters. | |
1146 @end defun | |
1147 | |
1148 @defun set-case-syntax char syntax case-table | |
1149 This function makes @var{char} case-invariant, with syntax | |
1150 @var{syntax}. | |
1151 @end defun | |
1152 | |
1153 @deffn Command describe-buffer-case-table | |
1154 This command displays a description of the contents of the current | |
1155 buffer's case table. | |
1156 @end deffn | |
1157 | |
1158 @ignore | |
1159 arch-tag: 700b8e95-7aa5-4b52-9eb3-8f2e1ea152b4 | |
1160 @end ignore |