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annotate lispref/lists.texi @ 71953:2cbf89629cad
(custom-variable-state-set): If the variable was originally set outside
custom, but to the same value as the default, consider it to be standard.
author | Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca> |
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date | Mon, 17 Jul 2006 21:24:17 +0000 |
parents | 797e05668794 |
children | 61cb5aae3bc3 |
rev | line source |
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6558 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2003, |
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4 @c 2004, 2005, 2006 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6558 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/lists | |
7 @node Lists, Sequences Arrays Vectors, Strings and Characters, Top | |
8 @chapter Lists | |
9 @cindex list | |
10 @cindex element (of list) | |
11 | |
12 A @dfn{list} represents a sequence of zero or more elements (which may | |
13 be any Lisp objects). The important difference between lists and | |
14 vectors is that two or more lists can share part of their structure; in | |
15 addition, you can insert or delete elements in a list without copying | |
16 the whole list. | |
17 | |
18 @menu | |
19 * Cons Cells:: How lists are made out of cons cells. | |
20 * List-related Predicates:: Is this object a list? Comparing two lists. | |
21 * List Elements:: Extracting the pieces of a list. | |
22 * Building Lists:: Creating list structure. | |
23 * Modifying Lists:: Storing new pieces into an existing list. | |
24 * Sets And Lists:: A list can represent a finite mathematical set. | |
25 * Association Lists:: A list can represent a finite relation or mapping. | |
63541 | 26 * Rings:: Managing a fixed-size ring of objects. |
6558 | 27 @end menu |
28 | |
29 @node Cons Cells | |
30 @section Lists and Cons Cells | |
31 @cindex lists and cons cells | |
32 @cindex @code{nil} and lists | |
33 | |
34 Lists in Lisp are not a primitive data type; they are built up from | |
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35 @dfn{cons cells}. A cons cell is a data object that represents an |
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36 ordered pair. That is, it has two slots, and each slot @dfn{holds}, or |
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37 @dfn{refers to}, some Lisp object. One slot is known as the @sc{car}, |
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38 and the other is known as the @sc{cdr}. (These names are traditional; |
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39 see @ref{Cons Cell Type}.) @sc{cdr} is pronounced ``could-er.'' |
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40 |
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41 We say that ``the @sc{car} of this cons cell is'' whatever object |
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42 its @sc{car} slot currently holds, and likewise for the @sc{cdr}. |
6558 | 43 |
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44 A list is a series of cons cells ``chained together,'' so that each |
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45 cell refers to the next one. There is one cons cell for each element of |
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46 the list. By convention, the @sc{car}s of the cons cells hold the |
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47 elements of the list, and the @sc{cdr}s are used to chain the list: the |
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48 @sc{cdr} slot of each cons cell refers to the following cons cell. The |
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49 @sc{cdr} of the last cons cell is @code{nil}. This asymmetry between |
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50 the @sc{car} and the @sc{cdr} is entirely a matter of convention; at the |
6558 | 51 level of cons cells, the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} slots have the same |
52 characteristics. | |
53 | |
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54 @cindex true list |
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55 Since @code{nil} is the conventional value to put in the @sc{cdr} of |
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56 the last cons cell in the list, we call that case a @dfn{true list}. |
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57 |
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58 In Lisp, we consider the symbol @code{nil} a list as well as a |
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59 symbol; it is the list with no elements. For convenience, the symbol |
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60 @code{nil} is considered to have @code{nil} as its @sc{cdr} (and also |
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61 as its @sc{car}). Therefore, the @sc{cdr} of a true list is always a |
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62 true list. |
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63 |
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64 @cindex dotted list |
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65 @cindex circular list |
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66 If the @sc{cdr} of a list's last cons cell is some other value, |
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67 neither @code{nil} nor another cons cell, we call the structure a |
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68 @dfn{dotted list}, since its printed representation would use |
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69 @samp{.}. There is one other possibility: some cons cell's @sc{cdr} |
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70 could point to one of the previous cons cells in the list. We call |
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71 that structure a @dfn{circular list}. |
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72 |
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73 For some purposes, it does not matter whether a list is true, |
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74 circular or dotted. If the program doesn't look far enough down the |
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75 list to see the @sc{cdr} of the final cons cell, it won't care. |
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76 However, some functions that operate on lists demand true lists and |
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77 signal errors if given a dotted list. Most functions that try to find |
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78 the end of a list enter infinite loops if given a circular list. |
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79 |
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80 @cindex list structure |
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81 Because most cons cells are used as part of lists, the phrase |
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82 @dfn{list structure} has come to mean any structure made out of cons |
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83 cells. |
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84 |
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85 The @sc{cdr} of any nonempty true list @var{l} is a list containing all the |
6558 | 86 elements of @var{l} except the first. |
87 | |
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88 @xref{Cons Cell Type}, for the read and print syntax of cons cells and |
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89 lists, and for ``box and arrow'' illustrations of lists. |
6558 | 90 |
91 @node List-related Predicates | |
92 @section Predicates on Lists | |
93 | |
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94 The following predicates test whether a Lisp object is an atom, |
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95 whether it is a cons cell or is a list, or whether it is the |
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96 distinguished object @code{nil}. (Many of these predicates can be |
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97 defined in terms of the others, but they are used so often that it is |
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98 worth having all of them.) |
6558 | 99 |
100 @defun consp object | |
101 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} | |
102 otherwise. @code{nil} is not a cons cell, although it @emph{is} a list. | |
103 @end defun | |
104 | |
105 @defun atom object | |
106 @cindex atoms | |
107 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is an atom, @code{nil} | |
108 otherwise. All objects except cons cells are atoms. The symbol | |
109 @code{nil} is an atom and is also a list; it is the only Lisp object | |
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110 that is both. |
6558 | 111 |
112 @example | |
113 (atom @var{object}) @equiv{} (not (consp @var{object})) | |
114 @end example | |
115 @end defun | |
116 | |
117 @defun listp object | |
118 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a cons cell or | |
119 @code{nil}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
120 | |
121 @example | |
122 @group | |
123 (listp '(1)) | |
124 @result{} t | |
125 @end group | |
126 @group | |
127 (listp '()) | |
128 @result{} t | |
129 @end group | |
130 @end example | |
131 @end defun | |
132 | |
133 @defun nlistp object | |
134 This function is the opposite of @code{listp}: it returns @code{t} if | |
135 @var{object} is not a list. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
136 | |
137 @example | |
138 (listp @var{object}) @equiv{} (not (nlistp @var{object})) | |
139 @end example | |
140 @end defun | |
141 | |
142 @defun null object | |
143 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is @code{nil}, and | |
144 returns @code{nil} otherwise. This function is identical to @code{not}, | |
145 but as a matter of clarity we use @code{null} when @var{object} is | |
146 considered a list and @code{not} when it is considered a truth value | |
147 (see @code{not} in @ref{Combining Conditions}). | |
148 | |
149 @example | |
150 @group | |
151 (null '(1)) | |
152 @result{} nil | |
153 @end group | |
154 @group | |
155 (null '()) | |
156 @result{} t | |
157 @end group | |
158 @end example | |
159 @end defun | |
160 | |
7734 | 161 @need 2000 |
6558 | 162 |
163 @node List Elements | |
164 @section Accessing Elements of Lists | |
165 @cindex list elements | |
166 | |
167 @defun car cons-cell | |
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168 This function returns the value referred to by the first slot of the |
6558 | 169 cons cell @var{cons-cell}. Expressed another way, this function |
170 returns the @sc{car} of @var{cons-cell}. | |
171 | |
172 As a special case, if @var{cons-cell} is @code{nil}, then @code{car} | |
173 is defined to return @code{nil}; therefore, any list is a valid argument | |
174 for @code{car}. An error is signaled if the argument is not a cons cell | |
175 or @code{nil}. | |
176 | |
177 @example | |
178 @group | |
179 (car '(a b c)) | |
180 @result{} a | |
181 @end group | |
182 @group | |
183 (car '()) | |
184 @result{} nil | |
185 @end group | |
186 @end example | |
187 @end defun | |
188 | |
189 @defun cdr cons-cell | |
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190 This function returns the value referred to by the second slot of |
6558 | 191 the cons cell @var{cons-cell}. Expressed another way, this function |
192 returns the @sc{cdr} of @var{cons-cell}. | |
193 | |
194 As a special case, if @var{cons-cell} is @code{nil}, then @code{cdr} | |
195 is defined to return @code{nil}; therefore, any list is a valid argument | |
196 for @code{cdr}. An error is signaled if the argument is not a cons cell | |
197 or @code{nil}. | |
198 | |
199 @example | |
200 @group | |
201 (cdr '(a b c)) | |
202 @result{} (b c) | |
203 @end group | |
204 @group | |
205 (cdr '()) | |
206 @result{} nil | |
207 @end group | |
208 @end example | |
209 @end defun | |
210 | |
211 @defun car-safe object | |
212 This function lets you take the @sc{car} of a cons cell while avoiding | |
213 errors for other data types. It returns the @sc{car} of @var{object} if | |
214 @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} otherwise. This is in contrast | |
215 to @code{car}, which signals an error if @var{object} is not a list. | |
216 | |
217 @example | |
218 @group | |
219 (car-safe @var{object}) | |
220 @equiv{} | |
221 (let ((x @var{object})) | |
222 (if (consp x) | |
223 (car x) | |
224 nil)) | |
225 @end group | |
226 @end example | |
227 @end defun | |
228 | |
229 @defun cdr-safe object | |
230 This function lets you take the @sc{cdr} of a cons cell while | |
231 avoiding errors for other data types. It returns the @sc{cdr} of | |
232 @var{object} if @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
233 This is in contrast to @code{cdr}, which signals an error if | |
234 @var{object} is not a list. | |
235 | |
236 @example | |
237 @group | |
238 (cdr-safe @var{object}) | |
239 @equiv{} | |
240 (let ((x @var{object})) | |
241 (if (consp x) | |
242 (cdr x) | |
243 nil)) | |
244 @end group | |
245 @end example | |
246 @end defun | |
247 | |
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248 @defmac pop listname |
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249 This macro is a way of examining the @sc{car} of a list, |
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250 and taking it off the list, all at once. |
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251 |
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252 It operates on the list which is stored in the symbol @var{listname}. |
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253 It removes this element from the list by setting @var{listname} |
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254 to the @sc{cdr} of its old value---but it also returns the @sc{car} |
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255 of that list, which is the element being removed. |
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256 |
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257 @example |
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258 x |
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259 @result{} (a b c) |
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260 (pop x) |
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261 @result{} a |
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262 x |
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263 @result{} (b c) |
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264 @end example |
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265 @end defmac |
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266 |
56215 | 267 @defun nth n list |
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268 @anchor{Definition of nth} |
6558 | 269 This function returns the @var{n}th element of @var{list}. Elements |
270 are numbered starting with zero, so the @sc{car} of @var{list} is | |
271 element number zero. If the length of @var{list} is @var{n} or less, | |
272 the value is @code{nil}. | |
273 | |
274 If @var{n} is negative, @code{nth} returns the first element of | |
275 @var{list}. | |
276 | |
277 @example | |
278 @group | |
279 (nth 2 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
280 @result{} 3 | |
281 @end group | |
282 @group | |
283 (nth 10 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
284 @result{} nil | |
285 @end group | |
286 @group | |
287 (nth -3 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
288 @result{} 1 | |
289 | |
290 (nth n x) @equiv{} (car (nthcdr n x)) | |
291 @end group | |
292 @end example | |
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293 |
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294 The function @code{elt} is similar, but applies to any kind of sequence. |
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295 For historical reasons, it takes its arguments in the opposite order. |
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296 @xref{Sequence Functions}. |
6558 | 297 @end defun |
298 | |
299 @defun nthcdr n list | |
300 This function returns the @var{n}th @sc{cdr} of @var{list}. In other | |
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301 words, it skips past the first @var{n} links of @var{list} and returns |
6558 | 302 what follows. |
303 | |
304 If @var{n} is zero or negative, @code{nthcdr} returns all of | |
305 @var{list}. If the length of @var{list} is @var{n} or less, | |
306 @code{nthcdr} returns @code{nil}. | |
307 | |
308 @example | |
309 @group | |
310 (nthcdr 1 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
311 @result{} (2 3 4) | |
312 @end group | |
313 @group | |
314 (nthcdr 10 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
315 @result{} nil | |
316 @end group | |
317 @group | |
318 (nthcdr -3 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
319 @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
320 @end group | |
321 @end example | |
322 @end defun | |
323 | |
31131 | 324 @defun last list &optional n |
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325 This function returns the last link of @var{list}. The @code{car} of |
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326 this link is the list's last element. If @var{list} is null, |
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327 @code{nil} is returned. If @var{n} is non-@code{nil}, the |
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328 @var{n}th-to-last link is returned instead, or the whole of @var{list} |
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329 if @var{n} is bigger than @var{list}'s length. |
31131 | 330 @end defun |
331 | |
56215 | 332 @defun safe-length list |
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333 @anchor{Definition of safe-length} |
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334 This function returns the length of @var{list}, with no risk of either |
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335 an error or an infinite loop. It generally returns the number of |
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336 distinct cons cells in the list. However, for circular lists, |
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337 the value is just an upper bound; it is often too large. |
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338 |
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339 If @var{list} is not @code{nil} or a cons cell, @code{safe-length} |
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340 returns 0. |
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341 @end defun |
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342 |
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343 The most common way to compute the length of a list, when you are not |
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344 worried that it may be circular, is with @code{length}. @xref{Sequence |
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345 Functions}. |
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346 |
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347 @defun caar cons-cell |
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348 This is the same as @code{(car (car @var{cons-cell}))}. |
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349 @end defun |
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350 |
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351 @defun cadr cons-cell |
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352 This is the same as @code{(car (cdr @var{cons-cell}))} |
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353 or @code{(nth 1 @var{cons-cell})}. |
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354 @end defun |
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355 |
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356 @defun cdar cons-cell |
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357 This is the same as @code{(cdr (car @var{cons-cell}))}. |
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358 @end defun |
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359 |
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360 @defun cddr cons-cell |
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361 This is the same as @code{(cdr (cdr @var{cons-cell}))} |
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362 or @code{(nthcdr 2 @var{cons-cell})}. |
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363 @end defun |
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364 |
35090 | 365 @defun butlast x &optional n |
366 This function returns the list @var{x} with the last element, | |
367 or the last @var{n} elements, removed. If @var{n} is greater | |
368 than zero it makes a copy of the list so as not to damage the | |
369 original list. In general, @code{(append (butlast @var{x} @var{n}) | |
370 (last @var{x} @var{n}))} will return a list equal to @var{x}. | |
371 @end defun | |
372 | |
373 @defun nbutlast x &optional n | |
374 This is a version of @code{butlast} that works by destructively | |
375 modifying the @code{cdr} of the appropriate element, rather than | |
376 making a copy of the list. | |
377 @end defun | |
378 | |
6558 | 379 @node Building Lists |
380 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
381 @section Building Cons Cells and Lists | |
382 @cindex cons cells | |
383 @cindex building lists | |
384 | |
385 Many functions build lists, as lists reside at the very heart of Lisp. | |
386 @code{cons} is the fundamental list-building function; however, it is | |
387 interesting to note that @code{list} is used more times in the source | |
388 code for Emacs than @code{cons}. | |
389 | |
390 @defun cons object1 object2 | |
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391 This function is the most basic function for building new list |
6558 | 392 structure. It creates a new cons cell, making @var{object1} the |
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393 @sc{car}, and @var{object2} the @sc{cdr}. It then returns the new |
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394 cons cell. The arguments @var{object1} and @var{object2} may be any |
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395 Lisp objects, but most often @var{object2} is a list. |
6558 | 396 |
397 @example | |
398 @group | |
399 (cons 1 '(2)) | |
400 @result{} (1 2) | |
401 @end group | |
402 @group | |
403 (cons 1 '()) | |
404 @result{} (1) | |
405 @end group | |
406 @group | |
407 (cons 1 2) | |
408 @result{} (1 . 2) | |
409 @end group | |
410 @end example | |
411 | |
412 @cindex consing | |
413 @code{cons} is often used to add a single element to the front of a | |
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414 list. This is called @dfn{consing the element onto the list}. |
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415 @footnote{There is no strictly equivalent way to add an element to |
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416 the end of a list. You can use @code{(append @var{listname} (list |
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417 @var{newelt}))}, which creates a whole new list by copying @var{listname} |
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418 and adding @var{newelt} to its end. Or you can use @code{(nconc |
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419 @var{listname} (list @var{newelt}))}, which modifies @var{listname} |
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420 by following all the @sc{cdr}s and then replacing the terminating |
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421 @code{nil}. Compare this to adding an element to the beginning of a |
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422 list with @code{cons}, which neither copies nor modifies the list.} |
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423 For example: |
6558 | 424 |
425 @example | |
426 (setq list (cons newelt list)) | |
427 @end example | |
428 | |
429 Note that there is no conflict between the variable named @code{list} | |
430 used in this example and the function named @code{list} described below; | |
431 any symbol can serve both purposes. | |
432 @end defun | |
433 | |
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434 @defmac push newelt listname |
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435 This macro provides an alternative way to write |
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436 @code{(setq @var{listname} (cons @var{newelt} @var{listname}))}. |
38786 | 437 |
438 @example | |
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439 (setq l '(a b)) |
38786 | 440 @result{} (a b) |
441 (push 'c l) | |
442 @result{} (c a b) | |
443 l | |
444 @result{} (c a b) | |
445 @end example | |
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446 @end defmac |
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447 |
6558 | 448 @defun list &rest objects |
449 This function creates a list with @var{objects} as its elements. The | |
450 resulting list is always @code{nil}-terminated. If no @var{objects} | |
451 are given, the empty list is returned. | |
452 | |
453 @example | |
454 @group | |
455 (list 1 2 3 4 5) | |
456 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
457 @end group | |
458 @group | |
459 (list 1 2 '(3 4 5) 'foo) | |
460 @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5) foo) | |
461 @end group | |
462 @group | |
463 (list) | |
464 @result{} nil | |
465 @end group | |
466 @end example | |
467 @end defun | |
468 | |
469 @defun make-list length object | |
38786 | 470 This function creates a list of @var{length} elements, in which each |
471 element is @var{object}. Compare @code{make-list} with | |
472 @code{make-string} (@pxref{Creating Strings}). | |
6558 | 473 |
474 @example | |
475 @group | |
476 (make-list 3 'pigs) | |
477 @result{} (pigs pigs pigs) | |
478 @end group | |
479 @group | |
480 (make-list 0 'pigs) | |
481 @result{} nil | |
482 @end group | |
38786 | 483 @group |
484 (setq l (make-list 3 '(a b)) | |
485 @result{} ((a b) (a b) (a b)) | |
486 (eq (car l) (cadr l)) | |
487 @result{} t | |
488 @end group | |
6558 | 489 @end example |
490 @end defun | |
491 | |
492 @defun append &rest sequences | |
493 @cindex copying lists | |
494 This function returns a list containing all the elements of | |
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495 @var{sequences}. The @var{sequences} may be lists, vectors, |
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496 bool-vectors, or strings, but the last one should usually be a list. |
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497 All arguments except the last one are copied, so none of the arguments |
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498 is altered. (See @code{nconc} in @ref{Rearrangement}, for a way to join |
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499 lists with no copying.) |
6558 | 500 |
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501 More generally, the final argument to @code{append} may be any Lisp |
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502 object. The final argument is not copied or converted; it becomes the |
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503 @sc{cdr} of the last cons cell in the new list. If the final argument |
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504 is itself a list, then its elements become in effect elements of the |
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505 result list. If the final element is not a list, the result is a |
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506 dotted list since its final @sc{cdr} is not @code{nil} as required |
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507 in a true list. |
6558 | 508 |
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509 In Emacs 20 and before, the @code{append} function also allowed |
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510 integers as (non last) arguments. It converted them to strings of |
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511 digits, making up the decimal print representation of the integer, and |
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512 then used the strings instead of the original integers. This obsolete |
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513 usage no longer works. The proper way to convert an integer to a |
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514 decimal number in this way is with @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting |
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515 Strings}) or @code{number-to-string} (@pxref{String Conversion}). |
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516 @end defun |
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517 |
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518 Here is an example of using @code{append}: |
6558 | 519 |
520 @example | |
521 @group | |
522 (setq trees '(pine oak)) | |
523 @result{} (pine oak) | |
524 (setq more-trees (append '(maple birch) trees)) | |
525 @result{} (maple birch pine oak) | |
526 @end group | |
527 | |
528 @group | |
529 trees | |
530 @result{} (pine oak) | |
531 more-trees | |
532 @result{} (maple birch pine oak) | |
533 @end group | |
534 @group | |
535 (eq trees (cdr (cdr more-trees))) | |
536 @result{} t | |
537 @end group | |
538 @end example | |
539 | |
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540 You can see how @code{append} works by looking at a box diagram. The |
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541 variable @code{trees} is set to the list @code{(pine oak)} and then the |
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542 variable @code{more-trees} is set to the list @code{(maple birch pine |
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543 oak)}. However, the variable @code{trees} continues to refer to the |
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544 original list: |
6558 | 545 |
546 @smallexample | |
547 @group | |
548 more-trees trees | |
549 | | | |
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550 | --- --- --- --- -> --- --- --- --- |
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551 --> | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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552 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 553 | | | | |
554 | | | | | |
555 --> maple -->birch --> pine --> oak | |
556 @end group | |
557 @end smallexample | |
558 | |
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559 An empty sequence contributes nothing to the value returned by |
6558 | 560 @code{append}. As a consequence of this, a final @code{nil} argument |
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561 forces a copy of the previous argument: |
6558 | 562 |
563 @example | |
564 @group | |
565 trees | |
566 @result{} (pine oak) | |
567 @end group | |
568 @group | |
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569 (setq wood (append trees nil)) |
6558 | 570 @result{} (pine oak) |
571 @end group | |
572 @group | |
573 wood | |
574 @result{} (pine oak) | |
575 @end group | |
576 @group | |
577 (eq wood trees) | |
578 @result{} nil | |
579 @end group | |
580 @end example | |
581 | |
582 @noindent | |
583 This once was the usual way to copy a list, before the function | |
584 @code{copy-sequence} was invented. @xref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}. | |
585 | |
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586 Here we show the use of vectors and strings as arguments to @code{append}: |
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587 |
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588 @example |
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589 @group |
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590 (append [a b] "cd" nil) |
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591 @result{} (a b 99 100) |
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592 @end group |
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593 @end example |
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594 |
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595 With the help of @code{apply} (@pxref{Calling Functions}), we can append |
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596 all the lists in a list of lists: |
6558 | 597 |
598 @example | |
599 @group | |
600 (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil)) | |
601 @result{} (a b c x y z) | |
602 @end group | |
603 @end example | |
604 | |
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605 If no @var{sequences} are given, @code{nil} is returned: |
6558 | 606 |
607 @example | |
608 @group | |
609 (append) | |
610 @result{} nil | |
611 @end group | |
612 @end example | |
613 | |
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614 Here are some examples where the final argument is not a list: |
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615 |
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616 @example |
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617 (append '(x y) 'z) |
12098 | 618 @result{} (x y . z) |
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619 (append '(x y) [z]) |
12098 | 620 @result{} (x y . [z]) |
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621 @end example |
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622 |
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623 @noindent |
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624 The second example shows that when the final argument is a sequence but |
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625 not a list, the sequence's elements do not become elements of the |
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626 resulting list. Instead, the sequence becomes the final @sc{cdr}, like |
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627 any other non-list final argument. |
6558 | 628 |
629 @defun reverse list | |
630 This function creates a new list whose elements are the elements of | |
631 @var{list}, but in reverse order. The original argument @var{list} is | |
632 @emph{not} altered. | |
633 | |
634 @example | |
635 @group | |
636 (setq x '(1 2 3 4)) | |
637 @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
638 @end group | |
639 @group | |
640 (reverse x) | |
641 @result{} (4 3 2 1) | |
642 x | |
643 @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
644 @end group | |
645 @end example | |
646 @end defun | |
647 | |
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648 @defun copy-tree tree &optional vecp |
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649 This function returns a copy of the tree @code{tree}. If @var{tree} is a |
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650 cons cell, this makes a new cons cell with the same @sc{car} and |
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651 @sc{cdr}, then recursively copies the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} in the |
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652 same way. |
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653 |
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654 Normally, when @var{tree} is anything other than a cons cell, |
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655 @code{copy-tree} simply returns @var{tree}. However, if @var{vecp} is |
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656 non-@code{nil}, it copies vectors too (and operates recursively on |
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657 their elements). |
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658 @end defun |
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659 |
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660 @defun number-sequence from &optional to separation |
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661 This returns a list of numbers starting with @var{from} and |
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662 incrementing by @var{separation}, and ending at or just before |
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663 @var{to}. @var{separation} can be positive or negative and defaults |
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664 to 1. If @var{to} is @code{nil} or numerically equal to @var{from}, |
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665 the value is the one-element list @code{(@var{from})}. If @var{to} is |
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666 less than @var{from} with a positive @var{separation}, or greater than |
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667 @var{from} with a negative @var{separation}, the value is @code{nil} |
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668 because those arguments specify an empty sequence. |
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669 |
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670 If @var{separation} is 0 and @var{to} is neither @code{nil} nor |
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671 numerically equal to @var{from}, @code{number-sequence} signals an |
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672 error, since those arguments specify an infinite sequence. |
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673 |
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674 All arguments can be integers or floating point numbers. However, |
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675 floating point arguments can be tricky, because floating point |
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676 arithmetic is inexact. For instance, depending on the machine, it may |
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677 quite well happen that @code{(number-sequence 0.4 0.6 0.2)} returns |
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678 the one element list @code{(0.4)}, whereas |
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679 @code{(number-sequence 0.4 0.8 0.2)} returns a list with three |
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680 elements. The @var{n}th element of the list is computed by the exact |
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681 formula @code{(+ @var{from} (* @var{n} @var{separation}))}. Thus, if |
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682 one wants to make sure that @var{to} is included in the list, one can |
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683 pass an expression of this exact type for @var{to}. Alternatively, |
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684 one can replace @var{to} with a slightly larger value (or a slightly |
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685 more negative value if @var{separation} is negative). |
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686 |
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687 Some examples: |
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688 |
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689 @example |
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690 (number-sequence 4 9) |
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691 @result{} (4 5 6 7 8 9) |
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692 (number-sequence 9 4 -1) |
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693 @result{} (9 8 7 6 5 4) |
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694 (number-sequence 9 4 -2) |
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695 @result{} (9 7 5) |
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696 (number-sequence 8) |
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697 @result{} (8) |
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698 (number-sequence 8 5) |
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699 @result{} nil |
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700 (number-sequence 5 8 -1) |
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701 @result{} nil |
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702 (number-sequence 1.5 6 2) |
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703 @result{} (1.5 3.5 5.5) |
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704 @end example |
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705 @end defun |
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706 |
6558 | 707 @node Modifying Lists |
708 @section Modifying Existing List Structure | |
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709 @cindex destructive list operations |
6558 | 710 |
711 You can modify the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} contents of a cons cell with the | |
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712 primitives @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr}. We call these ``destructive'' |
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713 operations because they change existing list structure. |
6558 | 714 |
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715 @cindex CL note---@code{rplaca} vs @code{setcar} |
6558 | 716 @quotation |
717 @findex rplaca | |
718 @findex rplacd | |
719 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp uses functions @code{rplaca} and | |
720 @code{rplacd} to alter list structure; they change structure the same | |
721 way as @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr}, but the Common Lisp functions | |
722 return the cons cell while @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr} return the | |
723 new @sc{car} or @sc{cdr}. | |
724 @end quotation | |
725 | |
726 @menu | |
727 * Setcar:: Replacing an element in a list. | |
728 * Setcdr:: Replacing part of the list backbone. | |
729 This can be used to remove or add elements. | |
730 * Rearrangement:: Reordering the elements in a list; combining lists. | |
731 @end menu | |
732 | |
733 @node Setcar | |
734 @subsection Altering List Elements with @code{setcar} | |
735 | |
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736 Changing the @sc{car} of a cons cell is done with @code{setcar}. When |
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737 used on a list, @code{setcar} replaces one element of a list with a |
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738 different element. |
6558 | 739 |
740 @defun setcar cons object | |
741 This function stores @var{object} as the new @sc{car} of @var{cons}, | |
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742 replacing its previous @sc{car}. In other words, it changes the |
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743 @sc{car} slot of @var{cons} to refer to @var{object}. It returns the |
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744 value @var{object}. For example: |
6558 | 745 |
746 @example | |
747 @group | |
748 (setq x '(1 2)) | |
749 @result{} (1 2) | |
750 @end group | |
751 @group | |
752 (setcar x 4) | |
753 @result{} 4 | |
754 @end group | |
755 @group | |
756 x | |
757 @result{} (4 2) | |
758 @end group | |
759 @end example | |
760 @end defun | |
761 | |
762 When a cons cell is part of the shared structure of several lists, | |
763 storing a new @sc{car} into the cons changes one element of each of | |
764 these lists. Here is an example: | |
765 | |
766 @example | |
767 @group | |
768 ;; @r{Create two lists that are partly shared.} | |
769 (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
770 @result{} (a b c) | |
771 (setq x2 (cons 'z (cdr x1))) | |
772 @result{} (z b c) | |
773 @end group | |
774 | |
775 @group | |
776 ;; @r{Replace the @sc{car} of a shared link.} | |
777 (setcar (cdr x1) 'foo) | |
778 @result{} foo | |
779 x1 ; @r{Both lists are changed.} | |
780 @result{} (a foo c) | |
781 x2 | |
782 @result{} (z foo c) | |
783 @end group | |
784 | |
785 @group | |
786 ;; @r{Replace the @sc{car} of a link that is not shared.} | |
787 (setcar x1 'baz) | |
788 @result{} baz | |
789 x1 ; @r{Only one list is changed.} | |
790 @result{} (baz foo c) | |
791 x2 | |
792 @result{} (z foo c) | |
793 @end group | |
794 @end example | |
795 | |
796 Here is a graphical depiction of the shared structure of the two lists | |
797 in the variables @code{x1} and @code{x2}, showing why replacing @code{b} | |
798 changes them both: | |
799 | |
800 @example | |
801 @group | |
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802 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
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803 x1---> | | |----> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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804 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 805 | --> | | |
806 | | | | | |
807 --> a | --> b --> c | |
808 | | |
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809 --- --- | |
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810 x2--> | | |-- |
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811 --- --- |
6558 | 812 | |
813 | | |
814 --> z | |
815 @end group | |
816 @end example | |
817 | |
818 Here is an alternative form of box diagram, showing the same relationship: | |
819 | |
820 @example | |
821 @group | |
822 x1: | |
823 -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
824 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
825 | a | o------->| b | o------->| c | nil | | |
826 | | | -->| | | | | | | |
827 -------------- | -------------- -------------- | |
828 | | |
829 x2: | | |
830 -------------- | | |
831 | car | cdr | | | |
832 | z | o---- | |
833 | | | | |
834 -------------- | |
835 @end group | |
836 @end example | |
837 | |
838 @node Setcdr | |
839 @subsection Altering the CDR of a List | |
840 | |
841 The lowest-level primitive for modifying a @sc{cdr} is @code{setcdr}: | |
842 | |
843 @defun setcdr cons object | |
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844 This function stores @var{object} as the new @sc{cdr} of @var{cons}, |
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845 replacing its previous @sc{cdr}. In other words, it changes the |
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846 @sc{cdr} slot of @var{cons} to refer to @var{object}. It returns the |
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847 value @var{object}. |
6558 | 848 @end defun |
849 | |
850 Here is an example of replacing the @sc{cdr} of a list with a | |
851 different list. All but the first element of the list are removed in | |
852 favor of a different sequence of elements. The first element is | |
853 unchanged, because it resides in the @sc{car} of the list, and is not | |
854 reached via the @sc{cdr}. | |
855 | |
856 @example | |
857 @group | |
858 (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
859 @result{} (1 2 3) | |
860 @end group | |
861 @group | |
862 (setcdr x '(4)) | |
863 @result{} (4) | |
864 @end group | |
865 @group | |
866 x | |
867 @result{} (1 4) | |
868 @end group | |
869 @end example | |
870 | |
871 You can delete elements from the middle of a list by altering the | |
872 @sc{cdr}s of the cons cells in the list. For example, here we delete | |
873 the second element, @code{b}, from the list @code{(a b c)}, by changing | |
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874 the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell: |
6558 | 875 |
876 @example | |
877 @group | |
878 (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
879 @result{} (a b c) | |
880 (setcdr x1 (cdr (cdr x1))) | |
881 @result{} (c) | |
882 x1 | |
883 @result{} (a c) | |
884 @end group | |
885 @end example | |
886 | |
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887 @need 4000 |
6558 | 888 Here is the result in box notation: |
889 | |
890 @example | |
891 @group | |
892 -------------------- | |
893 | | | |
894 -------------- | -------------- | -------------- | |
895 | car | cdr | | | car | cdr | -->| car | cdr | | |
896 | a | o----- | b | o-------->| c | nil | | |
897 | | | | | | | | | | |
898 -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
899 @end group | |
900 @end example | |
901 | |
902 @noindent | |
903 The second cons cell, which previously held the element @code{b}, still | |
904 exists and its @sc{car} is still @code{b}, but it no longer forms part | |
905 of this list. | |
906 | |
907 It is equally easy to insert a new element by changing @sc{cdr}s: | |
908 | |
909 @example | |
910 @group | |
911 (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
912 @result{} (a b c) | |
913 (setcdr x1 (cons 'd (cdr x1))) | |
914 @result{} (d b c) | |
915 x1 | |
916 @result{} (a d b c) | |
917 @end group | |
918 @end example | |
919 | |
920 Here is this result in box notation: | |
921 | |
922 @smallexample | |
923 @group | |
924 -------------- ------------- ------------- | |
925 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
926 | a | o | -->| b | o------->| c | nil | | |
927 | | | | | | | | | | | | |
928 --------- | -- | ------------- ------------- | |
929 | | | |
930 ----- -------- | |
931 | | | |
932 | --------------- | | |
933 | | car | cdr | | | |
934 -->| d | o------ | |
935 | | | | |
936 --------------- | |
937 @end group | |
938 @end smallexample | |
939 | |
940 @node Rearrangement | |
941 @subsection Functions that Rearrange Lists | |
942 @cindex rearrangement of lists | |
943 @cindex modification of lists | |
944 | |
945 Here are some functions that rearrange lists ``destructively'' by | |
946 modifying the @sc{cdr}s of their component cons cells. We call these | |
947 functions ``destructive'' because they chew up the original lists passed | |
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948 to them as arguments, relinking their cons cells to form a new list that |
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949 is the returned value. |
6558 | 950 |
27193 | 951 @ifnottex |
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952 See @code{delq}, in @ref{Sets And Lists}, for another function |
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953 that modifies cons cells. |
27193 | 954 @end ifnottex |
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955 @iftex |
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956 The function @code{delq} in the following section is another example |
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957 of destructive list manipulation. |
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958 @end iftex |
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959 |
6558 | 960 @defun nconc &rest lists |
961 @cindex concatenating lists | |
962 @cindex joining lists | |
963 This function returns a list containing all the elements of @var{lists}. | |
964 Unlike @code{append} (@pxref{Building Lists}), the @var{lists} are | |
965 @emph{not} copied. Instead, the last @sc{cdr} of each of the | |
966 @var{lists} is changed to refer to the following list. The last of the | |
967 @var{lists} is not altered. For example: | |
968 | |
969 @example | |
970 @group | |
971 (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
972 @result{} (1 2 3) | |
973 @end group | |
974 @group | |
975 (nconc x '(4 5)) | |
976 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
977 @end group | |
978 @group | |
979 x | |
980 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
981 @end group | |
982 @end example | |
983 | |
984 Since the last argument of @code{nconc} is not itself modified, it is | |
985 reasonable to use a constant list, such as @code{'(4 5)}, as in the | |
986 above example. For the same reason, the last argument need not be a | |
987 list: | |
988 | |
989 @example | |
990 @group | |
991 (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
992 @result{} (1 2 3) | |
993 @end group | |
994 @group | |
995 (nconc x 'z) | |
996 @result{} (1 2 3 . z) | |
997 @end group | |
998 @group | |
999 x | |
1000 @result{} (1 2 3 . z) | |
1001 @end group | |
1002 @end example | |
1003 | |
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1004 However, the other arguments (all but the last) must be lists. |
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1005 |
6558 | 1006 A common pitfall is to use a quoted constant list as a non-last |
1007 argument to @code{nconc}. If you do this, your program will change | |
1008 each time you run it! Here is what happens: | |
1009 | |
1010 @smallexample | |
1011 @group | |
1012 (defun add-foo (x) ; @r{We want this function to add} | |
1013 (nconc '(foo) x)) ; @r{@code{foo} to the front of its arg.} | |
1014 @end group | |
1015 | |
1016 @group | |
1017 (symbol-function 'add-foo) | |
1018 @result{} (lambda (x) (nconc (quote (foo)) x)) | |
1019 @end group | |
1020 | |
1021 @group | |
1022 (setq xx (add-foo '(1 2))) ; @r{It seems to work.} | |
1023 @result{} (foo 1 2) | |
1024 @end group | |
1025 @group | |
1026 (setq xy (add-foo '(3 4))) ; @r{What happened?} | |
1027 @result{} (foo 1 2 3 4) | |
1028 @end group | |
1029 @group | |
1030 (eq xx xy) | |
1031 @result{} t | |
1032 @end group | |
1033 | |
1034 @group | |
1035 (symbol-function 'add-foo) | |
1036 @result{} (lambda (x) (nconc (quote (foo 1 2 3 4) x))) | |
1037 @end group | |
1038 @end smallexample | |
1039 @end defun | |
1040 | |
1041 @defun nreverse list | |
1042 @cindex reversing a list | |
1043 This function reverses the order of the elements of @var{list}. | |
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1044 Unlike @code{reverse}, @code{nreverse} alters its argument by reversing |
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1045 the @sc{cdr}s in the cons cells forming the list. The cons cell that |
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1046 used to be the last one in @var{list} becomes the first cons cell of the |
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1047 value. |
6558 | 1048 |
1049 For example: | |
1050 | |
1051 @example | |
1052 @group | |
38786 | 1053 (setq x '(a b c)) |
1054 @result{} (a b c) | |
6558 | 1055 @end group |
1056 @group | |
1057 x | |
38786 | 1058 @result{} (a b c) |
6558 | 1059 (nreverse x) |
38786 | 1060 @result{} (c b a) |
6558 | 1061 @end group |
1062 @group | |
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1063 ;; @r{The cons cell that was first is now last.} |
6558 | 1064 x |
38786 | 1065 @result{} (a) |
6558 | 1066 @end group |
1067 @end example | |
1068 | |
1069 To avoid confusion, we usually store the result of @code{nreverse} | |
1070 back in the same variable which held the original list: | |
1071 | |
1072 @example | |
1073 (setq x (nreverse x)) | |
1074 @end example | |
1075 | |
1076 Here is the @code{nreverse} of our favorite example, @code{(a b c)}, | |
1077 presented graphically: | |
1078 | |
1079 @smallexample | |
1080 @group | |
1081 @r{Original list head:} @r{Reversed list:} | |
1082 ------------- ------------- ------------ | |
1083 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
1084 | a | nil |<-- | b | o |<-- | c | o | | |
1085 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
1086 ------------- | --------- | - | -------- | - | |
1087 | | | | | |
1088 ------------- ------------ | |
1089 @end group | |
1090 @end smallexample | |
1091 @end defun | |
1092 | |
1093 @defun sort list predicate | |
1094 @cindex stable sort | |
1095 @cindex sorting lists | |
1096 This function sorts @var{list} stably, though destructively, and | |
1097 returns the sorted list. It compares elements using @var{predicate}. A | |
1098 stable sort is one in which elements with equal sort keys maintain their | |
1099 relative order before and after the sort. Stability is important when | |
1100 successive sorts are used to order elements according to different | |
1101 criteria. | |
1102 | |
1103 The argument @var{predicate} must be a function that accepts two | |
1104 arguments. It is called with two elements of @var{list}. To get an | |
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1105 increasing order sort, the @var{predicate} should return non-@code{nil} if the |
6558 | 1106 first element is ``less than'' the second, or @code{nil} if not. |
1107 | |
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1108 The comparison function @var{predicate} must give reliable results for |
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1109 any given pair of arguments, at least within a single call to |
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1110 @code{sort}. It must be @dfn{antisymmetric}; that is, if @var{a} is |
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1111 less than @var{b}, @var{b} must not be less than @var{a}. It must be |
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1112 @dfn{transitive}---that is, if @var{a} is less than @var{b}, and @var{b} |
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1113 is less than @var{c}, then @var{a} must be less than @var{c}. If you |
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1114 use a comparison function which does not meet these requirements, the |
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1115 result of @code{sort} is unpredictable. |
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1116 |
6558 | 1117 The destructive aspect of @code{sort} is that it rearranges the cons |
1118 cells forming @var{list} by changing @sc{cdr}s. A nondestructive sort | |
1119 function would create new cons cells to store the elements in their | |
1120 sorted order. If you wish to make a sorted copy without destroying the | |
1121 original, copy it first with @code{copy-sequence} and then sort. | |
1122 | |
1123 Sorting does not change the @sc{car}s of the cons cells in @var{list}; | |
1124 the cons cell that originally contained the element @code{a} in | |
1125 @var{list} still has @code{a} in its @sc{car} after sorting, but it now | |
1126 appears in a different position in the list due to the change of | |
1127 @sc{cdr}s. For example: | |
1128 | |
1129 @example | |
1130 @group | |
1131 (setq nums '(1 3 2 6 5 4 0)) | |
1132 @result{} (1 3 2 6 5 4 0) | |
1133 @end group | |
1134 @group | |
1135 (sort nums '<) | |
1136 @result{} (0 1 2 3 4 5 6) | |
1137 @end group | |
1138 @group | |
1139 nums | |
1140 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5 6) | |
1141 @end group | |
1142 @end example | |
1143 | |
1144 @noindent | |
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1145 @strong{Warning}: Note that the list in @code{nums} no longer contains |
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1146 0; this is the same cons cell that it was before, but it is no longer |
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1147 the first one in the list. Don't assume a variable that formerly held |
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1148 the argument now holds the entire sorted list! Instead, save the result |
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1149 of @code{sort} and use that. Most often we store the result back into |
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1150 the variable that held the original list: |
6558 | 1151 |
1152 @example | |
1153 (setq nums (sort nums '<)) | |
1154 @end example | |
1155 | |
1156 @xref{Sorting}, for more functions that perform sorting. | |
1157 See @code{documentation} in @ref{Accessing Documentation}, for a | |
1158 useful example of @code{sort}. | |
1159 @end defun | |
1160 | |
1161 @node Sets And Lists | |
1162 @section Using Lists as Sets | |
1163 @cindex lists as sets | |
1164 @cindex sets | |
1165 | |
1166 A list can represent an unordered mathematical set---simply consider a | |
1167 value an element of a set if it appears in the list, and ignore the | |
1168 order of the list. To form the union of two sets, use @code{append} (as | |
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1169 long as you don't mind having duplicate elements). You can remove |
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1170 @code{equal} duplicates using @code{delete-dups}. Other useful |
6558 | 1171 functions for sets include @code{memq} and @code{delq}, and their |
1172 @code{equal} versions, @code{member} and @code{delete}. | |
1173 | |
13229 | 1174 @cindex CL note---lack @code{union}, @code{intersection} |
6558 | 1175 @quotation |
1176 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp has functions @code{union} (which | |
1177 avoids duplicate elements) and @code{intersection} for set operations, | |
1178 but GNU Emacs Lisp does not have them. You can write them in Lisp if | |
1179 you wish. | |
1180 @end quotation | |
1181 | |
1182 @defun memq object list | |
1183 @cindex membership in a list | |
1184 This function tests to see whether @var{object} is a member of | |
1185 @var{list}. If it is, @code{memq} returns a list starting with the | |
1186 first occurrence of @var{object}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
1187 The letter @samp{q} in @code{memq} says that it uses @code{eq} to | |
1188 compare @var{object} against the elements of the list. For example: | |
1189 | |
1190 @example | |
1191 @group | |
7118
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1192 (memq 'b '(a b c b a)) |
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1193 @result{} (b c b a) |
6558 | 1194 @end group |
1195 @group | |
1196 (memq '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are not @code{eq}.} | |
1197 @result{} nil | |
1198 @end group | |
1199 @end example | |
1200 @end defun | |
1201 | |
1202 @defun delq object list | |
1203 @cindex deletion of elements | |
1204 This function destructively removes all elements @code{eq} to | |
1205 @var{object} from @var{list}. The letter @samp{q} in @code{delq} says | |
1206 that it uses @code{eq} to compare @var{object} against the elements of | |
30808 | 1207 the list, like @code{memq} and @code{remq}. |
6558 | 1208 @end defun |
1209 | |
1210 When @code{delq} deletes elements from the front of the list, it does so | |
1211 simply by advancing down the list and returning a sublist that starts | |
1212 after those elements: | |
1213 | |
1214 @example | |
1215 @group | |
1216 (delq 'a '(a b c)) @equiv{} (cdr '(a b c)) | |
1217 @end group | |
1218 @end example | |
1219 | |
1220 When an element to be deleted appears in the middle of the list, | |
1221 removing it involves changing the @sc{cdr}s (@pxref{Setcdr}). | |
1222 | |
1223 @example | |
1224 @group | |
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1225 (setq sample-list '(a b c (4))) |
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1226 @result{} (a b c (4)) |
6558 | 1227 @end group |
1228 @group | |
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1229 (delq 'a sample-list) |
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1230 @result{} (b c (4)) |
6558 | 1231 @end group |
1232 @group | |
1233 sample-list | |
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1234 @result{} (a b c (4)) |
6558 | 1235 @end group |
1236 @group | |
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1237 (delq 'c sample-list) |
11628 | 1238 @result{} (a b (4)) |
6558 | 1239 @end group |
1240 @group | |
1241 sample-list | |
11628 | 1242 @result{} (a b (4)) |
6558 | 1243 @end group |
1244 @end example | |
1245 | |
12098 | 1246 Note that @code{(delq 'c sample-list)} modifies @code{sample-list} to |
1247 splice out the third element, but @code{(delq 'a sample-list)} does not | |
6558 | 1248 splice anything---it just returns a shorter list. Don't assume that a |
1249 variable which formerly held the argument @var{list} now has fewer | |
1250 elements, or that it still holds the original list! Instead, save the | |
1251 result of @code{delq} and use that. Most often we store the result back | |
1252 into the variable that held the original list: | |
1253 | |
1254 @example | |
1255 (setq flowers (delq 'rose flowers)) | |
1256 @end example | |
1257 | |
1258 In the following example, the @code{(4)} that @code{delq} attempts to match | |
1259 and the @code{(4)} in the @code{sample-list} are not @code{eq}: | |
1260 | |
1261 @example | |
1262 @group | |
1263 (delq '(4) sample-list) | |
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1264 @result{} (a c (4)) |
6558 | 1265 @end group |
1266 @end example | |
1267 | |
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1268 @defun remq object list |
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1269 This function returns a copy of @var{list}, with all elements removed |
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1270 which are @code{eq} to @var{object}. The letter @samp{q} in @code{remq} |
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1271 says that it uses @code{eq} to compare @var{object} against the elements |
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1272 of @code{list}. |
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1273 |
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1274 @example |
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1275 @group |
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1276 (setq sample-list '(a b c a b c)) |
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1277 @result{} (a b c a b c) |
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1278 @end group |
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1279 @group |
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1280 (remq 'a sample-list) |
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1281 @result{} (b c b c) |
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1282 @end group |
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1283 @group |
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1284 sample-list |
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1285 @result{} (a b c a b c) |
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1286 @end group |
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1287 @end example |
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1288 @noindent |
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1289 The function @code{delq} offers a way to perform this operation |
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1290 destructively. See @ref{Sets And Lists}. |
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1291 @end defun |
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1292 |
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1293 The following three functions are like @code{memq}, @code{delq} and |
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1294 @code{remq}, but use @code{equal} rather than @code{eq} to compare |
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1295 elements. @xref{Equality Predicates}. |
6558 | 1296 |
1297 @defun member object list | |
1298 The function @code{member} tests to see whether @var{object} is a member | |
1299 of @var{list}, comparing members with @var{object} using @code{equal}. | |
1300 If @var{object} is a member, @code{member} returns a list starting with | |
1301 its first occurrence in @var{list}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
1302 | |
1303 Compare this with @code{memq}: | |
1304 | |
1305 @example | |
1306 @group | |
1307 (member '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are @code{equal}.} | |
1308 @result{} ((2)) | |
1309 @end group | |
1310 @group | |
1311 (memq '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are not @code{eq}.} | |
1312 @result{} nil | |
1313 @end group | |
1314 @group | |
1315 ;; @r{Two strings with the same contents are @code{equal}.} | |
1316 (member "foo" '("foo" "bar")) | |
1317 @result{} ("foo" "bar") | |
1318 @end group | |
1319 @end example | |
1320 @end defun | |
1321 | |
30808 | 1322 @defun delete object sequence |
1323 If @code{sequence} is a list, this function destructively removes all | |
1324 elements @code{equal} to @var{object} from @var{sequence}. For lists, | |
1325 @code{delete} is to @code{delq} as @code{member} is to @code{memq}: it | |
1326 uses @code{equal} to compare elements with @var{object}, like | |
1327 @code{member}; when it finds an element that matches, it removes the | |
1328 element just as @code{delq} would. | |
1329 | |
1330 If @code{sequence} is a vector or string, @code{delete} returns a copy | |
1331 of @code{sequence} with all elements @code{equal} to @code{object} | |
1332 removed. | |
1333 | |
1334 For example: | |
6558 | 1335 |
1336 @example | |
1337 @group | |
1338 (delete '(2) '((2) (1) (2))) | |
13229 | 1339 @result{} ((1)) |
6558 | 1340 @end group |
30808 | 1341 @group |
1342 (delete '(2) [(2) (1) (2)]) | |
1343 @result{} [(1)] | |
1344 @end group | |
1345 @end example | |
1346 @end defun | |
1347 | |
1348 @defun remove object sequence | |
1349 This function is the non-destructive counterpart of @code{delete}. If | |
1350 returns a copy of @code{sequence}, a list, vector, or string, with | |
1351 elements @code{equal} to @code{object} removed. For example: | |
1352 | |
1353 @example | |
1354 @group | |
1355 (remove '(2) '((2) (1) (2))) | |
1356 @result{} ((1)) | |
1357 @end group | |
1358 @group | |
1359 (remove '(2) [(2) (1) (2)]) | |
1360 @result{} [(1)] | |
1361 @end group | |
6558 | 1362 @end example |
1363 @end defun | |
1364 | |
1365 @quotation | |
30808 | 1366 @b{Common Lisp note:} The functions @code{member}, @code{delete} and |
1367 @code{remove} in GNU Emacs Lisp are derived from Maclisp, not Common | |
1368 Lisp. The Common Lisp versions do not use @code{equal} to compare | |
1369 elements. | |
6558 | 1370 @end quotation |
1371 | |
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1372 @defun member-ignore-case object list |
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1373 This function is like @code{member}, except that @var{object} should |
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1374 be a string and that it ignores differences in letter-case and text |
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1375 representation: upper-case and lower-case letters are treated as |
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1376 equal, and unibyte strings are converted to multibyte prior to |
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1377 comparison. |
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1378 @end defun |
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1379 |
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1380 @defun delete-dups list |
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1381 This function destructively removes all @code{equal} duplicates from |
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1382 @var{list}, stores the result in @var{list} and returns it. Of |
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1383 several @code{equal} occurrences of an element in @var{list}, |
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1384 @code{delete-dups} keeps the first one. |
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1385 @end defun |
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1386 |
12098 | 1387 See also the function @code{add-to-list}, in @ref{Setting Variables}, |
1388 for another way to add an element to a list stored in a variable. | |
1389 | |
6558 | 1390 @node Association Lists |
1391 @section Association Lists | |
1392 @cindex association list | |
1393 @cindex alist | |
1394 | |
1395 An @dfn{association list}, or @dfn{alist} for short, records a mapping | |
1396 from keys to values. It is a list of cons cells called | |
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1397 @dfn{associations}: the @sc{car} of each cons cell is the @dfn{key}, and the |
6558 | 1398 @sc{cdr} is the @dfn{associated value}.@footnote{This usage of ``key'' |
1399 is not related to the term ``key sequence''; it means a value used to | |
1400 look up an item in a table. In this case, the table is the alist, and | |
1401 the alist associations are the items.} | |
1402 | |
1403 Here is an example of an alist. The key @code{pine} is associated with | |
1404 the value @code{cones}; the key @code{oak} is associated with | |
1405 @code{acorns}; and the key @code{maple} is associated with @code{seeds}. | |
1406 | |
1407 @example | |
1408 @group | |
38786 | 1409 ((pine . cones) |
1410 (oak . acorns) | |
1411 (maple . seeds)) | |
6558 | 1412 @end group |
1413 @end example | |
1414 | |
71922 | 1415 Both the values and the keys in an alist may be any Lisp objects. |
1416 For example, in the following alist, the symbol @code{a} is | |
6558 | 1417 associated with the number @code{1}, and the string @code{"b"} is |
1418 associated with the @emph{list} @code{(2 3)}, which is the @sc{cdr} of | |
1419 the alist element: | |
1420 | |
1421 @example | |
1422 ((a . 1) ("b" 2 3)) | |
1423 @end example | |
1424 | |
1425 Sometimes it is better to design an alist to store the associated | |
1426 value in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr} of the element. Here is an | |
38786 | 1427 example of such an alist: |
6558 | 1428 |
1429 @example | |
38786 | 1430 ((rose red) (lily white) (buttercup yellow)) |
6558 | 1431 @end example |
1432 | |
1433 @noindent | |
1434 Here we regard @code{red} as the value associated with @code{rose}. One | |
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1435 advantage of this kind of alist is that you can store other related |
6558 | 1436 information---even a list of other items---in the @sc{cdr} of the |
1437 @sc{cdr}. One disadvantage is that you cannot use @code{rassq} (see | |
1438 below) to find the element containing a given value. When neither of | |
1439 these considerations is important, the choice is a matter of taste, as | |
1440 long as you are consistent about it for any given alist. | |
1441 | |
71922 | 1442 The same alist shown above could be regarded as having the |
6558 | 1443 associated value in the @sc{cdr} of the element; the value associated |
1444 with @code{rose} would be the list @code{(red)}. | |
1445 | |
1446 Association lists are often used to record information that you might | |
1447 otherwise keep on a stack, since new associations may be added easily to | |
1448 the front of the list. When searching an association list for an | |
1449 association with a given key, the first one found is returned, if there | |
1450 is more than one. | |
1451 | |
1452 In Emacs Lisp, it is @emph{not} an error if an element of an | |
1453 association list is not a cons cell. The alist search functions simply | |
1454 ignore such elements. Many other versions of Lisp signal errors in such | |
1455 cases. | |
1456 | |
1457 Note that property lists are similar to association lists in several | |
1458 respects. A property list behaves like an association list in which | |
1459 each key can occur only once. @xref{Property Lists}, for a comparison | |
1460 of property lists and association lists. | |
1461 | |
1462 @defun assoc key alist | |
1463 This function returns the first association for @var{key} in | |
1464 @var{alist}. It compares @var{key} against the alist elements using | |
1465 @code{equal} (@pxref{Equality Predicates}). It returns @code{nil} if no | |
1466 association in @var{alist} has a @sc{car} @code{equal} to @var{key}. | |
1467 For example: | |
1468 | |
1469 @smallexample | |
1470 (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1471 @result{} ((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds)) | |
1472 (assoc 'oak trees) | |
1473 @result{} (oak . acorns) | |
1474 (cdr (assoc 'oak trees)) | |
1475 @result{} acorns | |
1476 (assoc 'birch trees) | |
1477 @result{} nil | |
1478 @end smallexample | |
1479 | |
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1480 Here is another example, in which the keys and values are not symbols: |
6558 | 1481 |
1482 @smallexample | |
1483 (setq needles-per-cluster | |
1484 '((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
1485 (3 "Pitch Pine") | |
1486 (5 "White Pine"))) | |
1487 | |
1488 (cdr (assoc 3 needles-per-cluster)) | |
1489 @result{} ("Pitch Pine") | |
1490 (cdr (assoc 2 needles-per-cluster)) | |
1491 @result{} ("Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
1492 @end smallexample | |
1493 @end defun | |
1494 | |
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1495 The function @code{assoc-string} is much like @code{assoc} except |
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1496 that it ignores certain differences between strings. @xref{Text |
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1497 Comparison}. |
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1498 |
12067 | 1499 @defun rassoc value alist |
1500 This function returns the first association with value @var{value} in | |
1501 @var{alist}. It returns @code{nil} if no association in @var{alist} has | |
1502 a @sc{cdr} @code{equal} to @var{value}. | |
1503 | |
1504 @code{rassoc} is like @code{assoc} except that it compares the @sc{cdr} of | |
1505 each @var{alist} association instead of the @sc{car}. You can think of | |
1506 this as ``reverse @code{assoc}'', finding the key for a given value. | |
1507 @end defun | |
1508 | |
6558 | 1509 @defun assq key alist |
1510 This function is like @code{assoc} in that it returns the first | |
1511 association for @var{key} in @var{alist}, but it makes the comparison | |
1512 using @code{eq} instead of @code{equal}. @code{assq} returns @code{nil} | |
1513 if no association in @var{alist} has a @sc{car} @code{eq} to @var{key}. | |
1514 This function is used more often than @code{assoc}, since @code{eq} is | |
1515 faster than @code{equal} and most alists use symbols as keys. | |
1516 @xref{Equality Predicates}. | |
1517 | |
1518 @smallexample | |
1519 (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1520 @result{} ((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds)) | |
1521 (assq 'pine trees) | |
1522 @result{} (pine . cones) | |
1523 @end smallexample | |
1524 | |
1525 On the other hand, @code{assq} is not usually useful in alists where the | |
1526 keys may not be symbols: | |
1527 | |
1528 @smallexample | |
1529 (setq leaves | |
1530 '(("simple leaves" . oak) | |
1531 ("compound leaves" . horsechestnut))) | |
1532 | |
1533 (assq "simple leaves" leaves) | |
1534 @result{} nil | |
1535 (assoc "simple leaves" leaves) | |
1536 @result{} ("simple leaves" . oak) | |
1537 @end smallexample | |
1538 @end defun | |
1539 | |
1540 @defun rassq value alist | |
1541 This function returns the first association with value @var{value} in | |
1542 @var{alist}. It returns @code{nil} if no association in @var{alist} has | |
1543 a @sc{cdr} @code{eq} to @var{value}. | |
1544 | |
1545 @code{rassq} is like @code{assq} except that it compares the @sc{cdr} of | |
1546 each @var{alist} association instead of the @sc{car}. You can think of | |
1547 this as ``reverse @code{assq}'', finding the key for a given value. | |
1548 | |
1549 For example: | |
1550 | |
1551 @smallexample | |
1552 (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1553 | |
1554 (rassq 'acorns trees) | |
1555 @result{} (oak . acorns) | |
1556 (rassq 'spores trees) | |
1557 @result{} nil | |
1558 @end smallexample | |
1559 | |
71922 | 1560 @code{rassq} cannot search for a value stored in the @sc{car} |
6558 | 1561 of the @sc{cdr} of an element: |
1562 | |
1563 @smallexample | |
1564 (setq colors '((rose red) (lily white) (buttercup yellow))) | |
1565 | |
1566 (rassq 'white colors) | |
1567 @result{} nil | |
1568 @end smallexample | |
1569 | |
1570 In this case, the @sc{cdr} of the association @code{(lily white)} is not | |
1571 the symbol @code{white}, but rather the list @code{(white)}. This | |
1572 becomes clearer if the association is written in dotted pair notation: | |
1573 | |
1574 @smallexample | |
1575 (lily white) @equiv{} (lily . (white)) | |
1576 @end smallexample | |
1577 @end defun | |
1578 | |
38786 | 1579 @defun assoc-default key alist &optional test default |
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1580 This function searches @var{alist} for a match for @var{key}. For each |
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1581 element of @var{alist}, it compares the element (if it is an atom) or |
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1582 the element's @sc{car} (if it is a cons) against @var{key}, by calling |
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1583 @var{test} with two arguments: the element or its @sc{car}, and |
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1584 @var{key}. The arguments are passed in that order so that you can get |
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1585 useful results using @code{string-match} with an alist that contains |
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1586 regular expressions (@pxref{Regexp Search}). If @var{test} is omitted |
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1587 or @code{nil}, @code{equal} is used for comparison. |
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1588 |
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1589 If an alist element matches @var{key} by this criterion, |
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1590 then @code{assoc-default} returns a value based on this element. |
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1591 If the element is a cons, then the value is the element's @sc{cdr}. |
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1592 Otherwise, the return value is @var{default}. |
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1593 |
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1594 If no alist element matches @var{key}, @code{assoc-default} returns |
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1595 @code{nil}. |
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1596 @end defun |
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1597 |
6558 | 1598 @defun copy-alist alist |
1599 @cindex copying alists | |
1600 This function returns a two-level deep copy of @var{alist}: it creates a | |
1601 new copy of each association, so that you can alter the associations of | |
1602 the new alist without changing the old one. | |
1603 | |
1604 @smallexample | |
1605 @group | |
1606 (setq needles-per-cluster | |
1607 '((2 . ("Austrian Pine" "Red Pine")) | |
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1608 (3 . ("Pitch Pine")) |
7734 | 1609 @end group |
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1610 (5 . ("White Pine")))) |
6558 | 1611 @result{} |
1612 ((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
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1613 (3 "Pitch Pine") |
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1614 (5 "White Pine")) |
6558 | 1615 |
1616 (setq copy (copy-alist needles-per-cluster)) | |
1617 @result{} | |
1618 ((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
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1619 (3 "Pitch Pine") |
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1620 (5 "White Pine")) |
6558 | 1621 |
1622 (eq needles-per-cluster copy) | |
1623 @result{} nil | |
1624 (equal needles-per-cluster copy) | |
1625 @result{} t | |
1626 (eq (car needles-per-cluster) (car copy)) | |
1627 @result{} nil | |
1628 (cdr (car (cdr needles-per-cluster))) | |
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1629 @result{} ("Pitch Pine") |
7734 | 1630 @group |
6558 | 1631 (eq (cdr (car (cdr needles-per-cluster))) |
1632 (cdr (car (cdr copy)))) | |
1633 @result{} t | |
1634 @end group | |
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1635 @end smallexample |
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1636 |
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1637 This example shows how @code{copy-alist} makes it possible to change |
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1638 the associations of one copy without affecting the other: |
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1639 |
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1640 @smallexample |
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1641 @group |
11137 | 1642 (setcdr (assq 3 copy) '("Martian Vacuum Pine")) |
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1643 (cdr (assq 3 needles-per-cluster)) |
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1644 @result{} ("Pitch Pine") |
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1645 @end group |
6558 | 1646 @end smallexample |
1647 @end defun | |
1648 | |
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1649 @defun assq-delete-all key alist |
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1650 This function deletes from @var{alist} all the elements whose @sc{car} |
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1651 is @code{eq} to @var{key}, much as if you used @code{delq} to delete |
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1652 each such element one by one. It returns the shortened alist, and |
52694
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1653 often modifies the original list structure of @var{alist}. For |
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1654 correct results, use the return value of @code{assq-delete-all} rather |
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1655 than looking at the saved value of @var{alist}. |
6558 | 1656 |
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1657 @example |
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1658 (setq alist '((foo 1) (bar 2) (foo 3) (lose 4))) |
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1659 @result{} ((foo 1) (bar 2) (foo 3) (lose 4)) |
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1660 (assq-delete-all 'foo alist) |
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1661 @result{} ((bar 2) (lose 4)) |
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1662 alist |
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1663 @result{} ((foo 1) (bar 2) (lose 4)) |
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1664 @end example |
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1665 @end defun |
52401 | 1666 |
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1667 @defun rassq-delete-all value alist |
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1668 This function deletes from @var{alist} all the elements whose @sc{cdr} |
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1669 is @code{eq} to @var{value}. It returns the shortened alist, and |
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1670 often modifies the original list structure of @var{alist}. |
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1671 @code{rassq-delete-all} is like @code{assq-delete-all} except that it |
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1672 compares the @sc{cdr} of each @var{alist} association instead of the |
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1673 @sc{car}. |
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1674 @end defun |
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1675 |
63541 | 1676 @node Rings |
1677 @section Managing a Fixed-Size Ring of Objects | |
1678 | |
1679 @cindex ring data structure | |
1680 This section describes functions for operating on rings. A | |
1681 @dfn{ring} is a fixed-size data structure that supports insertion, | |
1682 deletion, rotation, and modulo-indexed reference and traversal. | |
1683 | |
1684 @defun make-ring size | |
1685 This returns a new ring capable of holding @var{size} objects. | |
1686 @var{size} should be an integer. | |
1687 @end defun | |
1688 | |
1689 @defun ring-p object | |
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1690 This returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a ring, @code{nil} otherwise. |
63541 | 1691 @end defun |
1692 | |
1693 @defun ring-size ring | |
1694 This returns the maximum capacity of the @var{ring}. | |
1695 @end defun | |
1696 | |
1697 @defun ring-length ring | |
1698 This returns the number of objects that @var{ring} currently contains. | |
1699 The value will never exceed that returned by @code{ring-size}. | |
1700 @end defun | |
1701 | |
1702 @defun ring-elements ring | |
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1703 This returns a list of the objects in @var{ring}, in order, newest first. |
63541 | 1704 @end defun |
1705 | |
1706 @defun ring-copy ring | |
1707 This returns a new ring which is a copy of @var{ring}. | |
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1708 The new ring contains the same (@code{eq}) objects as @var{ring}. |
63541 | 1709 @end defun |
1710 | |
1711 @defun ring-empty-p ring | |
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1712 This returns @code{t} if @var{ring} is empty, @code{nil} otherwise. |
63541 | 1713 @end defun |
1714 | |
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1715 The newest element in the ring always has index 0. Higher indices |
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1716 correspond to older elements. Indices are computed modulo the ring |
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1717 length. Index @minus{}1 corresponds to the oldest element, @minus{}2 |
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1718 to the next-oldest, and so forth. |
63541 | 1719 |
1720 @defun ring-ref ring index | |
1721 This returns the object in @var{ring} found at index @var{index}. | |
1722 @var{index} may be negative or greater than the ring length. If | |
1723 @var{ring} is empty, @code{ring-ref} signals an error. | |
1724 @end defun | |
1725 | |
1726 @defun ring-insert ring object | |
1727 This inserts @var{object} into @var{ring}, making it the newest | |
1728 element, and returns @var{object}. | |
1729 | |
1730 If the ring is full, insertion removes the oldest element to | |
1731 make room for the new element. | |
1732 @end defun | |
1733 | |
1734 @defun ring-remove ring &optional index | |
1735 Remove an object from @var{ring}, and return that object. The | |
1736 argument @var{index} specifies which item to remove; if it is | |
1737 @code{nil}, that means to remove the oldest item. If @var{ring} is | |
1738 empty, @code{ring-remove} signals an error. | |
1739 @end defun | |
1740 | |
1741 @defun ring-insert-at-beginning ring object | |
1742 This inserts @var{object} into @var{ring}, treating it as the oldest | |
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1743 element. The return value is not significant. |
63541 | 1744 |
1745 If the ring is full, this function removes the newest element to make | |
1746 room for the inserted element. | |
1747 @end defun | |
1748 | |
1749 @cindex fifo data structure | |
1750 If you are careful not to exceed the ring size, you can | |
1751 use the ring as a first-in-first-out queue. For example: | |
1752 | |
1753 @lisp | |
1754 (let ((fifo (make-ring 5))) | |
1755 (mapc (lambda (obj) (ring-insert fifo obj)) | |
1756 '(0 one "two")) | |
1757 (list (ring-remove fifo) t | |
1758 (ring-remove fifo) t | |
1759 (ring-remove fifo))) | |
1760 @result{} (0 t one t "two") | |
1761 @end lisp | |
1762 | |
52401 | 1763 @ignore |
1764 arch-tag: 31fb8a4e-4aa8-4a74-a206-aa00451394d4 | |
1765 @end ignore |