annotate lispref/functions.texi @ 89918:2d36fc270f24

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author Kenichi Handa <handa@m17n.org>
date Tue, 20 Apr 2004 02:47:14 +0000
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999
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4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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6 @setfilename ../info/functions
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7 @node Functions, Macros, Variables, Top
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8 @chapter Functions
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9
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10 A Lisp program is composed mainly of Lisp functions. This chapter
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11 explains what functions are, how they accept arguments, and how to
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12 define them.
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13
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14 @menu
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15 * What Is a Function:: Lisp functions vs. primitives; terminology.
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16 * Lambda Expressions:: How functions are expressed as Lisp objects.
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17 * Function Names:: A symbol can serve as the name of a function.
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18 * Defining Functions:: Lisp expressions for defining functions.
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19 * Calling Functions:: How to use an existing function.
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20 * Mapping Functions:: Applying a function to each element of a list, etc.
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21 * Anonymous Functions:: Lambda expressions are functions with no names.
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22 * Function Cells:: Accessing or setting the function definition
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23 of a symbol.
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24 * Inline Functions:: Defining functions that the compiler will open code.
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25 * Function Safety:: Determining whether a function is safe to call.
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26 * Related Topics:: Cross-references to specific Lisp primitives
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27 that have a special bearing on how functions work.
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28 @end menu
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29
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30 @node What Is a Function
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31 @section What Is a Function?
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32
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33 In a general sense, a function is a rule for carrying on a computation
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34 given several values called @dfn{arguments}. The result of the
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35 computation is called the value of the function. The computation can
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36 also have side effects: lasting changes in the values of variables or
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37 the contents of data structures.
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38
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39 Here are important terms for functions in Emacs Lisp and for other
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40 function-like objects.
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41
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42 @table @dfn
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43 @item function
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44 @cindex function
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45 In Emacs Lisp, a @dfn{function} is anything that can be applied to
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46 arguments in a Lisp program. In some cases, we use it more
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47 specifically to mean a function written in Lisp. Special forms and
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48 macros are not functions.
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49
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50 @item primitive
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51 @cindex primitive
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52 @cindex subr
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53 @cindex built-in function
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54 A @dfn{primitive} is a function callable from Lisp that is written in C,
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55 such as @code{car} or @code{append}. These functions are also called
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56 @dfn{built-in} functions or @dfn{subrs}. (Special forms are also
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57 considered primitives.)
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58
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59 Usually the reason we implement a function as a primitive is either
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60 because it is fundamental, because it provides a low-level interface
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61 to operating system services, or because it needs to run fast.
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62 Primitives can be modified or added only by changing the C sources and
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63 recompiling the editor. See @ref{Writing Emacs Primitives}.
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64
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65 @item lambda expression
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66 A @dfn{lambda expression} is a function written in Lisp.
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67 These are described in the following section.
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68 @ifnottex
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69 @xref{Lambda Expressions}.
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70 @end ifnottex
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71
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72 @item special form
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73 A @dfn{special form} is a primitive that is like a function but does not
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74 evaluate all of its arguments in the usual way. It may evaluate only
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75 some of the arguments, or may evaluate them in an unusual order, or
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76 several times. Many special forms are described in @ref{Control
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77 Structures}.
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78
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79 @item macro
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80 @cindex macro
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81 A @dfn{macro} is a construct defined in Lisp by the programmer. It
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82 differs from a function in that it translates a Lisp expression that you
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83 write into an equivalent expression to be evaluated instead of the
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84 original expression. Macros enable Lisp programmers to do the sorts of
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85 things that special forms can do. @xref{Macros}, for how to define and
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86 use macros.
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87
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88 @item command
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89 @cindex command
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90 A @dfn{command} is an object that @code{command-execute} can invoke; it
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91 is a possible definition for a key sequence. Some functions are
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92 commands; a function written in Lisp is a command if it contains an
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93 interactive declaration (@pxref{Defining Commands}). Such a function
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94 can be called from Lisp expressions like other functions; in this case,
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95 the fact that the function is a command makes no difference.
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96
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97 Keyboard macros (strings and vectors) are commands also, even though
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98 they are not functions. A symbol is a command if its function
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99 definition is a command; such symbols can be invoked with @kbd{M-x}.
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100 The symbol is a function as well if the definition is a function.
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101 @xref{Command Overview}.
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102
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103 @item keystroke command
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104 @cindex keystroke command
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105 A @dfn{keystroke command} is a command that is bound to a key sequence
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106 (typically one to three keystrokes). The distinction is made here
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107 merely to avoid confusion with the meaning of ``command'' in non-Emacs
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108 editors; for Lisp programs, the distinction is normally unimportant.
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109
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110 @item byte-code function
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111 A @dfn{byte-code function} is a function that has been compiled by the
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112 byte compiler. @xref{Byte-Code Type}.
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113 @end table
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114
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115 @defun functionp object
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116 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is any kind of
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117 function, or a special form, or, recursively, a symbol whose function
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118 definition is a function or special form. (This does not include
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119 macros.)
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120 @end defun
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121
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122 Unlike @code{functionp}, the next three functions do @emph{not}
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123 treat a symbol as its function definition.
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124
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125 @defun subrp object
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126 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a built-in function
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127 (i.e., a Lisp primitive).
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128
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129 @example
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130 @group
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131 (subrp 'message) ; @r{@code{message} is a symbol,}
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132 @result{} nil ; @r{not a subr object.}
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133 @end group
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134 @group
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135 (subrp (symbol-function 'message))
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136 @result{} t
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137 @end group
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138 @end example
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139 @end defun
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140
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141 @defun byte-code-function-p object
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142 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a byte-code
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143 function. For example:
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144
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145 @example
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146 @group
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147 (byte-code-function-p (symbol-function 'next-line))
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148 @result{} t
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149 @end group
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150 @end example
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151 @end defun
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152
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153 @defun subr-arity subr
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154 @tindex subr-arity
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155 This function provides information about the argument list of a
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156 primitive, @var{subr}. The returned value is a pair
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157 @code{(@var{min} . @var{max})}. @var{min} is the minimum number of
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158 args. @var{max} is the maximum number or the symbol @code{many}, for a
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159 function with @code{&rest} arguments, or the symbol @code{unevalled} if
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160 @var{subr} is a special form.
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161 @end defun
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162
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163 @node Lambda Expressions
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164 @section Lambda Expressions
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165 @cindex lambda expression
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166
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167 A function written in Lisp is a list that looks like this:
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168
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169 @example
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170 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{})
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171 @r{[}@var{documentation-string}@r{]}
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172 @r{[}@var{interactive-declaration}@r{]}
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173 @var{body-forms}@dots{})
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174 @end example
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175
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176 @noindent
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177 Such a list is called a @dfn{lambda expression}. In Emacs Lisp, it
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178 actually is valid as an expression---it evaluates to itself. In some
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179 other Lisp dialects, a lambda expression is not a valid expression at
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180 all. In either case, its main use is not to be evaluated as an
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181 expression, but to be called as a function.
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182
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183 @menu
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184 * Lambda Components:: The parts of a lambda expression.
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185 * Simple Lambda:: A simple example.
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186 * Argument List:: Details and special features of argument lists.
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187 * Function Documentation:: How to put documentation in a function.
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188 @end menu
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189
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190 @node Lambda Components
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191 @subsection Components of a Lambda Expression
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192
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193 @ifnottex
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194
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195 A function written in Lisp (a ``lambda expression'') is a list that
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196 looks like this:
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197
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198 @example
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199 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{})
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200 [@var{documentation-string}]
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201 [@var{interactive-declaration}]
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202 @var{body-forms}@dots{})
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203 @end example
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204 @end ifnottex
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205
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206 @cindex lambda list
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207 The first element of a lambda expression is always the symbol
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208 @code{lambda}. This indicates that the list represents a function. The
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209 reason functions are defined to start with @code{lambda} is so that
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210 other lists, intended for other uses, will not accidentally be valid as
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211 functions.
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212
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213 The second element is a list of symbols---the argument variable names.
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214 This is called the @dfn{lambda list}. When a Lisp function is called,
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215 the argument values are matched up against the variables in the lambda
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216 list, which are given local bindings with the values provided.
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217 @xref{Local Variables}.
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218
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219 The documentation string is a Lisp string object placed within the
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220 function definition to describe the function for the Emacs help
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221 facilities. @xref{Function Documentation}.
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222
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223 The interactive declaration is a list of the form @code{(interactive
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224 @var{code-string})}. This declares how to provide arguments if the
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225 function is used interactively. Functions with this declaration are called
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226 @dfn{commands}; they can be called using @kbd{M-x} or bound to a key.
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227 Functions not intended to be called in this way should not have interactive
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228 declarations. @xref{Defining Commands}, for how to write an interactive
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229 declaration.
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230
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231 @cindex body of function
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232 The rest of the elements are the @dfn{body} of the function: the Lisp
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233 code to do the work of the function (or, as a Lisp programmer would say,
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234 ``a list of Lisp forms to evaluate''). The value returned by the
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235 function is the value returned by the last element of the body.
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236
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237 @node Simple Lambda
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238 @subsection A Simple Lambda-Expression Example
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239
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240 Consider for example the following function:
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241
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242 @example
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243 (lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))
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244 @end example
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245
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246 @noindent
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247 We can call this function by writing it as the @sc{car} of an
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248 expression, like this:
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249
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250 @example
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251 @group
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252 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))
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253 1 2 3)
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254 @end group
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255 @end example
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256
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257 @noindent
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258 This call evaluates the body of the lambda expression with the variable
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259 @code{a} bound to 1, @code{b} bound to 2, and @code{c} bound to 3.
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260 Evaluation of the body adds these three numbers, producing the result 6;
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261 therefore, this call to the function returns the value 6.
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262
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263 Note that the arguments can be the results of other function calls, as in
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264 this example:
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265
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266 @example
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267 @group
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268 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))
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269 1 (* 2 3) (- 5 4))
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270 @end group
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271 @end example
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272
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273 @noindent
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274 This evaluates the arguments @code{1}, @code{(* 2 3)}, and @code{(- 5
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275 4)} from left to right. Then it applies the lambda expression to the
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276 argument values 1, 6 and 1 to produce the value 8.
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277
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278 It is not often useful to write a lambda expression as the @sc{car} of
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279 a form in this way. You can get the same result, of making local
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280 variables and giving them values, using the special form @code{let}
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281 (@pxref{Local Variables}). And @code{let} is clearer and easier to use.
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282 In practice, lambda expressions are either stored as the function
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283 definitions of symbols, to produce named functions, or passed as
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284 arguments to other functions (@pxref{Anonymous Functions}).
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285
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286 However, calls to explicit lambda expressions were very useful in the
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287 old days of Lisp, before the special form @code{let} was invented. At
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288 that time, they were the only way to bind and initialize local
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289 variables.
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290
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291 @node Argument List
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292 @subsection Other Features of Argument Lists
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293 @kindex wrong-number-of-arguments
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294 @cindex argument binding
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295 @cindex binding arguments
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296
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297 Our simple sample function, @code{(lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))},
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298 specifies three argument variables, so it must be called with three
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299 arguments: if you try to call it with only two arguments or four
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300 arguments, you get a @code{wrong-number-of-arguments} error.
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301
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302 It is often convenient to write a function that allows certain
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303 arguments to be omitted. For example, the function @code{substring}
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304 accepts three arguments---a string, the start index and the end
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305 index---but the third argument defaults to the @var{length} of the
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306 string if you omit it. It is also convenient for certain functions to
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307 accept an indefinite number of arguments, as the functions @code{list}
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308 and @code{+} do.
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309
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310 @cindex optional arguments
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311 @cindex rest arguments
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312 @kindex &optional
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313 @kindex &rest
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314 To specify optional arguments that may be omitted when a function
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315 is called, simply include the keyword @code{&optional} before the optional
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316 arguments. To specify a list of zero or more extra arguments, include the
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317 keyword @code{&rest} before one final argument.
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318
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319 Thus, the complete syntax for an argument list is as follows:
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320
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321 @example
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322 @group
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323 (@var{required-vars}@dots{}
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324 @r{[}&optional @var{optional-vars}@dots{}@r{]}
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325 @r{[}&rest @var{rest-var}@r{]})
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326 @end group
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327 @end example
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328
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329 @noindent
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330 The square brackets indicate that the @code{&optional} and @code{&rest}
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331 clauses, and the variables that follow them, are optional.
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332
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333 A call to the function requires one actual argument for each of the
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334 @var{required-vars}. There may be actual arguments for zero or more of
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335 the @var{optional-vars}, and there cannot be any actual arguments beyond
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336 that unless the lambda list uses @code{&rest}. In that case, there may
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337 be any number of extra actual arguments.
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338
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339 If actual arguments for the optional and rest variables are omitted,
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340 then they always default to @code{nil}. There is no way for the
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341 function to distinguish between an explicit argument of @code{nil} and
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342 an omitted argument. However, the body of the function is free to
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343 consider @code{nil} an abbreviation for some other meaningful value.
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344 This is what @code{substring} does; @code{nil} as the third argument to
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345 @code{substring} means to use the length of the string supplied.
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346
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347 @cindex CL note---default optional arg
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348 @quotation
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349 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp allows the function to specify what
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350 default value to use when an optional argument is omitted; Emacs Lisp
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351 always uses @code{nil}. Emacs Lisp does not support ``supplied-p''
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352 variables that tell you whether an argument was explicitly passed.
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353 @end quotation
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354
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355 For example, an argument list that looks like this:
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356
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357 @example
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358 (a b &optional c d &rest e)
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359 @end example
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360
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361 @noindent
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362 binds @code{a} and @code{b} to the first two actual arguments, which are
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363 required. If one or two more arguments are provided, @code{c} and
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364 @code{d} are bound to them respectively; any arguments after the first
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365 four are collected into a list and @code{e} is bound to that list. If
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366 there are only two arguments, @code{c} is @code{nil}; if two or three
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367 arguments, @code{d} is @code{nil}; if four arguments or fewer, @code{e}
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368 is @code{nil}.
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369
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370 There is no way to have required arguments following optional
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371 ones---it would not make sense. To see why this must be so, suppose
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372 that @code{c} in the example were optional and @code{d} were required.
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373 Suppose three actual arguments are given; which variable would the
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374 third argument be for? Would it be used for the @var{c}, or for
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375 @var{d}? One can argue for both possibilities. Similarly, it makes
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376 no sense to have any more arguments (either required or optional)
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377 after a @code{&rest} argument.
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378
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379 Here are some examples of argument lists and proper calls:
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380
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381 @smallexample
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382 ((lambda (n) (1+ n)) ; @r{One required:}
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383 1) ; @r{requires exactly one argument.}
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384 @result{} 2
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385 ((lambda (n &optional n1) ; @r{One required and one optional:}
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386 (if n1 (+ n n1) (1+ n))) ; @r{1 or 2 arguments.}
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387 1 2)
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388 @result{} 3
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389 ((lambda (n &rest ns) ; @r{One required and one rest:}
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390 (+ n (apply '+ ns))) ; @r{1 or more arguments.}
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391 1 2 3 4 5)
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392 @result{} 15
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393 @end smallexample
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394
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395 @node Function Documentation
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396 @subsection Documentation Strings of Functions
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397 @cindex documentation of function
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398
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399 A lambda expression may optionally have a @dfn{documentation string} just
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400 after the lambda list. This string does not affect execution of the
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401 function; it is a kind of comment, but a systematized comment which
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402 actually appears inside the Lisp world and can be used by the Emacs help
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403 facilities. @xref{Documentation}, for how the @var{documentation-string} is
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404 accessed.
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405
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406 It is a good idea to provide documentation strings for all the
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407 functions in your program, even those that are called only from within
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408 your program. Documentation strings are like comments, except that they
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409 are easier to access.
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410
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411 The first line of the documentation string should stand on its own,
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412 because @code{apropos} displays just this first line. It should consist
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413 of one or two complete sentences that summarize the function's purpose.
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414
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415 The start of the documentation string is usually indented in the source file,
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416 but since these spaces come before the starting double-quote, they are not part of
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417 the string. Some people make a practice of indenting any additional
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418 lines of the string so that the text lines up in the program source.
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419 @emph{That is a mistake.} The indentation of the following lines is
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420 inside the string; what looks nice in the source code will look ugly
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421 when displayed by the help commands.
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422
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423 You may wonder how the documentation string could be optional, since
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424 there are required components of the function that follow it (the body).
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425 Since evaluation of a string returns that string, without any side effects,
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426 it has no effect if it is not the last form in the body. Thus, in
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427 practice, there is no confusion between the first form of the body and the
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428 documentation string; if the only body form is a string then it serves both
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429 as the return value and as the documentation.
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430
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431 The last line of the documentation string can specify calling
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432 conventions different from the actual function arguments. Write
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433 text like this:
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434
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435 @example
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436 \(fn @var{arglist})
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437 @end example
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438
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439 @noindent
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440 following a blank line, at the beginning of the line, with no newline
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441 following it inside the documentation string. This feature is
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442 particularly useful for macro definitions. The @samp{\} is used to
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443 avoid confusing the Emacs motion commands.
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444
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445 @node Function Names
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446 @section Naming a Function
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447 @cindex function definition
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448 @cindex named function
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449 @cindex function name
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450
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451 In most computer languages, every function has a name; the idea of a
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452 function without a name is nonsensical. In Lisp, a function in the
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453 strictest sense has no name. It is simply a list whose first element is
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454 @code{lambda}, a byte-code function object, or a primitive subr-object.
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455
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456 However, a symbol can serve as the name of a function. This happens
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457 when you put the function in the symbol's @dfn{function cell}
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458 (@pxref{Symbol Components}). Then the symbol itself becomes a valid,
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459 callable function, equivalent to the list or subr-object that its
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460 function cell refers to. The contents of the function cell are also
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461 called the symbol's @dfn{function definition}. The procedure of using a
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462 symbol's function definition in place of the symbol is called
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463 @dfn{symbol function indirection}; see @ref{Function Indirection}.
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464
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465 In practice, nearly all functions are given names in this way and
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466 referred to through their names. For example, the symbol @code{car} works
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467 as a function and does what it does because the primitive subr-object
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468 @code{#<subr car>} is stored in its function cell.
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469
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470 We give functions names because it is convenient to refer to them by
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471 their names in Lisp expressions. For primitive subr-objects such as
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472 @code{#<subr car>}, names are the only way you can refer to them: there
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473 is no read syntax for such objects. For functions written in Lisp, the
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474 name is more convenient to use in a call than an explicit lambda
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475 expression. Also, a function with a name can refer to itself---it can
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476 be recursive. Writing the function's name in its own definition is much
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477 more convenient than making the function definition point to itself
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478 (something that is not impossible but that has various disadvantages in
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479 practice).
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480
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481 We often identify functions with the symbols used to name them. For
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482 example, we often speak of ``the function @code{car}'', not
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483 distinguishing between the symbol @code{car} and the primitive
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484 subr-object that is its function definition. For most purposes, there
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485 is no need to distinguish.
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486
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487 Even so, keep in mind that a function need not have a unique name. While
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488 a given function object @emph{usually} appears in the function cell of only
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489 one symbol, this is just a matter of convenience. It is easy to store
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490 it in several symbols using @code{fset}; then each of the symbols is
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491 equally well a name for the same function.
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492
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493 A symbol used as a function name may also be used as a variable; these
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494 two uses of a symbol are independent and do not conflict. (Some Lisp
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495 dialects, such as Scheme, do not distinguish between a symbol's value
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496 and its function definition; a symbol's value as a variable is also its
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497 function definition.) If you have not given a symbol a function
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498 definition, you cannot use it as a function; whether the symbol has a
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499 value as a variable makes no difference to this.
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500
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501 @node Defining Functions
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502 @section Defining Functions
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503 @cindex defining a function
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504
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505 We usually give a name to a function when it is first created. This
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506 is called @dfn{defining a function}, and it is done with the
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507 @code{defun} special form.
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508
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509 @defspec defun name argument-list body-forms
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510 @code{defun} is the usual way to define new Lisp functions. It
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511 defines the symbol @var{name} as a function that looks like this:
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512
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513 @example
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514 (lambda @var{argument-list} . @var{body-forms})
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515 @end example
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516
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517 @code{defun} stores this lambda expression in the function cell of
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518 @var{name}. It returns the value @var{name}, but usually we ignore this
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519 value.
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520
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521 As described previously (@pxref{Lambda Expressions}),
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522 @var{argument-list} is a list of argument names and may include the
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523 keywords @code{&optional} and @code{&rest}. Also, the first two of the
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524 @var{body-forms} may be a documentation string and an interactive
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525 declaration.
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526
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527 There is no conflict if the same symbol @var{name} is also used as a
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528 variable, since the symbol's value cell is independent of the function
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529 cell. @xref{Symbol Components}.
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530
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531 Here are some examples:
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532
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533 @example
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534 @group
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535 (defun foo () 5)
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536 @result{} foo
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537 @end group
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538 @group
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539 (foo)
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540 @result{} 5
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541 @end group
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542
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543 @group
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544 (defun bar (a &optional b &rest c)
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545 (list a b c))
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546 @result{} bar
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547 @end group
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548 @group
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549 (bar 1 2 3 4 5)
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550 @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5))
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551 @end group
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552 @group
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553 (bar 1)
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554 @result{} (1 nil nil)
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555 @end group
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556 @group
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557 (bar)
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558 @error{} Wrong number of arguments.
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559 @end group
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560
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561 @group
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562 (defun capitalize-backwards ()
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563 "Upcase the last letter of a word."
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564 (interactive)
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565 (backward-word 1)
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566 (forward-word 1)
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567 (backward-char 1)
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568 (capitalize-word 1))
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569 @result{} capitalize-backwards
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570 @end group
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571 @end example
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572
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573 Be careful not to redefine existing functions unintentionally.
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574 @code{defun} redefines even primitive functions such as @code{car}
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575 without any hesitation or notification. Redefining a function already
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576 defined is often done deliberately, and there is no way to distinguish
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577 deliberate redefinition from unintentional redefinition.
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578 @end defspec
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579
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580 @anchor{Definition of defalias}
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581 @defun defalias name definition &optional docstring
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582 This special form defines the symbol @var{name} as a function, with
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583 definition @var{definition} (which can be any valid Lisp function).
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584 It returns @var{definition}.
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585
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586 If @var{docstring} is non-@code{nil}, it becomes the function
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587 documentation of @var{name}. Otherwise, any documentation provided by
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588 @var{definition} is used.
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589
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590 The proper place to use @code{defalias} is where a specific function
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591 name is being defined---especially where that name appears explicitly in
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592 the source file being loaded. This is because @code{defalias} records
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593 which file defined the function, just like @code{defun}
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594 (@pxref{Unloading}).
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595
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596 By contrast, in programs that manipulate function definitions for other
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597 purposes, it is better to use @code{fset}, which does not keep such
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598 records.
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599 @end defun
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600
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601 You cannot create a new primitive function with @code{defun} or
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602 @code{defalias}, but you can use them to change the function definition of
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603 any symbol, even one such as @code{car} or @code{x-popup-menu} whose
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604 normal definition is a primitive. However, this is risky: for
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605 instance, it is next to impossible to redefine @code{car} without
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606 breaking Lisp completely. Redefining an obscure function such as
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607 @code{x-popup-menu} is less dangerous, but it still may not work as
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608 you expect. If there are calls to the primitive from C code, they
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609 call the primitive's C definition directly, so changing the symbol's
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610 definition will have no effect on them.
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611
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612 See also @code{defsubst}, which defines a function like @code{defun}
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613 and tells the Lisp compiler to open-code it. @xref{Inline Functions}.
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614
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615 @node Calling Functions
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616 @section Calling Functions
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617 @cindex function invocation
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618 @cindex calling a function
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619
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620 Defining functions is only half the battle. Functions don't do
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621 anything until you @dfn{call} them, i.e., tell them to run. Calling a
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622 function is also known as @dfn{invocation}.
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623
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624 The most common way of invoking a function is by evaluating a list.
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625 For example, evaluating the list @code{(concat "a" "b")} calls the
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626 function @code{concat} with arguments @code{"a"} and @code{"b"}.
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627 @xref{Evaluation}, for a description of evaluation.
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628
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629 When you write a list as an expression in your program, the function
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630 name it calls is written in your program. This means that you choose
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631 which function to call, and how many arguments to give it, when you
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632 write the program. Usually that's just what you want. Occasionally you
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633 need to compute at run time which function to call. To do that, use the
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634 function @code{funcall}. When you also need to determine at run time
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635 how many arguments to pass, use @code{apply}.
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636
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637 @defun funcall function &rest arguments
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638 @code{funcall} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, and returns
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639 whatever @var{function} returns.
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640
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641 Since @code{funcall} is a function, all of its arguments, including
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642 @var{function}, are evaluated before @code{funcall} is called. This
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643 means that you can use any expression to obtain the function to be
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644 called. It also means that @code{funcall} does not see the expressions
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645 you write for the @var{arguments}, only their values. These values are
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646 @emph{not} evaluated a second time in the act of calling @var{function};
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647 @code{funcall} enters the normal procedure for calling a function at the
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648 place where the arguments have already been evaluated.
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649
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650 The argument @var{function} must be either a Lisp function or a
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651 primitive function. Special forms and macros are not allowed, because
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652 they make sense only when given the ``unevaluated'' argument
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653 expressions. @code{funcall} cannot provide these because, as we saw
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654 above, it never knows them in the first place.
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655
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656 @example
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657 @group
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658 (setq f 'list)
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659 @result{} list
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660 @end group
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661 @group
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662 (funcall f 'x 'y 'z)
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663 @result{} (x y z)
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664 @end group
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665 @group
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666 (funcall f 'x 'y '(z))
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667 @result{} (x y (z))
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668 @end group
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669 @group
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670 (funcall 'and t nil)
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671 @error{} Invalid function: #<subr and>
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672 @end group
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673 @end example
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674
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675 Compare these examples with the examples of @code{apply}.
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676 @end defun
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677
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678 @defun apply function &rest arguments
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679 @code{apply} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, just like
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680 @code{funcall} but with one difference: the last of @var{arguments} is a
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681 list of objects, which are passed to @var{function} as separate
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682 arguments, rather than a single list. We say that @code{apply}
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683 @dfn{spreads} this list so that each individual element becomes an
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684 argument.
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685
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686 @code{apply} returns the result of calling @var{function}. As with
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diff changeset
687 @code{funcall}, @var{function} must either be a Lisp function or a
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diff changeset
688 primitive function; special forms and macros do not make sense in
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parents:
diff changeset
689 @code{apply}.
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690
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691 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
692 @group
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parents:
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693 (setq f 'list)
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694 @result{} list
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695 @end group
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696 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
697 (apply f 'x 'y 'z)
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parents:
diff changeset
698 @error{} Wrong type argument: listp, z
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699 @end group
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parents:
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700 @group
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701 (apply '+ 1 2 '(3 4))
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702 @result{} 10
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703 @end group
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parents:
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704 @group
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705 (apply '+ '(1 2 3 4))
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706 @result{} 10
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707 @end group
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parents:
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708
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709 @group
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parents:
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710 (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil))
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parents:
diff changeset
711 @result{} (a b c x y z)
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712 @end group
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713 @end example
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714
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715 For an interesting example of using @code{apply}, see @ref{Definition
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716 of mapcar}.
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717 @end defun
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718
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719 @cindex functionals
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720 It is common for Lisp functions to accept functions as arguments or
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721 find them in data structures (especially in hook variables and property
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722 lists) and call them using @code{funcall} or @code{apply}. Functions
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723 that accept function arguments are often called @dfn{functionals}.
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724
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725 Sometimes, when you call a functional, it is useful to supply a no-op
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726 function as the argument. Here are two different kinds of no-op
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727 function:
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728
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729 @defun identity arg
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730 This function returns @var{arg} and has no side effects.
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731 @end defun
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732
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733 @defun ignore &rest args
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734 This function ignores any arguments and returns @code{nil}.
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735 @end defun
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736
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737 @node Mapping Functions
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738 @section Mapping Functions
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739 @cindex mapping functions
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740
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741 A @dfn{mapping function} applies a given function (@emph{not} a
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parents: 88123
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742 special form or macro) to each element of a list or other collection.
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parents: 88123
diff changeset
743 Emacs Lisp has several such functions; @code{mapcar} and
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parents: 88123
diff changeset
744 @code{mapconcat}, which scan a list, are described here.
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parents: 88123
diff changeset
745 @xref{Definition of mapatoms}, for the function @code{mapatoms} which
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Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 88123
diff changeset
746 maps over the symbols in an obarray. @xref{Definition of maphash},
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Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 88123
diff changeset
747 for the function @code{maphash} which maps over key/value associations
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parents: 88123
diff changeset
748 in a hash table.
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749
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diff changeset
750 These mapping functions do not allow char-tables because a char-table
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751 is a sparse array whose nominal range of indices is very large. To map
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752 over a char-table in a way that deals properly with its sparse nature,
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753 use the function @code{map-char-table} (@pxref{Char-Tables}).
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754
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755 @anchor{Definition of mapcar}
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756 @defun mapcar function sequence
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03103053974d entered into RCS
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parents: 7115
diff changeset
757 @code{mapcar} applies @var{function} to each element of @var{sequence}
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parents: 7115
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758 in turn, and returns a list of the results.
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759
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760 The argument @var{sequence} can be any kind of sequence except a
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761 char-table; that is, a list, a vector, a bool-vector, or a string. The
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762 result is always a list. The length of the result is the same as the
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763 length of @var{sequence}.
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764
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765 @smallexample
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diff changeset
766 @group
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767 @exdent @r{For example:}
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parents:
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768
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parents:
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769 (mapcar 'car '((a b) (c d) (e f)))
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parents:
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770 @result{} (a c e)
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parents:
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771 (mapcar '1+ [1 2 3])
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parents:
diff changeset
772 @result{} (2 3 4)
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parents:
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773 (mapcar 'char-to-string "abc")
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parents:
diff changeset
774 @result{} ("a" "b" "c")
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775 @end group
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parents:
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776
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777 @group
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778 ;; @r{Call each function in @code{my-hooks}.}
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parents:
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779 (mapcar 'funcall my-hooks)
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parents:
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780 @end group
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parents:
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781
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parents:
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782 @group
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783 (defun mapcar* (function &rest args)
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parents:
diff changeset
784 "Apply FUNCTION to successive cars of all ARGS.
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parents:
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785 Return the list of results."
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parents:
diff changeset
786 ;; @r{If no list is exhausted,}
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diff changeset
787 (if (not (memq nil args))
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788 ;; @r{apply function to @sc{car}s.}
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diff changeset
789 (cons (apply function (mapcar 'car args))
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790 (apply 'mapcar* function
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791 ;; @r{Recurse for rest of elements.}
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792 (mapcar 'cdr args)))))
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793 @end group
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parents:
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794
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parents:
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795 @group
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796 (mapcar* 'cons '(a b c) '(1 2 3 4))
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parents:
diff changeset
797 @result{} ((a . 1) (b . 2) (c . 3))
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798 @end group
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799 @end smallexample
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800 @end defun
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801
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diff changeset
802 @defun mapc function sequence
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diff changeset
803 @tindex mapc
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804 @code{mapc} is like @code{mapcar} except that @var{function} is used for
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diff changeset
805 side-effects only---the values it returns are ignored, not collected
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806 into a list. @code{mapc} always returns @var{sequence}.
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807 @end defun
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808
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809 @defun mapconcat function sequence separator
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810 @code{mapconcat} applies @var{function} to each element of
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811 @var{sequence}: the results, which must be strings, are concatenated.
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812 Between each pair of result strings, @code{mapconcat} inserts the string
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parents:
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813 @var{separator}. Usually @var{separator} contains a space or comma or
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parents:
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814 other suitable punctuation.
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815
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816 The argument @var{function} must be a function that can take one
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817 argument and return a string. The argument @var{sequence} can be any
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818 kind of sequence except a char-table; that is, a list, a vector, a
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819 bool-vector, or a string.
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820
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821 @smallexample
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822 @group
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823 (mapconcat 'symbol-name
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824 '(The cat in the hat)
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825 " ")
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826 @result{} "The cat in the hat"
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827 @end group
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828
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829 @group
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830 (mapconcat (function (lambda (x) (format "%c" (1+ x))))
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831 "HAL-8000"
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832 "")
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833 @result{} "IBM.9111"
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834 @end group
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835 @end smallexample
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836 @end defun
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837
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838 @node Anonymous Functions
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839 @section Anonymous Functions
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840 @cindex anonymous function
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841
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842 In Lisp, a function is a list that starts with @code{lambda}, a
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parents:
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843 byte-code function compiled from such a list, or alternatively a
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parents:
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844 primitive subr-object; names are ``extra''. Although usually functions
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845 are defined with @code{defun} and given names at the same time, it is
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846 occasionally more concise to use an explicit lambda expression---an
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847 anonymous function. Such a list is valid wherever a function name is.
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848
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849 Any method of creating such a list makes a valid function. Even this:
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850
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851 @smallexample
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852 @group
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diff changeset
853 (setq silly (append '(lambda (x)) (list (list '+ (* 3 4) 'x))))
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854 @result{} (lambda (x) (+ 12 x))
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855 @end group
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856 @end smallexample
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857
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858 @noindent
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859 This computes a list that looks like @code{(lambda (x) (+ 12 x))} and
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860 makes it the value (@emph{not} the function definition!) of
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861 @code{silly}.
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862
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863 Here is how we might call this function:
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864
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865 @example
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parents:
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866 @group
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parents:
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867 (funcall silly 1)
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parents:
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868 @result{} 13
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parents:
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869 @end group
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parents:
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870 @end example
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parents:
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871
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parents:
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872 @noindent
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parents:
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873 (It does @emph{not} work to write @code{(silly 1)}, because this function
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parents:
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874 is not the @emph{function definition} of @code{silly}. We have not given
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parents:
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875 @code{silly} any function definition, just a value as a variable.)
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parents:
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876
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parents:
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877 Most of the time, anonymous functions are constants that appear in
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878 your program. For example, you might want to pass one as an argument to
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879 the function @code{mapcar}, which applies any given function to each
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880 element of a list.
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881
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882 Here we define a function @code{change-property} which
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883 uses a function as its third argument:
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884
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885 @example
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886 @group
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887 (defun change-property (symbol prop function)
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888 (let ((value (get symbol prop)))
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889 (put symbol prop (funcall function value))))
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890 @end group
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891 @end example
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892
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893 @noindent
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894 Here we define a function that uses @code{change-property},
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90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
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895 passing it a function to double a number:
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896
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897 @example
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898 @group
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899 (defun double-property (symbol prop)
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900 (change-property symbol prop '(lambda (x) (* 2 x))))
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901 @end group
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902 @end example
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903
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904 @noindent
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905 In such cases, we usually use the special form @code{function} instead
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906 of simple quotation to quote the anonymous function, like this:
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907
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908 @example
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909 @group
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910 (defun double-property (symbol prop)
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911 (change-property symbol prop
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912 (function (lambda (x) (* 2 x)))))
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913 @end group
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914 @end example
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915
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916 Using @code{function} instead of @code{quote} makes a difference if you
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diff changeset
917 compile the function @code{double-property}. For example, if you
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918 compile the second definition of @code{double-property}, the anonymous
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919 function is compiled as well. By contrast, if you compile the first
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920 definition which uses ordinary @code{quote}, the argument passed to
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diff changeset
921 @code{change-property} is the precise list shown:
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922
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923 @example
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924 (lambda (x) (* x 2))
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925 @end example
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926
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927 @noindent
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diff changeset
928 The Lisp compiler cannot assume this list is a function, even though it
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929 looks like one, since it does not know what @code{change-property} will
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930 do with the list. Perhaps it will check whether the @sc{car} of the third
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diff changeset
931 element is the symbol @code{*}! Using @code{function} tells the
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932 compiler it is safe to go ahead and compile the constant function.
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933
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diff changeset
934 Nowadays it is possible to omit @code{function} entirely, like this:
3e0b4b8d4f7e Fix the double-property examples. Include one with a bare lambda.
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diff changeset
935
3e0b4b8d4f7e Fix the double-property examples. Include one with a bare lambda.
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diff changeset
936 @example
3e0b4b8d4f7e Fix the double-property examples. Include one with a bare lambda.
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diff changeset
937 @group
3e0b4b8d4f7e Fix the double-property examples. Include one with a bare lambda.
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parents: 39168
diff changeset
938 (defun double-property (symbol prop)
3e0b4b8d4f7e Fix the double-property examples. Include one with a bare lambda.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 39168
diff changeset
939 (change-property symbol prop (lambda (x) (* 2 x))))
3e0b4b8d4f7e Fix the double-property examples. Include one with a bare lambda.
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diff changeset
940 @end group
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diff changeset
941 @end example
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diff changeset
942
3e0b4b8d4f7e Fix the double-property examples. Include one with a bare lambda.
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diff changeset
943 @noindent
3e0b4b8d4f7e Fix the double-property examples. Include one with a bare lambda.
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parents: 39168
diff changeset
944 This is because @code{lambda} itself implies @code{function}.
3e0b4b8d4f7e Fix the double-property examples. Include one with a bare lambda.
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diff changeset
945
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946 We sometimes write @code{function} instead of @code{quote} when
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diff changeset
947 quoting the name of a function, but this usage is just a sort of
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diff changeset
948 comment:
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949
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950 @example
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951 (function @var{symbol}) @equiv{} (quote @var{symbol}) @equiv{} '@var{symbol}
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952 @end example
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953
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954 @cindex @samp{#'} syntax
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955 The read syntax @code{#'} is a short-hand for using @code{function}.
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diff changeset
956 For example,
22138
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957
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diff changeset
958 @example
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diff changeset
959 #'(lambda (x) (* x x))
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960 @end example
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961
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962 @noindent
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diff changeset
963 is equivalent to
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diff changeset
964
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diff changeset
965 @example
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diff changeset
966 (function (lambda (x) (* x x)))
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967 @end example
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diff changeset
968
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969 @defspec function function-object
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diff changeset
970 @cindex function quoting
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parents:
diff changeset
971 This special form returns @var{function-object} without evaluating it.
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parents:
diff changeset
972 In this, it is equivalent to @code{quote}. However, it serves as a
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parents:
diff changeset
973 note to the Emacs Lisp compiler that @var{function-object} is intended
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diff changeset
974 to be used only as a function, and therefore can safely be compiled.
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diff changeset
975 Contrast this with @code{quote}, in @ref{Quoting}.
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diff changeset
976 @end defspec
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diff changeset
977
89910
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diff changeset
978 @xref{describe-symbols example}, for a realistic example using
548375b6b1f8 Update unicode branch
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diff changeset
979 @code{function} and an anonymous function.
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980
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diff changeset
981 @node Function Cells
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diff changeset
982 @section Accessing Function Cell Contents
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parents:
diff changeset
983
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diff changeset
984 The @dfn{function definition} of a symbol is the object stored in the
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diff changeset
985 function cell of the symbol. The functions described here access, test,
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diff changeset
986 and set the function cell of symbols.
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diff changeset
987
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548375b6b1f8 Update unicode branch
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diff changeset
988 See also the function @code{indirect-function}. @xref{Definition of
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diff changeset
989 indirect-function}.
7193
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diff changeset
990
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991 @defun symbol-function symbol
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diff changeset
992 @kindex void-function
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993 This returns the object in the function cell of @var{symbol}. If the
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diff changeset
994 symbol's function cell is void, a @code{void-function} error is
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diff changeset
995 signaled.
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996
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diff changeset
997 This function does not check that the returned object is a legitimate
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diff changeset
998 function.
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999
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1000 @example
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diff changeset
1001 @group
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1002 (defun bar (n) (+ n 2))
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diff changeset
1003 @result{} bar
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1004 @end group
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diff changeset
1005 @group
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1006 (symbol-function 'bar)
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1007 @result{} (lambda (n) (+ n 2))
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1008 @end group
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1009 @group
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diff changeset
1010 (fset 'baz 'bar)
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1011 @result{} bar
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1012 @end group
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1013 @group
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diff changeset
1014 (symbol-function 'baz)
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1015 @result{} bar
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1016 @end group
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1017 @end example
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diff changeset
1018 @end defun
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diff changeset
1019
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1020 @cindex void function cell
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1021 If you have never given a symbol any function definition, we say that
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diff changeset
1022 that symbol's function cell is @dfn{void}. In other words, the function
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diff changeset
1023 cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to call such a symbol
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1024 as a function, it signals a @code{void-function} error.
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diff changeset
1025
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diff changeset
1026 Note that void is not the same as @code{nil} or the symbol
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diff changeset
1027 @code{void}. The symbols @code{nil} and @code{void} are Lisp objects,
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parents:
diff changeset
1028 and can be stored into a function cell just as any other object can be
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diff changeset
1029 (and they can be valid functions if you define them in turn with
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1030 @code{defun}). A void function cell contains no object whatsoever.
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1031
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1032 You can test the voidness of a symbol's function definition with
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1033 @code{fboundp}. After you have given a symbol a function definition, you
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parents:
diff changeset
1034 can make it void once more using @code{fmakunbound}.
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1035
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1036 @defun fboundp symbol
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1037 This function returns @code{t} if the symbol has an object in its
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parents:
diff changeset
1038 function cell, @code{nil} otherwise. It does not check that the object
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parents:
diff changeset
1039 is a legitimate function.
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diff changeset
1040 @end defun
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1041
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1042 @defun fmakunbound symbol
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1043 This function makes @var{symbol}'s function cell void, so that a
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diff changeset
1044 subsequent attempt to access this cell will cause a
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diff changeset
1045 @code{void-function} error. It returns @var{symbol}. (See also
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diff changeset
1046 @code{makunbound}, in @ref{Void Variables}.)
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1047
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1048 @example
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1049 @group
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1050 (defun foo (x) x)
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1051 @result{} foo
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1052 @end group
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1053 @group
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1054 (foo 1)
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1055 @result{}1
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1056 @end group
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1057 @group
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1058 (fmakunbound 'foo)
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1059 @result{} foo
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1060 @end group
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1061 @group
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1062 (foo 1)
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diff changeset
1063 @error{} Symbol's function definition is void: foo
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1064 @end group
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1065 @end example
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1066 @end defun
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1067
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diff changeset
1068 @defun fset symbol definition
21007
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1069 This function stores @var{definition} in the function cell of
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diff changeset
1070 @var{symbol}. The result is @var{definition}. Normally
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1071 @var{definition} should be a function or the name of a function, but
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1072 this is not checked. The argument @var{symbol} is an ordinary evaluated
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1073 argument.
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1074
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1075 There are three normal uses of this function:
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1076
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1077 @itemize @bullet
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diff changeset
1078 @item
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diff changeset
1079 Copying one symbol's function definition to another---in other words,
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1080 making an alternate name for a function. (If you think of this as the
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diff changeset
1081 definition of the new name, you should use @code{defalias} instead of
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diff changeset
1082 @code{fset}; see @ref{Definition of defalias}.)
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1083
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1084 @item
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1085 Giving a symbol a function definition that is not a list and therefore
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diff changeset
1086 cannot be made with @code{defun}. For example, you can use @code{fset}
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diff changeset
1087 to give a symbol @code{s1} a function definition which is another symbol
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parents: 7115
diff changeset
1088 @code{s2}; then @code{s1} serves as an alias for whatever definition
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1089 @code{s2} presently has. (Once again use @code{defalias} instead of
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diff changeset
1090 @code{fset} if you think of this as the definition of @code{s1}.)
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1091
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diff changeset
1092 @item
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diff changeset
1093 In constructs for defining or altering functions. If @code{defun}
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parents:
diff changeset
1094 were not a primitive, it could be written in Lisp (as a macro) using
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diff changeset
1095 @code{fset}.
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diff changeset
1096 @end itemize
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diff changeset
1097
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diff changeset
1098 Here are examples of these uses:
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1099
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1100 @example
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diff changeset
1101 @group
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1102 ;; @r{Save @code{foo}'s definition in @code{old-foo}.}
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1103 (fset 'old-foo (symbol-function 'foo))
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1104 @end group
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1105
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1106 @group
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1107 ;; @r{Make the symbol @code{car} the function definition of @code{xfirst}.}
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1108 ;; @r{(Most likely, @code{defalias} would be better than @code{fset} here.)}
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diff changeset
1109 (fset 'xfirst 'car)
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diff changeset
1110 @result{} car
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parents:
diff changeset
1111 @end group
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diff changeset
1112 @group
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diff changeset
1113 (xfirst '(1 2 3))
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parents:
diff changeset
1114 @result{} 1
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parents:
diff changeset
1115 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
1116 @group
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diff changeset
1117 (symbol-function 'xfirst)
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diff changeset
1118 @result{} car
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diff changeset
1119 @end group
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diff changeset
1120 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1121 (symbol-function (symbol-function 'xfirst))
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parents:
diff changeset
1122 @result{} #<subr car>
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parents:
diff changeset
1123 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
1124
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diff changeset
1125 @group
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diff changeset
1126 ;; @r{Define a named keyboard macro.}
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parents:
diff changeset
1127 (fset 'kill-two-lines "\^u2\^k")
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parents:
diff changeset
1128 @result{} "\^u2\^k"
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parents:
diff changeset
1129 @end group
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1130
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diff changeset
1131 @group
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diff changeset
1132 ;; @r{Here is a function that alters other functions.}
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diff changeset
1133 (defun copy-function-definition (new old)
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diff changeset
1134 "Define NEW with the same function definition as OLD."
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diff changeset
1135 (fset new (symbol-function old)))
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1136 @end group
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1137 @end example
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diff changeset
1138 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
1139
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
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diff changeset
1140 When writing a function that extends a previously defined function,
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diff changeset
1141 the following idiom is sometimes used:
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diff changeset
1142
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diff changeset
1143 @example
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diff changeset
1144 (fset 'old-foo (symbol-function 'foo))
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parents:
diff changeset
1145 (defun foo ()
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parents:
diff changeset
1146 "Just like old-foo, except more so."
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parents:
diff changeset
1147 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1148 (old-foo)
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parents:
diff changeset
1149 (more-so))
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diff changeset
1150 @end group
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diff changeset
1151 @end example
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diff changeset
1152
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diff changeset
1153 @noindent
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diff changeset
1154 This does not work properly if @code{foo} has been defined to autoload.
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parents:
diff changeset
1155 In such a case, when @code{foo} calls @code{old-foo}, Lisp attempts
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1156 to define @code{old-foo} by loading a file. Since this presumably
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1157 defines @code{foo} rather than @code{old-foo}, it does not produce the
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1158 proper results. The only way to avoid this problem is to make sure the
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1159 file is loaded before moving aside the old definition of @code{foo}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1160
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diff changeset
1161 But it is unmodular and unclean, in any case, for a Lisp file to
21682
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diff changeset
1162 redefine a function defined elsewhere. It is cleaner to use the advice
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diff changeset
1163 facility (@pxref{Advising Functions}).
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diff changeset
1164
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diff changeset
1165 @node Inline Functions
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diff changeset
1166 @section Inline Functions
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diff changeset
1167 @cindex inline functions
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parents:
diff changeset
1168
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diff changeset
1169 @findex defsubst
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parents:
diff changeset
1170 You can define an @dfn{inline function} by using @code{defsubst} instead
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parents:
diff changeset
1171 of @code{defun}. An inline function works just like an ordinary
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parents:
diff changeset
1172 function except for one thing: when you compile a call to the function,
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parents:
diff changeset
1173 the function's definition is open-coded into the caller.
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parents:
diff changeset
1174
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parents:
diff changeset
1175 Making a function inline makes explicit calls run faster. But it also
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parents:
diff changeset
1176 has disadvantages. For one thing, it reduces flexibility; if you change
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parents:
diff changeset
1177 the definition of the function, calls already inlined still use the old
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parents:
diff changeset
1178 definition until you recompile them. Since the flexibility of
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parents:
diff changeset
1179 redefining functions is an important feature of Emacs, you should not
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parents:
diff changeset
1180 make a function inline unless its speed is really crucial.
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parents:
diff changeset
1181
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parents:
diff changeset
1182 Another disadvantage is that making a large function inline can increase
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parents:
diff changeset
1183 the size of compiled code both in files and in memory. Since the speed
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parents:
diff changeset
1184 advantage of inline functions is greatest for small functions, you
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parents:
diff changeset
1185 generally should not make large functions inline.
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1186
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diff changeset
1187 It's possible to define a macro to expand into the same code that an
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diff changeset
1188 inline function would execute. (@xref{Macros}.) But the macro would be
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1189 limited to direct use in expressions---a macro cannot be called with
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diff changeset
1190 @code{apply}, @code{mapcar} and so on. Also, it takes some work to
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1191 convert an ordinary function into a macro. To convert it into an inline
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diff changeset
1192 function is very easy; simply replace @code{defun} with @code{defsubst}.
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diff changeset
1193 Since each argument of an inline function is evaluated exactly once, you
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1194 needn't worry about how many times the body uses the arguments, as you
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diff changeset
1195 do for macros. (@xref{Argument Evaluation}.)
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diff changeset
1196
7193
03103053974d entered into RCS
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 7115
diff changeset
1197 Inline functions can be used and open-coded later on in the same file,
6455
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1198 following the definition, just like macros.
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1199
51701
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1200 @node Function Safety
47667
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1201 @section Determining whether a function is safe to call
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1202 @cindex function safety
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1203 @cindex safety of functions
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1204
89910
548375b6b1f8 Update unicode branch
Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 88123
diff changeset
1205 Some major modes such as SES call functions that are stored in user
548375b6b1f8 Update unicode branch
Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 88123
diff changeset
1206 files. (@inforef{Top, ,ses}, for more information on SES.) User
548375b6b1f8 Update unicode branch
Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 88123
diff changeset
1207 files sometimes have poor pedigrees---you can get a spreadsheet from
548375b6b1f8 Update unicode branch
Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 88123
diff changeset
1208 someone you've just met, or you can get one through email from someone
548375b6b1f8 Update unicode branch
Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 88123
diff changeset
1209 you've never met. So it is risky to call a function whose source code
548375b6b1f8 Update unicode branch
Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 88123
diff changeset
1210 is stored in a user file until you have determined that it is safe.
47667
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1211
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1212 @defun unsafep form &optional unsafep-vars
89910
548375b6b1f8 Update unicode branch
Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 88123
diff changeset
1213 Returns @code{nil} if @var{form} is a @dfn{safe} Lisp expression, or
51701
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1214 returns a list that describes why it might be unsafe. The argument
47667
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1215 @var{unsafep-vars} is a list of symbols known to have temporary
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1216 bindings at this point; it is mainly used for internal recursive
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1217 calls. The current buffer is an implicit argument, which provides a
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1218 list of buffer-local bindings.
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1219 @end defun
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1220
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1221 Being quick and simple, @code{unsafep} does a very light analysis and
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1222 rejects many Lisp expressions that are actually safe. There are no
51701
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1223 known cases where @code{unsafep} returns @code{nil} for an unsafe
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1224 expression. However, a ``safe'' Lisp expression can return a string
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1225 with a @code{display} property, containing an associated Lisp
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1226 expression to be executed after the string is inserted into a buffer.
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1227 This associated expression can be a virus. In order to be safe, you
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1228 must delete properties from all strings calculated by user code before
47667
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1229 inserting them into buffers.
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1230
51701
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1231 @ignore
47667
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1232 What is a safe Lisp expression? Basically, it's an expression that
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1233 calls only built-in functions with no side effects (or only innocuous
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1234 ones). Innocuous side effects include displaying messages and
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1235 altering non-risky buffer-local variables (but not global variables).
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1236
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1237 @table @dfn
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1238 @item Safe expression
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1239 @itemize
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1240 @item
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1241 An atom or quoted thing.
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1242 @item
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1243 A call to a safe function (see below), if all its arguments are
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1244 safe expressions.
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1245 @item
51701
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1246 One of the special forms @code{and}, @code{catch}, @code{cond},
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1247 @code{if}, @code{or}, @code{prog1}, @code{prog2}, @code{progn},
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1248 @code{while}, and @code{unwind-protect}], if all its arguments are
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1249 safe.
47667
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1250 @item
51701
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1251 A form that creates temporary bindings (@code{condition-case},
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1252 @code{dolist}, @code{dotimes}, @code{lambda}, @code{let}, or
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1253 @code{let*}), if all args are safe and the symbols to be bound are not
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1254 explicitly risky (see @pxref{File Local Variables}).
47667
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1255 @item
51701
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1256 An assignment using @code{add-to-list}, @code{setq}, @code{push}, or
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1257 @code{pop}, if all args are safe and the symbols to be assigned are
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1258 not explicitly risky and they already have temporary or buffer-local
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1259 bindings.
47667
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1260 @item
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1261 One of [apply, mapc, mapcar, mapconcat] if the first argument is a
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1262 safe explicit lambda and the other args are safe expressions.
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1263 @end itemize
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1264
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1265 @item Safe function
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1266 @itemize
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1267 @item
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1268 A lambda containing safe expressions.
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1269 @item
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1270 A symbol on the list @code{safe-functions}, so the user says it's safe.
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1271 @item
51701
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1272 A symbol with a non-@code{nil} @code{side-effect-free} property.
47667
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1273 @item
51701
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1274 A symbol with a non-@code{nil} @code{safe-function} property. Value t
47667
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1275 indicates a function that is safe but has innocuous side effects.
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1276 Other values will someday indicate functions with classes of side
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1277 effects that are not always safe.
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1278 @end itemize
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1279
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1280 The @code{side-effect-free} and @code{safe-function} properties are
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1281 provided for built-in functions and for low-level functions and macros
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1282 defined in @file{subr.el}. You can assign these properties for the
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1283 functions you write.
96b260e0ff3d New major mode "SES" for spreadsheets.
Jonathan Yavner <jyavner@member.fsf.org>
parents: 42687
diff changeset
1284 @end table
51701
080a8041fef7 (Defining Functions): Explain about redefining primitives.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1285 @end ignore
6455
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1286
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1287 @node Related Topics
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1288 @section Other Topics Related to Functions
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1289
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1290 Here is a table of several functions that do things related to
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1291 function calling and function definitions. They are documented
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1292 elsewhere, but we provide cross references here.
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1293
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1294 @table @code
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1295 @item apply
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1296 See @ref{Calling Functions}.
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1297
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1298 @item autoload
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1299 See @ref{Autoload}.
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1300
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1301 @item call-interactively
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1302 See @ref{Interactive Call}.
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1303
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1304 @item commandp
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1305 See @ref{Interactive Call}.
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1306
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1307 @item documentation
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1308 See @ref{Accessing Documentation}.
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1309
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1310 @item eval
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1311 See @ref{Eval}.
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1312
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1313 @item funcall
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1314 See @ref{Calling Functions}.
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1315
21682
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
1316 @item function
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
1317 See @ref{Anonymous Functions}.
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
1318
6455
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Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
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diff changeset
1319 @item ignore
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1320 See @ref{Calling Functions}.
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1321
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1322 @item indirect-function
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1323 See @ref{Function Indirection}.
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1324
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1325 @item interactive
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1326 See @ref{Using Interactive}.
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1327
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1328 @item interactive-p
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1329 See @ref{Interactive Call}.
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1330
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1331 @item mapatoms
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1332 See @ref{Creating Symbols}.
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1333
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1334 @item mapcar
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1335 See @ref{Mapping Functions}.
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1336
21682
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
1337 @item map-char-table
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
1338 See @ref{Char-Tables}.
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
1339
6455
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Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
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diff changeset
1340 @item mapconcat
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1341 See @ref{Mapping Functions}.
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1342
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1343 @item undefined
89910
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Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 88123
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1344 See @ref{Functions for Key Lookup}.
6455
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
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1345 @end table
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1346
89910
548375b6b1f8 Update unicode branch
Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 88123
diff changeset
1347 @ignore
548375b6b1f8 Update unicode branch
Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 88123
diff changeset
1348 arch-tag: 39100cdf-8a55-4898-acba-595db619e8e2
548375b6b1f8 Update unicode branch
Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 88123
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1349 @end ignore