annotate lispref/functions.texi @ 13245:2e0c4159e94b

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author Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
date Thu, 19 Oct 1995 00:17:11 +0000
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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5 @setfilename ../info/functions
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6 @node Functions, Macros, Variables, Top
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7 @chapter Functions
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8
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9 A Lisp program is composed mainly of Lisp functions. This chapter
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10 explains what functions are, how they accept arguments, and how to
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11 define them.
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12
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13 @menu
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14 * What Is a Function:: Lisp functions vs. primitives; terminology.
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15 * Lambda Expressions:: How functions are expressed as Lisp objects.
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16 * Function Names:: A symbol can serve as the name of a function.
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17 * Defining Functions:: Lisp expressions for defining functions.
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18 * Calling Functions:: How to use an existing function.
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19 * Mapping Functions:: Applying a function to each element of a list, etc.
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20 * Anonymous Functions:: Lambda expressions are functions with no names.
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21 * Function Cells:: Accessing or setting the function definition
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22 of a symbol.
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23 * Inline Functions:: Defining functions that the compiler will open code.
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24 * Related Topics:: Cross-references to specific Lisp primitives
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25 that have a special bearing on how functions work.
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26 @end menu
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27
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28 @node What Is a Function
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29 @section What Is a Function?
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30
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31 In a general sense, a function is a rule for carrying on a computation
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32 given several values called @dfn{arguments}. The result of the
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33 computation is called the value of the function. The computation can
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34 also have side effects: lasting changes in the values of variables or
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35 the contents of data structures.
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36
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37 Here are important terms for functions in Emacs Lisp and for other
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38 function-like objects.
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39
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40 @table @dfn
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41 @item function
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42 @cindex function
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43 In Emacs Lisp, a @dfn{function} is anything that can be applied to
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44 arguments in a Lisp program. In some cases, we use it more
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45 specifically to mean a function written in Lisp. Special forms and
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46 macros are not functions.
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47
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48 @item primitive
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49 @cindex primitive
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50 @cindex subr
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51 @cindex built-in function
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52 A @dfn{primitive} is a function callable from Lisp that is written in C,
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53 such as @code{car} or @code{append}. These functions are also called
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54 @dfn{built-in} functions or @dfn{subrs}. (Special forms are also
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55 considered primitives.)
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56
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57 Usually the reason that a function is a primitives is because it is
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58 fundamental, because it provides a low-level interface to operating
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59 system services, or because it needs to run fast. Primitives can be
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60 modified or added only by changing the C sources and recompiling the
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61 editor. See @ref{Writing Emacs Primitives}.
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62
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63 @item lambda expression
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64 A @dfn{lambda expression} is a function written in Lisp.
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65 These are described in the following section.
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66 @ifinfo
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67 @xref{Lambda Expressions}.
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68 @end ifinfo
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69
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70 @item special form
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71 A @dfn{special form} is a primitive that is like a function but does not
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72 evaluate all of its arguments in the usual way. It may evaluate only
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73 some of the arguments, or may evaluate them in an unusual order, or
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74 several times. Many special forms are described in @ref{Control
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75 Structures}.
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76
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77 @item macro
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78 @cindex macro
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79 A @dfn{macro} is a construct defined in Lisp by the programmer. It
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80 differs from a function in that it translates a Lisp expression that you
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81 write into an equivalent expression to be evaluated instead of the
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82 original expression. Macros enable Lisp programmers to do the sorts of
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83 things that special forms can do. @xref{Macros}, for how to define and
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84 use macros.
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85
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86 @item command
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87 @cindex command
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88 A @dfn{command} is an object that @code{command-execute} can invoke; it
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89 is a possible definition for a key sequence. Some functions are
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90 commands; a function written in Lisp is a command if it contains an
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91 interactive declaration (@pxref{Defining Commands}). Such a function
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92 can be called from Lisp expressions like other functions; in this case,
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93 the fact that the function is a command makes no difference.
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94
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95 Keyboard macros (strings and vectors) are commands also, even though
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96 they are not functions. A symbol is a command if its function
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97 definition is a command; such symbols can be invoked with @kbd{M-x}.
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98 The symbol is a function as well if the definition is a function.
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99 @xref{Command Overview}.
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100
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101 @item keystroke command
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102 @cindex keystroke command
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103 A @dfn{keystroke command} is a command that is bound to a key sequence
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104 (typically one to three keystrokes). The distinction is made here
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105 merely to avoid confusion with the meaning of ``command'' in non-Emacs
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106 editors; for Lisp programs, the distinction is normally unimportant.
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107
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108 @item byte-code function
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109 A @dfn{byte-code function} is a function that has been compiled by the
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110 byte compiler. @xref{Byte-Code Type}.
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111 @end table
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112
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113 @defun subrp object
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114 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a built-in function
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115 (i.e., a Lisp primitive).
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116
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117 @example
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118 @group
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119 (subrp 'message) ; @r{@code{message} is a symbol,}
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120 @result{} nil ; @r{not a subr object.}
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121 @end group
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122 @group
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123 (subrp (symbol-function 'message))
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124 @result{} t
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125 @end group
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126 @end example
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127 @end defun
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128
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129 @defun byte-code-function-p object
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130 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a byte-code
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131 function. For example:
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132
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133 @example
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134 @group
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135 (byte-code-function-p (symbol-function 'next-line))
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136 @result{} t
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137 @end group
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138 @end example
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139 @end defun
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140
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141 @node Lambda Expressions
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142 @section Lambda Expressions
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143 @cindex lambda expression
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144
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145 A function written in Lisp is a list that looks like this:
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146
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147 @example
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148 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{})
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149 @r{[}@var{documentation-string}@r{]}
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150 @r{[}@var{interactive-declaration}@r{]}
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151 @var{body-forms}@dots{})
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152 @end example
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153
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154 @noindent
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155 Such a list is called a @dfn{lambda expression}. In Emacs Lisp, it
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156 actually is valid as an expression---it evaluates to itself. In some
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157 other Lisp dialects, a lambda expression is not a valid expression at
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158 all. In either case, its main use is not to be evaluated as an
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159 expression, but to be called as a function.
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160
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161 @menu
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162 * Lambda Components:: The parts of a lambda expression.
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163 * Simple Lambda:: A simple example.
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164 * Argument List:: Details and special features of argument lists.
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165 * Function Documentation:: How to put documentation in a function.
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166 @end menu
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167
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168 @node Lambda Components
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169 @subsection Components of a Lambda Expression
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170
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171 @ifinfo
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172
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173 A function written in Lisp (a ``lambda expression'') is a list that
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174 looks like this:
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175
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176 @example
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177 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{})
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178 [@var{documentation-string}]
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179 [@var{interactive-declaration}]
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180 @var{body-forms}@dots{})
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181 @end example
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182 @end ifinfo
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183
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184 @cindex lambda list
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185 The first element of a lambda expression is always the symbol
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186 @code{lambda}. This indicates that the list represents a function. The
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187 reason functions are defined to start with @code{lambda} is so that
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188 other lists, intended for other uses, will not accidentally be valid as
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189 functions.
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190
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191 The second element is a list of symbols--the argument variable names.
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192 This is called the @dfn{lambda list}. When a Lisp function is called,
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193 the argument values are matched up against the variables in the lambda
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194 list, which are given local bindings with the values provided.
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195 @xref{Local Variables}.
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196
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197 The documentation string is a Lisp string object placed within the
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198 function definition to describe the function for the Emacs help
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199 facilities. @xref{Function Documentation}.
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200
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201 The interactive declaration is a list of the form @code{(interactive
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202 @var{code-string})}. This declares how to provide arguments if the
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203 function is used interactively. Functions with this declaration are called
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204 @dfn{commands}; they can be called using @kbd{M-x} or bound to a key.
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205 Functions not intended to be called in this way should not have interactive
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206 declarations. @xref{Defining Commands}, for how to write an interactive
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207 declaration.
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208
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209 @cindex body of function
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210 The rest of the elements are the @dfn{body} of the function: the Lisp
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211 code to do the work of the function (or, as a Lisp programmer would say,
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212 ``a list of Lisp forms to evaluate''). The value returned by the
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213 function is the value returned by the last element of the body.
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214
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215 @node Simple Lambda
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216 @subsection A Simple Lambda-Expression Example
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217
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218 Consider for example the following function:
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219
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220 @example
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221 (lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))
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222 @end example
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223
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224 @noindent
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225 We can call this function by writing it as the @sc{car} of an
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226 expression, like this:
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227
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228 @example
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229 @group
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230 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))
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231 1 2 3)
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232 @end group
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233 @end example
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234
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235 @noindent
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236 This call evaluates the body of the lambda expression with the variable
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237 @code{a} bound to 1, @code{b} bound to 2, and @code{c} bound to 3.
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238 Evaluation of the body adds these three numbers, producing the result 6;
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239 therefore, this call to the function returns the value 6.
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240
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241 Note that the arguments can be the results of other function calls, as in
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242 this example:
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243
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244 @example
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245 @group
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246 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))
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247 1 (* 2 3) (- 5 4))
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248 @end group
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249 @end example
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250
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251 @noindent
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252 This evaluates the arguments @code{1}, @code{(* 2 3)}, and @code{(- 5
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253 4)} from left to right. Then it applies the lambda expression to the
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254 argument values 1, 6 and 1 to produce the value 8.
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255
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256 It is not often useful to write a lambda expression as the @sc{car} of
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257 a form in this way. You can get the same result, of making local
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258 variables and giving them values, using the special form @code{let}
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259 (@pxref{Local Variables}). And @code{let} is clearer and easier to use.
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260 In practice, lambda expressions are either stored as the function
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261 definitions of symbols, to produce named functions, or passed as
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262 arguments to other functions (@pxref{Anonymous Functions}).
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263
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264 However, calls to explicit lambda expressions were very useful in the
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265 old days of Lisp, before the special form @code{let} was invented. At
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266 that time, they were the only way to bind and initialize local
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267 variables.
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268
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269 @node Argument List
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270 @subsection Advanced Features of Argument Lists
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271 @kindex wrong-number-of-arguments
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272 @cindex argument binding
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273 @cindex binding arguments
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274
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275 Our simple sample function, @code{(lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))},
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276 specifies three argument variables, so it must be called with three
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277 arguments: if you try to call it with only two arguments or four
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278 arguments, you get a @code{wrong-number-of-arguments} error.
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279
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280 It is often convenient to write a function that allows certain
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281 arguments to be omitted. For example, the function @code{substring}
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282 accepts three arguments---a string, the start index and the end
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283 index---but the third argument defaults to the @var{length} of the
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284 string if you omit it. It is also convenient for certain functions to
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285 accept an indefinite number of arguments, as the functions @code{list}
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286 and @code{+} do.
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287
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288 @cindex optional arguments
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289 @cindex rest arguments
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290 @kindex &optional
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291 @kindex &rest
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292 To specify optional arguments that may be omitted when a function
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293 is called, simply include the keyword @code{&optional} before the optional
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294 arguments. To specify a list of zero or more extra arguments, include the
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295 keyword @code{&rest} before one final argument.
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296
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297 Thus, the complete syntax for an argument list is as follows:
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298
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299 @example
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300 @group
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301 (@var{required-vars}@dots{}
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302 @r{[}&optional @var{optional-vars}@dots{}@r{]}
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303 @r{[}&rest @var{rest-var}@r{]})
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304 @end group
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305 @end example
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306
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307 @noindent
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308 The square brackets indicate that the @code{&optional} and @code{&rest}
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309 clauses, and the variables that follow them, are optional.
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310
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311 A call to the function requires one actual argument for each of the
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312 @var{required-vars}. There may be actual arguments for zero or more of
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313 the @var{optional-vars}, and there cannot be any actual arguments beyond
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314 that unless the lambda list uses @code{&rest}. In that case, there may
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315 be any number of extra actual arguments.
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316
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317 If actual arguments for the optional and rest variables are omitted,
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318 then they always default to @code{nil}. There is no way for the
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319 function to distinguish between an explicit argument of @code{nil} and
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320 an omitted argument. However, the body of the function is free to
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321 consider @code{nil} an abbreviation for some other meaningful value.
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322 This is what @code{substring} does; @code{nil} as the third argument to
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323 @code{substring} means to use the length of the string supplied.
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324
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325 @cindex CL note---default optional arg
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326 @quotation
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327 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp allows the function to specify what
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328 default value to use when an optional argument is omitted; Emacs Lisp
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329 always uses @code{nil}.
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330 @end quotation
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331
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332 For example, an argument list that looks like this:
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333
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334 @example
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335 (a b &optional c d &rest e)
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336 @end example
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337
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338 @noindent
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339 binds @code{a} and @code{b} to the first two actual arguments, which are
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340 required. If one or two more arguments are provided, @code{c} and
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341 @code{d} are bound to them respectively; any arguments after the first
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342 four are collected into a list and @code{e} is bound to that list. If
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343 there are only two arguments, @code{c} is @code{nil}; if two or three
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344 arguments, @code{d} is @code{nil}; if four arguments or fewer, @code{e}
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345 is @code{nil}.
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346
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347 There is no way to have required arguments following optional
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348 ones---it would not make sense. To see why this must be so, suppose
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349 that @code{c} in the example were optional and @code{d} were required.
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350 Suppose three actual arguments are given; which variable would the third
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351 argument be for? Similarly, it makes no sense to have any more
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352 arguments (either required or optional) after a @code{&rest} argument.
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353
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354 Here are some examples of argument lists and proper calls:
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355
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356 @smallexample
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357 ((lambda (n) (1+ n)) ; @r{One required:}
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358 1) ; @r{requires exactly one argument.}
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359 @result{} 2
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360 ((lambda (n &optional n1) ; @r{One required and one optional:}
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361 (if n1 (+ n n1) (1+ n))) ; @r{1 or 2 arguments.}
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362 1 2)
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363 @result{} 3
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364 ((lambda (n &rest ns) ; @r{One required and one rest:}
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365 (+ n (apply '+ ns))) ; @r{1 or more arguments.}
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366 1 2 3 4 5)
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367 @result{} 15
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368 @end smallexample
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369
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370 @node Function Documentation
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371 @subsection Documentation Strings of Functions
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372 @cindex documentation of function
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373
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374 A lambda expression may optionally have a @dfn{documentation string} just
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375 after the lambda list. This string does not affect execution of the
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376 function; it is a kind of comment, but a systematized comment which
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377 actually appears inside the Lisp world and can be used by the Emacs help
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378 facilities. @xref{Documentation}, for how the @var{documentation-string} is
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379 accessed.
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380
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381 It is a good idea to provide documentation strings for all the
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382 functions in your program, even those that are only called from within
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383 your program. Documentation strings are like comments, except that they
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384 are easier to access.
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385
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386 The first line of the documentation string should stand on its own,
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387 because @code{apropos} displays just this first line. It should consist
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388 of one or two complete sentences that summarize the function's purpose.
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389
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390 The start of the documentation string is usually indented in the source file,
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391 but since these spaces come before the starting double-quote, they are not part of
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392 the string. Some people make a practice of indenting any additional
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393 lines of the string so that the text lines up in the program source.
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394 @emph{This is a mistake.} The indentation of the following lines is
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395 inside the string; what looks nice in the source code will look ugly
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396 when displayed by the help commands.
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397
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398 You may wonder how the documentation string could be optional, since
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399 there are required components of the function that follow it (the body).
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400 Since evaluation of a string returns that string, without any side effects,
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401 it has no effect if it is not the last form in the body. Thus, in
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402 practice, there is no confusion between the first form of the body and the
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403 documentation string; if the only body form is a string then it serves both
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404 as the return value and as the documentation.
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405
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406 @node Function Names
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407 @section Naming a Function
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408 @cindex function definition
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409 @cindex named function
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410 @cindex function name
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411
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412 In most computer languages, every function has a name; the idea of a
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413 function without a name is nonsensical. In Lisp, a function in the
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414 strictest sense has no name. It is simply a list whose first element is
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415 @code{lambda}, or a primitive subr-object.
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416
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417 However, a symbol can serve as the name of a function. This happens
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418 when you put the function in the symbol's @dfn{function cell}
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419 (@pxref{Symbol Components}). Then the symbol itself becomes a valid,
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420 callable function, equivalent to the list or subr-object that its
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421 function cell refers to. The contents of the function cell are also
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422 called the symbol's @dfn{function definition}. The procedure of using a
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423 symbol's function definition in place of the symbol is called
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424 @dfn{symbol function indirection}; see @ref{Function Indirection}.
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425
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426 In practice, nearly all functions are given names in this way and
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427 referred to through their names. For example, the symbol @code{car} works
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428 as a function and does what it does because the primitive subr-object
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429 @code{#<subr car>} is stored in its function cell.
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430
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431 We give functions names because it is convenient to refer to them by
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432 their names in Lisp expressions. For primitive subr-objects such as
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433 @code{#<subr car>}, names are the only way you can refer to them: there
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434 is no read syntax for such objects. For functions written in Lisp, the
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435 name is more convenient to use in a call than an explicit lambda
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436 expression. Also, a function with a name can refer to itself---it can
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437 be recursive. Writing the function's name in its own definition is much
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438 more convenient than making the function definition point to itself
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439 (something that is not impossible but that has various disadvantages in
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440 practice).
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441
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442 We often identify functions with the symbols used to name them. For
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443 example, we often speak of ``the function @code{car}'', not
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444 distinguishing between the symbol @code{car} and the primitive
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445 subr-object that is its function definition. For most purposes, there
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446 is no need to distinguish.
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447
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448 Even so, keep in mind that a function need not have a unique name. While
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449 a given function object @emph{usually} appears in the function cell of only
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450 one symbol, this is just a matter of convenience. It is easy to store
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451 it in several symbols using @code{fset}; then each of the symbols is
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452 equally well a name for the same function.
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453
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454 A symbol used as a function name may also be used as a variable;
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455 these two uses of a symbol are independent and do not conflict.
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456
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457 @node Defining Functions
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458 @section Defining Functions
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459 @cindex defining a function
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460
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461 We usually give a name to a function when it is first created. This
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462 is called @dfn{defining a function}, and it is done with the
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463 @code{defun} special form.
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464
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465 @defspec defun name argument-list body-forms
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466 @code{defun} is the usual way to define new Lisp functions. It
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467 defines the symbol @var{name} as a function that looks like this:
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468
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469 @example
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470 (lambda @var{argument-list} . @var{body-forms})
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471 @end example
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472
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473 @code{defun} stores this lambda expression in the function cell of
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474 @var{name}. It returns the value @var{name}, but usually we ignore this
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475 value.
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476
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477 As described previously (@pxref{Lambda Expressions}),
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478 @var{argument-list} is a list of argument names and may include the
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479 keywords @code{&optional} and @code{&rest}. Also, the first two forms
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480 in @var{body-forms} may be a documentation string and an interactive
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481 declaration.
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482
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483 There is no conflict if the same symbol @var{name} is also used as a
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484 variable, since the symbol's value cell is independent of the function
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485 cell. @xref{Symbol Components}.
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486
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487 Here are some examples:
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488
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489 @example
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490 @group
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491 (defun foo () 5)
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492 @result{} foo
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493 @end group
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494 @group
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495 (foo)
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496 @result{} 5
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497 @end group
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498
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499 @group
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500 (defun bar (a &optional b &rest c)
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501 (list a b c))
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502 @result{} bar
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503 @end group
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504 @group
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505 (bar 1 2 3 4 5)
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506 @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5))
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507 @end group
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508 @group
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509 (bar 1)
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510 @result{} (1 nil nil)
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511 @end group
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512 @group
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513 (bar)
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514 @error{} Wrong number of arguments.
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515 @end group
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516
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517 @group
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518 (defun capitalize-backwards ()
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519 "Upcase the last letter of a word."
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520 (interactive)
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521 (backward-word 1)
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522 (forward-word 1)
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523 (backward-char 1)
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524 (capitalize-word 1))
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525 @result{} capitalize-backwards
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526 @end group
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527 @end example
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528
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529 Be careful not to redefine existing functions unintentionally.
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530 @code{defun} redefines even primitive functions such as @code{car}
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531 without any hesitation or notification. Redefining a function already
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532 defined is often done deliberately, and there is no way to distinguish
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533 deliberate redefinition from unintentional redefinition.
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534 @end defspec
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535
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536 @defun defalias name definition
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537 This special form defines the symbol @var{name} as a function, with
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538 definition @var{definition} (which can be any valid Lisp function).
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539
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540 The proper place to use @code{defalias} is where a specific function
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541 name is being defined---especially where that name appears explicitly in
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542 the source file being loaded. This is because @code{defalias} records
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543 which file defined the function, just like @code{defun}
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544 (@pxref{Unloading}).
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545
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546 By contrast, in programs that manipulate function definitions for other
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547 purposes, it is better to use @code{fset}, which does not keep such
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548 records.
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549 @end defun
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550
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551 See also @code{defsubst}, which defines a function like @code{defun}
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552 and tells the Lisp compiler to open-code it. @xref{Inline Functions}.
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553
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554 @node Calling Functions
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555 @section Calling Functions
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556 @cindex function invocation
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557 @cindex calling a function
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558
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559 Defining functions is only half the battle. Functions don't do
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560 anything until you @dfn{call} them, i.e., tell them to run. Calling a
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561 function is also known as @dfn{invocation}.
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562
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563 The most common way of invoking a function is by evaluating a list.
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564 For example, evaluating the list @code{(concat "a" "b")} calls the
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565 function @code{concat} with arguments @code{"a"} and @code{"b"}.
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566 @xref{Evaluation}, for a description of evaluation.
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567
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568 When you write a list as an expression in your program, the function
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569 name is part of the program. This means that you choose which function
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570 to call, and how many arguments to give it, when you write the program.
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571 Usually that's just what you want. Occasionally you need to decide at
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572 run time which function to call. To do that, use the functions
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573 @code{funcall} and @code{apply}.
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574
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575 @defun funcall function &rest arguments
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576 @code{funcall} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, and returns
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577 whatever @var{function} returns.
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578
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579 Since @code{funcall} is a function, all of its arguments, including
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580 @var{function}, are evaluated before @code{funcall} is called. This
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581 means that you can use any expression to obtain the function to be
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582 called. It also means that @code{funcall} does not see the expressions
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583 you write for the @var{arguments}, only their values. These values are
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584 @emph{not} evaluated a second time in the act of calling @var{function};
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585 @code{funcall} enters the normal procedure for calling a function at the
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586 place where the arguments have already been evaluated.
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587
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588 The argument @var{function} must be either a Lisp function or a
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589 primitive function. Special forms and macros are not allowed, because
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590 they make sense only when given the ``unevaluated'' argument
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591 expressions. @code{funcall} cannot provide these because, as we saw
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592 above, it never knows them in the first place.
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593
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594 @example
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595 @group
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596 (setq f 'list)
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597 @result{} list
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598 @end group
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599 @group
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600 (funcall f 'x 'y 'z)
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601 @result{} (x y z)
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602 @end group
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603 @group
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604 (funcall f 'x 'y '(z))
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605 @result{} (x y (z))
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606 @end group
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607 @group
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608 (funcall 'and t nil)
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609 @error{} Invalid function: #<subr and>
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610 @end group
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611 @end example
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612
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613 Compare these example with the examples of @code{apply}.
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614 @end defun
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615
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616 @defun apply function &rest arguments
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617 @code{apply} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, just like
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618 @code{funcall} but with one difference: the last of @var{arguments} is a
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619 list of arguments to give to @var{function}, rather than a single
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620 argument. We also say that @code{apply} @dfn{spreads} this list so that
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621 each individual element becomes an argument.
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622
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623 @code{apply} returns the result of calling @var{function}. As with
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624 @code{funcall}, @var{function} must either be a Lisp function or a
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625 primitive function; special forms and macros do not make sense in
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626 @code{apply}.
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627
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628 @example
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629 @group
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630 (setq f 'list)
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631 @result{} list
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632 @end group
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633 @group
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634 (apply f 'x 'y 'z)
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635 @error{} Wrong type argument: listp, z
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636 @end group
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637 @group
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638 (apply '+ 1 2 '(3 4))
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639 @result{} 10
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640 @end group
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641 @group
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642 (apply '+ '(1 2 3 4))
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643 @result{} 10
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644 @end group
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645
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646 @group
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647 (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil))
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648 @result{} (a b c x y z)
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649 @end group
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650 @end example
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651
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652 For an interesting example of using @code{apply}, see the description of
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653 @code{mapcar}, in @ref{Mapping Functions}.
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654 @end defun
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655
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656 @cindex functionals
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657 It is common for Lisp functions to accept functions as arguments or
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658 find them in data structures (especially in hook variables and property
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659 lists) and call them using @code{funcall} or @code{apply}. Functions
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660 that accept function arguments are often called @dfn{functionals}.
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661
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662 Sometimes, when you call a functional, it is useful to supply a no-op
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663 function as the argument. Here are two different kinds of no-op
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664 function:
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665
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666 @defun identity arg
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667 This function returns @var{arg} and has no side effects.
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668 @end defun
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669
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670 @defun ignore &rest args
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671 This function ignores any arguments and returns @code{nil}.
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672 @end defun
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673
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674 @node Mapping Functions
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675 @section Mapping Functions
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676 @cindex mapping functions
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677
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678 A @dfn{mapping function} applies a given function to each element of a
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679 list or other collection. Emacs Lisp has three such functions;
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680 @code{mapcar} and @code{mapconcat}, which scan a list, are described
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681 here. For the third mapping function, @code{mapatoms}, see
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682 @ref{Creating Symbols}.
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683
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684 @defun mapcar function sequence
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685 @code{mapcar} applies @var{function} to each element of @var{sequence}
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686 in turn, and returns a list of the results.
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687
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688 The argument @var{sequence} may be a list, a vector, or a string. The
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689 result is always a list. The length of the result is the same as the
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690 length of @var{sequence}.
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691
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692 @smallexample
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693 @group
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694 @exdent @r{For example:}
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695
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696 (mapcar 'car '((a b) (c d) (e f)))
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697 @result{} (a c e)
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698 (mapcar '1+ [1 2 3])
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699 @result{} (2 3 4)
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700 (mapcar 'char-to-string "abc")
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701 @result{} ("a" "b" "c")
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702 @end group
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703
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704 @group
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705 ;; @r{Call each function in @code{my-hooks}.}
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706 (mapcar 'funcall my-hooks)
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707 @end group
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708
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709 @group
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710 (defun mapcar* (f &rest args)
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711 "Apply FUNCTION to successive cars of all ARGS.
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712 Return the list of results."
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713 ;; @r{If no list is exhausted,}
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714 (if (not (memq 'nil args))
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diff changeset
715 ;; @r{apply function to @sc{CAR}s.}
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diff changeset
716 (cons (apply f (mapcar 'car args))
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diff changeset
717 (apply 'mapcar* f
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parents:
diff changeset
718 ;; @r{Recurse for rest of elements.}
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parents:
diff changeset
719 (mapcar 'cdr args)))))
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diff changeset
720 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
721
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722 @group
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diff changeset
723 (mapcar* 'cons '(a b c) '(1 2 3 4))
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parents:
diff changeset
724 @result{} ((a . 1) (b . 2) (c . 3))
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725 @end group
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726 @end smallexample
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diff changeset
727 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
728
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parents:
diff changeset
729 @defun mapconcat function sequence separator
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parents:
diff changeset
730 @code{mapconcat} applies @var{function} to each element of
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parents:
diff changeset
731 @var{sequence}: the results, which must be strings, are concatenated.
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parents:
diff changeset
732 Between each pair of result strings, @code{mapconcat} inserts the string
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parents:
diff changeset
733 @var{separator}. Usually @var{separator} contains a space or comma or
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parents:
diff changeset
734 other suitable punctuation.
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parents:
diff changeset
735
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parents:
diff changeset
736 The argument @var{function} must be a function that can take one
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diff changeset
737 argument and return a string.
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parents:
diff changeset
738
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parents:
diff changeset
739 @smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
740 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
741 (mapconcat 'symbol-name
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parents:
diff changeset
742 '(The cat in the hat)
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parents:
diff changeset
743 " ")
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diff changeset
744 @result{} "The cat in the hat"
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parents:
diff changeset
745 @end group
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parents:
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746
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parents:
diff changeset
747 @group
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diff changeset
748 (mapconcat (function (lambda (x) (format "%c" (1+ x))))
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diff changeset
749 "HAL-8000"
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diff changeset
750 "")
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diff changeset
751 @result{} "IBM.9111"
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diff changeset
752 @end group
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753 @end smallexample
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754 @end defun
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755
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756 @node Anonymous Functions
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757 @section Anonymous Functions
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758 @cindex anonymous function
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759
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diff changeset
760 In Lisp, a function is a list that starts with @code{lambda}, a
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diff changeset
761 byte-code function compiled from such a list, or alternatively a
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diff changeset
762 primitive subr-object; names are ``extra''. Although usually functions
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diff changeset
763 are defined with @code{defun} and given names at the same time, it is
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parents:
diff changeset
764 occasionally more concise to use an explicit lambda expression---an
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diff changeset
765 anonymous function. Such a list is valid wherever a function name is.
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diff changeset
766
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diff changeset
767 Any method of creating such a list makes a valid function. Even this:
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parents:
diff changeset
768
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parents:
diff changeset
769 @smallexample
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diff changeset
770 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
771 (setq silly (append '(lambda (x)) (list (list '+ (* 3 4) 'x))))
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parents:
diff changeset
772 @result{} (lambda (x) (+ 12 x))
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parents:
diff changeset
773 @end group
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diff changeset
774 @end smallexample
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775
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parents:
diff changeset
776 @noindent
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diff changeset
777 This computes a list that looks like @code{(lambda (x) (+ 12 x))} and
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parents:
diff changeset
778 makes it the value (@emph{not} the function definition!) of
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
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diff changeset
779 @code{silly}.
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parents:
diff changeset
780
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parents:
diff changeset
781 Here is how we might call this function:
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782
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diff changeset
783 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
784 @group
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diff changeset
785 (funcall silly 1)
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parents:
diff changeset
786 @result{} 13
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diff changeset
787 @end group
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diff changeset
788 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
789
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parents:
diff changeset
790 @noindent
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diff changeset
791 (It does @emph{not} work to write @code{(silly 1)}, because this function
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diff changeset
792 is not the @emph{function definition} of @code{silly}. We have not given
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793 @code{silly} any function definition, just a value as a variable.)
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parents:
diff changeset
794
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parents:
diff changeset
795 Most of the time, anonymous functions are constants that appear in
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parents:
diff changeset
796 your program. For example, you might want to pass one as an argument
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parents:
diff changeset
797 to the function @code{mapcar}, which applies any given function to each
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diff changeset
798 element of a list. Here we pass an anonymous function that multiplies
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diff changeset
799 a number by two:
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diff changeset
800
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801 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
802 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
803 (defun double-each (list)
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parents:
diff changeset
804 (mapcar '(lambda (x) (* 2 x)) list))
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diff changeset
805 @result{} double-each
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diff changeset
806 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
807 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
808 (double-each '(2 11))
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diff changeset
809 @result{} (4 22)
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810 @end group
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811 @end example
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diff changeset
812
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parents:
diff changeset
813 @noindent
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diff changeset
814 In such cases, we usually use the special form @code{function} instead
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parents:
diff changeset
815 of simple quotation to quote the anonymous function.
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parents:
diff changeset
816
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diff changeset
817 @defspec function function-object
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diff changeset
818 @cindex function quoting
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parents:
diff changeset
819 This special form returns @var{function-object} without evaluating it.
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parents:
diff changeset
820 In this, it is equivalent to @code{quote}. However, it serves as a
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parents:
diff changeset
821 note to the Emacs Lisp compiler that @var{function-object} is intended
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Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
822 to be used only as a function, and therefore can safely be compiled.
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Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
823 Contrast this with @code{quote}, in @ref{Quoting}.
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parents:
diff changeset
824 @end defspec
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parents:
diff changeset
825
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parents:
diff changeset
826 Using @code{function} instead of @code{quote} makes a difference
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parents:
diff changeset
827 inside a function or macro that you are going to compile. For example:
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parents:
diff changeset
828
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parents:
diff changeset
829 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
830 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
831 (defun double-each (list)
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parents:
diff changeset
832 (mapcar (function (lambda (x) (* 2 x))) list))
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parents:
diff changeset
833 @result{} double-each
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parents:
diff changeset
834 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
835 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
836 (double-each '(2 11))
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parents:
diff changeset
837 @result{} (4 22)
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parents:
diff changeset
838 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
839 @end example
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Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
840
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parents:
diff changeset
841 @noindent
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parents:
diff changeset
842 If this definition of @code{double-each} is compiled, the anonymous
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Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
843 function is compiled as well. By contrast, in the previous definition
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Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
844 where ordinary @code{quote} is used, the argument passed to
2fc99253fb65 Initial revision
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
845 @code{mapcar} is the precise list shown:
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parents:
diff changeset
846
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Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
847 @example
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Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
848 (lambda (x) (* x 2))
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Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
849 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
850
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parents:
diff changeset
851 @noindent
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parents:
diff changeset
852 The Lisp compiler cannot assume this list is a function, even though it
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Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
853 looks like one, since it does not know what @code{mapcar} does with the
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parents:
diff changeset
854 list. Perhaps @code{mapcar} will check that the @sc{car} of the third
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parents:
diff changeset
855 element is the symbol @code{*}! The advantage of @code{function} is
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parents:
diff changeset
856 that it tells the compiler to go ahead and compile the constant
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parents:
diff changeset
857 function.
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parents:
diff changeset
858
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parents:
diff changeset
859 We sometimes write @code{function} instead of @code{quote} when
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parents:
diff changeset
860 quoting the name of a function, but this usage is just a sort of
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parents:
diff changeset
861 comment.
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parents:
diff changeset
862
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parents:
diff changeset
863 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
864 (function @var{symbol}) @equiv{} (quote @var{symbol}) @equiv{} '@var{symbol}
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parents:
diff changeset
865 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
866
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parents:
diff changeset
867 See @code{documentation} in @ref{Accessing Documentation}, for a
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parents:
diff changeset
868 realistic example using @code{function} and an anonymous function.
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parents:
diff changeset
869
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parents:
diff changeset
870 @node Function Cells
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parents:
diff changeset
871 @section Accessing Function Cell Contents
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parents:
diff changeset
872
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parents:
diff changeset
873 The @dfn{function definition} of a symbol is the object stored in the
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parents:
diff changeset
874 function cell of the symbol. The functions described here access, test,
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parents:
diff changeset
875 and set the function cell of symbols.
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parents:
diff changeset
876
7193
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parents: 7115
diff changeset
877 See also the function @code{indirect-function} in @ref{Function
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parents: 7115
diff changeset
878 Indirection}.
03103053974d entered into RCS
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parents: 7115
diff changeset
879
6455
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diff changeset
880 @defun symbol-function symbol
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parents:
diff changeset
881 @kindex void-function
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parents:
diff changeset
882 This returns the object in the function cell of @var{symbol}. If the
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parents:
diff changeset
883 symbol's function cell is void, a @code{void-function} error is
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parents:
diff changeset
884 signaled.
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parents:
diff changeset
885
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parents:
diff changeset
886 This function does not check that the returned object is a legitimate
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parents:
diff changeset
887 function.
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parents:
diff changeset
888
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diff changeset
889 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
890 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
891 (defun bar (n) (+ n 2))
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parents:
diff changeset
892 @result{} bar
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parents:
diff changeset
893 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
894 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
895 (symbol-function 'bar)
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parents:
diff changeset
896 @result{} (lambda (n) (+ n 2))
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parents:
diff changeset
897 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
898 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
899 (fset 'baz 'bar)
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parents:
diff changeset
900 @result{} bar
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901 @end group
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diff changeset
902 @group
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903 (symbol-function 'baz)
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904 @result{} bar
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905 @end group
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906 @end example
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907 @end defun
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diff changeset
908
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909 @cindex void function cell
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diff changeset
910 If you have never given a symbol any function definition, we say that
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911 that symbol's function cell is @dfn{void}. In other words, the function
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diff changeset
912 cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to call such a symbol
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diff changeset
913 as a function, it signals a @code{void-function} error.
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914
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915 Note that void is not the same as @code{nil} or the symbol
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diff changeset
916 @code{void}. The symbols @code{nil} and @code{void} are Lisp objects,
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diff changeset
917 and can be stored into a function cell just as any other object can be
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diff changeset
918 (and they can be valid functions if you define them in turn with
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919 @code{defun}). A void function cell contains no object whatsoever.
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920
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921 You can test the voidness of a symbol's function definition with
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922 @code{fboundp}. After you have given a symbol a function definition, you
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diff changeset
923 can make it void once more using @code{fmakunbound}.
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924
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925 @defun fboundp symbol
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926 This function returns @code{t} if the symbol has an object in its
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927 function cell, @code{nil} otherwise. It does not check that the object
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928 is a legitimate function.
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929 @end defun
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930
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931 @defun fmakunbound symbol
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932 This function makes @var{symbol}'s function cell void, so that a
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diff changeset
933 subsequent attempt to access this cell will cause a @code{void-function}
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934 error. (See also @code{makunbound}, in @ref{Local Variables}.)
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935
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936 @example
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937 @group
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938 (defun foo (x) x)
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939 @result{} x
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940 @end group
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941 @group
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942 (foo 1)
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943 @result{}1
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944 @end group
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945 @group
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946 (fmakunbound 'foo)
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947 @result{} x
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948 @end group
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949 @group
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950 (foo 1)
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951 @error{} Symbol's function definition is void: foo
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952 @end group
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953 @end example
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954 @end defun
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955
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956 @defun fset symbol object
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957 This function stores @var{object} in the function cell of @var{symbol}.
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958 The result is @var{object}. Normally @var{object} should be a function
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959 or the name of a function, but this is not checked.
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960
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961 There are three normal uses of this function:
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962
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963 @itemize @bullet
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964 @item
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965 Copying one symbol's function definition to another. (In other words,
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966 making an alternate name for a function.)
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967
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968 @item
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969 Giving a symbol a function definition that is not a list and therefore
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970 cannot be made with @code{defun}. For example, you can use @code{fset}
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971 to give a symbol @code{s1} a function definition which is another symbol
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972 @code{s2}; then @code{s1} serves as an alias for whatever definition
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973 @code{s2} presently has.
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974
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975 @item
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976 In constructs for defining or altering functions. If @code{defun}
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977 were not a primitive, it could be written in Lisp (as a macro) using
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978 @code{fset}.
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979 @end itemize
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980
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981 Here are examples of the first two uses:
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982
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983 @example
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984 @group
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985 ;; @r{Give @code{first} the same definition @code{car} has.}
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986 (fset 'first (symbol-function 'car))
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987 @result{} #<subr car>
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988 @end group
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989 @group
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990 (first '(1 2 3))
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991 @result{} 1
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992 @end group
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993
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994 @group
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995 ;; @r{Make the symbol @code{car} the function definition of @code{xfirst}.}
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996 (fset 'xfirst 'car)
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997 @result{} car
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998 @end group
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999 @group
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1000 (xfirst '(1 2 3))
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1001 @result{} 1
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1002 @end group
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1003 @group
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1004 (symbol-function 'xfirst)
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1005 @result{} car
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1006 @end group
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1007 @group
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1008 (symbol-function (symbol-function 'xfirst))
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1009 @result{} #<subr car>
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1010 @end group
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1011
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1012 @group
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1013 ;; @r{Define a named keyboard macro.}
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1014 (fset 'kill-two-lines "\^u2\^k")
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1015 @result{} "\^u2\^k"
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1016 @end group
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1017 @end example
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1018
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1019 See also the related function @code{defalias}, in @ref{Defining
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1020 Functions}.
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1021 @end defun
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1022
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1023 When writing a function that extends a previously defined function,
12098
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1024 the following idiom is sometimes used:
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1025
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1026 @example
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1027 (fset 'old-foo (symbol-function 'foo))
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1028 (defun foo ()
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diff changeset
1029 "Just like old-foo, except more so."
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diff changeset
1030 @group
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diff changeset
1031 (old-foo)
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diff changeset
1032 (more-so))
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1033 @end group
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1034 @end example
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1035
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diff changeset
1036 @noindent
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diff changeset
1037 This does not work properly if @code{foo} has been defined to autoload.
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1038 In such a case, when @code{foo} calls @code{old-foo}, Lisp attempts
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diff changeset
1039 to define @code{old-foo} by loading a file. Since this presumably
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diff changeset
1040 defines @code{foo} rather than @code{old-foo}, it does not produce the
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diff changeset
1041 proper results. The only way to avoid this problem is to make sure the
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1042 file is loaded before moving aside the old definition of @code{foo}.
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1043
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1044 But it is unmodular and unclean, in any case, for a Lisp file to
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diff changeset
1045 redefine a function defined elsewhere.
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1046
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1047 @node Inline Functions
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diff changeset
1048 @section Inline Functions
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diff changeset
1049 @cindex inline functions
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diff changeset
1050
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diff changeset
1051 @findex defsubst
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diff changeset
1052 You can define an @dfn{inline function} by using @code{defsubst} instead
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diff changeset
1053 of @code{defun}. An inline function works just like an ordinary
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diff changeset
1054 function except for one thing: when you compile a call to the function,
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diff changeset
1055 the function's definition is open-coded into the caller.
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diff changeset
1056
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diff changeset
1057 Making a function inline makes explicit calls run faster. But it also
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diff changeset
1058 has disadvantages. For one thing, it reduces flexibility; if you change
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diff changeset
1059 the definition of the function, calls already inlined still use the old
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diff changeset
1060 definition until you recompile them. Since the flexibility of
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diff changeset
1061 redefining functions is an important feature of Emacs, you should not
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diff changeset
1062 make a function inline unless its speed is really crucial.
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diff changeset
1063
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diff changeset
1064 Another disadvantage is that making a large function inline can increase
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diff changeset
1065 the size of compiled code both in files and in memory. Since the speed
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diff changeset
1066 advantage of inline functions is greatest for small functions, you
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diff changeset
1067 generally should not make large functions inline.
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diff changeset
1068
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diff changeset
1069 It's possible to define a macro to expand into the same code that an
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diff changeset
1070 inline function would execute. But the macro would have a limitation:
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diff changeset
1071 you can use it only explicitly---a macro cannot be called with
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diff changeset
1072 @code{apply}, @code{mapcar} and so on. Also, it takes some work to
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diff changeset
1073 convert an ordinary function into a macro. (@xref{Macros}.) To convert
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diff changeset
1074 it into an inline function is very easy; simply replace @code{defun}
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diff changeset
1075 with @code{defsubst}. Since each argument of an inline function is
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diff changeset
1076 evaluated exactly once, you needn't worry about how many times the
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diff changeset
1077 body uses the arguments, as you do for macros. (@xref{Argument
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diff changeset
1078 Evaluation}.)
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diff changeset
1079
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1080 Inline functions can be used and open-coded later on in the same file,
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1081 following the definition, just like macros.
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1082
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1083 @c Emacs versions prior to 19 did not have inline functions.
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1084
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1085 @node Related Topics
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1086 @section Other Topics Related to Functions
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1087
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1088 Here is a table of several functions that do things related to
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1089 function calling and function definitions. They are documented
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1090 elsewhere, but we provide cross references here.
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1091
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1092 @table @code
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1093 @item apply
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1094 See @ref{Calling Functions}.
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1095
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1096 @item autoload
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1097 See @ref{Autoload}.
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1098
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1099 @item call-interactively
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1100 See @ref{Interactive Call}.
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1101
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1102 @item commandp
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1103 See @ref{Interactive Call}.
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1104
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1105 @item documentation
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1106 See @ref{Accessing Documentation}.
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1107
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1108 @item eval
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1109 See @ref{Eval}.
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1110
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1111 @item funcall
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1112 See @ref{Calling Functions}.
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1113
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1114 @item ignore
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1115 See @ref{Calling Functions}.
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1116
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1117 @item indirect-function
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1118 See @ref{Function Indirection}.
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1119
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1120 @item interactive
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1121 See @ref{Using Interactive}.
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1122
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1123 @item interactive-p
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1124 See @ref{Interactive Call}.
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1125
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1126 @item mapatoms
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1127 See @ref{Creating Symbols}.
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1128
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1129 @item mapcar
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1130 See @ref{Mapping Functions}.
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1131
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1132 @item mapconcat
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1133 See @ref{Mapping Functions}.
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1134
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1135 @item undefined
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1136 See @ref{Key Lookup}.
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1137 @end table
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1138