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date | Sun, 13 Jul 2003 17:20:34 +0000 |
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25829 | 1 @c This is part of the Emacs manual. |
2 @c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc. | |
3 @c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions. | |
4 @iftex | |
5 @chapter Characters, Keys and Commands | |
6 | |
7 This chapter explains the character sets used by Emacs for input | |
8 commands and for the contents of files, and also explains the concepts | |
9 of @dfn{keys} and @dfn{commands}, which are fundamental for understanding | |
10 how Emacs interprets your keyboard and mouse input. | |
11 @end iftex | |
12 | |
13 @node User Input, Keys, Screen, Top | |
14 @section Kinds of User Input | |
15 @cindex input with the keyboard | |
16 @cindex keyboard input | |
17 @cindex character set (keyboard) | |
18 @cindex ASCII | |
19 @cindex C- | |
20 @cindex Control | |
21 @cindex control characters | |
22 | |
23 GNU Emacs uses an extension of the ASCII character set for keyboard | |
24 input; it also accepts non-character input events including function | |
25 keys and mouse button actions. | |
26 | |
27 ASCII consists of 128 character codes. Some of these codes are | |
28 assigned graphic symbols such as @samp{a} and @samp{=}; the rest are | |
29 control characters, such as @kbd{Control-a} (usually written @kbd{C-a} | |
30 for short). @kbd{C-a} gets its name from the fact that you type it by | |
31 holding down the @key{CTRL} key while pressing @kbd{a}. | |
32 | |
33 Some ASCII control characters have special names, and most terminals | |
34 have special keys you can type them with: for example, @key{RET}, | |
35 @key{TAB}, @key{DEL} and @key{ESC}. The space character is usually | |
36 referred to below as @key{SPC}, even though strictly speaking it is a | |
37 graphic character whose graphic happens to be blank. Some keyboards | |
38 have a key labeled ``linefeed'' which is an alias for @kbd{C-j}. | |
39 | |
40 Emacs extends the ASCII character set with thousands more printing | |
41 characters (@pxref{International}), additional control characters, and a | |
42 few more modifiers that can be combined with any character. | |
43 | |
44 On ASCII terminals, there are only 32 possible control characters. | |
45 These are the control variants of letters and @samp{@@[]\^_}. In | |
46 addition, the shift key is meaningless with control characters: | |
47 @kbd{C-a} and @kbd{C-A} are the same character, and Emacs cannot | |
48 distinguish them. | |
49 | |
50 But the Emacs character set has room for control variants of all | |
51 printing characters, and for distinguishing between @kbd{C-a} and | |
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52 @kbd{C-A}. The X Window System makes it possible to enter all these |
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53 characters. For example, @kbd{C--} (that's Control-Minus) and @kbd{C-5} |
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54 are meaningful Emacs commands under X. |
25829 | 55 |
56 Another Emacs character-set extension is additional modifier bits. | |
57 Only one modifier bit is commonly used; it is called Meta. Every | |
58 character has a Meta variant; examples include @kbd{Meta-a} (normally | |
59 written @kbd{M-a}, for short), @kbd{M-A} (not the same character as | |
60 @kbd{M-a}, but those two characters normally have the same meaning in | |
61 Emacs), @kbd{M-@key{RET}}, and @kbd{M-C-a}. For reasons of tradition, | |
62 we usually write @kbd{C-M-a} rather than @kbd{M-C-a}; logically | |
63 speaking, the order in which the modifier keys @key{CTRL} and @key{META} | |
64 are mentioned does not matter. | |
65 | |
66 @cindex Meta | |
67 @cindex M- | |
68 @cindex @key{ESC} replacing @key{META} key | |
69 Some terminals have a @key{META} key, and allow you to type Meta | |
70 characters by holding this key down. Thus, @kbd{Meta-a} is typed by | |
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71 holding down @key{META} and pressing @kbd{a}. The @key{META} key |
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72 works much like the @key{SHIFT} key. Such a key is not always labeled |
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73 @key{META}, however, as this function is often a special option for a |
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74 key with some other primary purpose. Sometimes it is labeled |
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75 @key{ALT} or @key{EDIT}; on a Sun keyboard, it may have a diamond on |
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76 it. |
25829 | 77 |
78 If there is no @key{META} key, you can still type Meta characters | |
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79 using two-character sequences starting with @key{ESC}. Thus, you can |
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80 enter @kbd{M-a} by typing @kbd{@key{ESC} a}. You can enter |
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81 @kbd{C-M-a} by typing @kbd{@key{ESC} C-a}. Unlike @key{META}, which |
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82 modifies other characters, @key{ESC} is a separate character. You |
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83 don't hold down @key{ESC} while typing the next character; instead, |
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84 you press it and release it, then you enter the next character. |
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85 @key{ESC} is allowed on terminals with @key{META} keys, too, in case |
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86 you have formed a habit of using it. |
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87 |
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88 The X Window System provides several other modifier keys that can be |
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89 applied to any input character. These are called @key{SUPER}, |
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90 @key{HYPER} and @key{ALT}. We write @samp{s-}, @samp{H-} and @samp{A-} |
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91 to say that a character uses these modifiers. Thus, @kbd{s-H-C-x} is |
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92 short for @kbd{Super-Hyper-Control-x}. Not all X terminals actually |
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93 provide keys for these modifier flags---in fact, many terminals have a |
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94 key labeled @key{ALT} which is really a @key{META} key. The standard |
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95 key bindings of Emacs do not include any characters with these |
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96 modifiers. But you can assign them meanings of your own by customizing |
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97 Emacs. |
25829 | 98 |
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99 If your keyboard lacks one of these modifier keys, you can enter it |
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100 using @kbd{C-x @@}: @kbd{C-x @@ h} adds the ``hyper'' flag to the next |
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101 character, @kbd{C-x @@ s} adds the ``super'' flag, and @kbd{C-x @@ a} |
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102 adds the ``alt'' flag. For instance, @kbd{C-x @@ h C-a} is a way to |
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103 enter @kbd{Hyper-Control-a}. (Unfortunately there is no way to add |
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104 two modifiers by using @kbd{C-x @@} twice for the same character, |
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105 because the first one goes to work on the @kbd{C-x}.) |
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106 |
25829 | 107 Keyboard input includes keyboard keys that are not characters at all: |
108 for example function keys and arrow keys. Mouse buttons are also | |
109 outside the gamut of characters. You can modify these events with the | |
110 modifier keys @key{CTRL}, @key{META}, @key{SUPER}, @key{HYPER} and | |
111 @key{ALT}, just like keyboard characters. | |
112 | |
113 @cindex input event | |
114 Input characters and non-character inputs are collectively called | |
115 @dfn{input events}. @xref{Input Events,,, elisp, The Emacs Lisp | |
116 Reference Manual}, for more information. If you are not doing Lisp | |
117 programming, but simply want to redefine the meaning of some characters | |
118 or non-character events, see @ref{Customization}. | |
119 | |
120 ASCII terminals cannot really send anything to the computer except | |
121 ASCII characters. These terminals use a sequence of characters to | |
122 represent each function key. But that is invisible to the Emacs user, | |
123 because the keyboard input routines recognize these special sequences | |
124 and convert them to function key events before any other part of Emacs | |
125 gets to see them. | |
126 | |
127 @node Keys, Commands, User Input, Top | |
128 @section Keys | |
129 | |
130 @cindex key sequence | |
131 @cindex key | |
132 A @dfn{key sequence} (@dfn{key}, for short) is a sequence of input | |
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133 events that are meaningful as a unit---as ``a single command.'' Some |
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134 Emacs command sequences are just one character or one event; for |
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135 example, just @kbd{C-f} is enough to move forward one character in the |
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136 buffer. But Emacs also has commands that take two or more events to |
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137 invoke. |
25829 | 138 |
139 @cindex complete key | |
140 @cindex prefix key | |
141 If a sequence of events is enough to invoke a command, it is a | |
142 @dfn{complete key}. Examples of complete keys include @kbd{C-a}, | |
143 @kbd{X}, @key{RET}, @key{NEXT} (a function key), @key{DOWN} (an arrow | |
144 key), @kbd{C-x C-f}, and @kbd{C-x 4 C-f}. If it isn't long enough to be | |
145 complete, we call it a @dfn{prefix key}. The above examples show that | |
146 @kbd{C-x} and @kbd{C-x 4} are prefix keys. Every key sequence is either | |
147 a complete key or a prefix key. | |
148 | |
149 Most single characters constitute complete keys in the standard Emacs | |
150 command bindings. A few of them are prefix keys. A prefix key combines | |
151 with the following input event to make a longer key sequence, which may | |
152 itself be complete or a prefix. For example, @kbd{C-x} is a prefix key, | |
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153 so @kbd{C-x} and the next input event combine to make a two-event |
25829 | 154 key sequence. Most of these key sequences are complete keys, including |
155 @kbd{C-x C-f} and @kbd{C-x b}. A few, such as @kbd{C-x 4} and @kbd{C-x | |
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156 r}, are themselves prefix keys that lead to three-event key |
25829 | 157 sequences. There's no limit to the length of a key sequence, but in |
158 practice people rarely use sequences longer than four events. | |
159 | |
160 By contrast, you can't add more events onto a complete key. For | |
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161 example, the two-event sequence @kbd{C-f C-k} is not a key, because |
25829 | 162 the @kbd{C-f} is a complete key in itself. It's impossible to give |
163 @kbd{C-f C-k} an independent meaning as a command. @kbd{C-f C-k} is two | |
164 key sequences, not one.@refill | |
165 | |
166 All told, the prefix keys in Emacs are @kbd{C-c}, @kbd{C-h}, | |
167 @kbd{C-x}, @kbd{C-x @key{RET}}, @kbd{C-x @@}, @kbd{C-x a}, @kbd{C-x n}, @w{@kbd{C-x | |
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168 r}}, @kbd{C-x v}, @kbd{C-x 4}, @kbd{C-x 5}, @kbd{C-x 6}, @key{ESC}, and |
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169 @kbd{M-g}. But this list is not cast in concrete; it is |
25829 | 170 just a matter of Emacs's standard key bindings. If you customize Emacs, |
171 you can make new prefix keys, or eliminate these. @xref{Key Bindings}. | |
172 | |
173 If you do make or eliminate prefix keys, that changes the set of | |
174 possible key sequences. For example, if you redefine @kbd{C-f} as a | |
175 prefix, @kbd{C-f C-k} automatically becomes a key (complete, unless you | |
38953 | 176 define that too as a prefix). Conversely, if you remove the prefix |
25829 | 177 definition of @kbd{C-x 4}, then @kbd{C-x 4 f} (or @kbd{C-x 4 |
178 @var{anything}}) is no longer a key. | |
179 | |
180 Typing the help character (@kbd{C-h} or @key{F1}) after a prefix | |
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181 key displays a list of the commands starting with that prefix. |
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182 There are a few prefix keys for which @kbd{C-h} does not |
25829 | 183 work---for historical reasons, they have other meanings for @kbd{C-h} |
184 which are not easy to change. But @key{F1} should work for all prefix | |
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185 keys. |
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186 |
25829 | 187 @node Commands, Text Characters, Keys, Top |
188 @section Keys and Commands | |
189 | |
190 @cindex binding | |
191 @cindex command | |
192 @cindex function definition | |
193 This manual is full of passages that tell you what particular keys | |
194 do. But Emacs does not assign meanings to keys directly. Instead, | |
195 Emacs assigns meanings to named @dfn{commands}, and then gives keys | |
196 their meanings by @dfn{binding} them to commands. | |
197 | |
198 Every command has a name chosen by a programmer. The name is usually | |
199 made of a few English words separated by dashes; for example, | |
200 @code{next-line} or @code{forward-word}. A command also has a | |
201 @dfn{function definition} which is a Lisp program; this is what makes | |
202 the command do what it does. In Emacs Lisp, a command is actually a | |
203 special kind of Lisp function; one which specifies how to read arguments | |
204 for it and call it interactively. For more information on commands and | |
205 functions, see @ref{What Is a Function,, What Is a Function, elisp, The | |
206 Emacs Lisp Reference Manual}. (The definition we use in this manual is | |
207 simplified slightly.) | |
208 | |
209 The bindings between keys and commands are recorded in various tables | |
210 called @dfn{keymaps}. @xref{Keymaps}. | |
211 | |
212 When we say that ``@kbd{C-n} moves down vertically one line'' we are | |
213 glossing over a distinction that is irrelevant in ordinary use but is vital | |
214 in understanding how to customize Emacs. It is the command | |
215 @code{next-line} that is programmed to move down vertically. @kbd{C-n} has | |
216 this effect @emph{because} it is bound to that command. If you rebind | |
217 @kbd{C-n} to the command @code{forward-word} then @kbd{C-n} will move | |
218 forward by words instead. Rebinding keys is a common method of | |
219 customization.@refill | |
220 | |
221 In the rest of this manual, we usually ignore this subtlety to keep | |
222 things simple. To give the information needed for customization, we | |
223 state the name of the command which really does the work in parentheses | |
224 after mentioning the key that runs it. For example, we will say that | |
225 ``The command @kbd{C-n} (@code{next-line}) moves point vertically | |
226 down,'' meaning that @code{next-line} is a command that moves vertically | |
38172 | 227 down, and @kbd{C-n} is a key that is normally bound to it. |
25829 | 228 |
229 While we are on the subject of information for customization only, | |
230 it's a good time to tell you about @dfn{variables}. Often the | |
231 description of a command will say, ``To change this, set the variable | |
232 @code{mumble-foo}.'' A variable is a name used to remember a value. | |
233 Most of the variables documented in this manual exist just to facilitate | |
234 customization: some command or other part of Emacs examines the variable | |
235 and behaves differently according to the value that you set. Until you | |
236 are interested in customizing, you can ignore the information about | |
237 variables. When you are ready to be interested, read the basic | |
238 information on variables, and then the information on individual | |
239 variables will make sense. @xref{Variables}. | |
240 | |
241 @node Text Characters, Entering Emacs, Commands, Top | |
242 @section Character Set for Text | |
243 @cindex characters (in text) | |
244 | |
245 Text in Emacs buffers is a sequence of 8-bit bytes. Each byte can | |
246 hold a single ASCII character. Both ASCII control characters (octal | |
247 codes 000 through 037, and 0177) and ASCII printing characters (codes | |
248 040 through 0176) are allowed; however, non-ASCII control characters | |
249 cannot appear in a buffer. The other modifier flags used in keyboard | |
250 input, such as Meta, are not allowed in buffers either. | |
251 | |
252 Some ASCII control characters serve special purposes in text, and have | |
253 special names. For example, the newline character (octal code 012) is | |
254 used in the buffer to end a line, and the tab character (octal code 011) | |
255 is used for indenting to the next tab stop column (normally every 8 | |
256 columns). @xref{Text Display}. | |
257 | |
258 Non-ASCII printing characters can also appear in buffers. When | |
259 multibyte characters are enabled, you can use any of the non-ASCII | |
260 printing characters that Emacs supports. They have character codes | |
261 starting at 256, octal 0400, and each one is represented as a sequence | |
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262 of two or more bytes. @xref{International}. Single-byte characters |
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263 with codes 128 through 255 can also appear in multibyte buffers. |
25829 | 264 |
265 If you disable multibyte characters, then you can use only one | |
266 alphabet of non-ASCII characters, but they all fit in one byte. They | |
27219 | 267 use codes 0200 through 0377. @xref{Single-Byte Character Support}. |