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annotate lispref/functions.texi @ 37514:30557566b879
Modify the copyright years.
author | Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org> |
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date | Sun, 29 Apr 2001 06:23:45 +0000 |
parents | 82306439b33d |
children | 0317f0f05c37 |
rev | line source |
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6455 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
27189 | 3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999 |
4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc. | |
6455 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/functions | |
7 @node Functions, Macros, Variables, Top | |
8 @chapter Functions | |
9 | |
10 A Lisp program is composed mainly of Lisp functions. This chapter | |
11 explains what functions are, how they accept arguments, and how to | |
12 define them. | |
13 | |
14 @menu | |
15 * What Is a Function:: Lisp functions vs. primitives; terminology. | |
16 * Lambda Expressions:: How functions are expressed as Lisp objects. | |
17 * Function Names:: A symbol can serve as the name of a function. | |
18 * Defining Functions:: Lisp expressions for defining functions. | |
19 * Calling Functions:: How to use an existing function. | |
20 * Mapping Functions:: Applying a function to each element of a list, etc. | |
21 * Anonymous Functions:: Lambda expressions are functions with no names. | |
22 * Function Cells:: Accessing or setting the function definition | |
23 of a symbol. | |
24 * Inline Functions:: Defining functions that the compiler will open code. | |
25 * Related Topics:: Cross-references to specific Lisp primitives | |
26 that have a special bearing on how functions work. | |
27 @end menu | |
28 | |
29 @node What Is a Function | |
30 @section What Is a Function? | |
31 | |
32 In a general sense, a function is a rule for carrying on a computation | |
33 given several values called @dfn{arguments}. The result of the | |
34 computation is called the value of the function. The computation can | |
35 also have side effects: lasting changes in the values of variables or | |
36 the contents of data structures. | |
37 | |
38 Here are important terms for functions in Emacs Lisp and for other | |
39 function-like objects. | |
40 | |
41 @table @dfn | |
42 @item function | |
43 @cindex function | |
44 In Emacs Lisp, a @dfn{function} is anything that can be applied to | |
45 arguments in a Lisp program. In some cases, we use it more | |
46 specifically to mean a function written in Lisp. Special forms and | |
47 macros are not functions. | |
48 | |
49 @item primitive | |
50 @cindex primitive | |
51 @cindex subr | |
52 @cindex built-in function | |
53 A @dfn{primitive} is a function callable from Lisp that is written in C, | |
54 such as @code{car} or @code{append}. These functions are also called | |
55 @dfn{built-in} functions or @dfn{subrs}. (Special forms are also | |
56 considered primitives.) | |
57 | |
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58 Usually the reason we implement a function as a primitive is either |
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59 because it is fundamental, because it provides a low-level interface to |
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60 operating system services, or because it needs to run fast. Primitives |
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61 can be modified or added only by changing the C sources and recompiling |
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62 the editor. See @ref{Writing Emacs Primitives}. |
6455 | 63 |
64 @item lambda expression | |
65 A @dfn{lambda expression} is a function written in Lisp. | |
66 These are described in the following section. | |
27193 | 67 @ifnottex |
6455 | 68 @xref{Lambda Expressions}. |
27193 | 69 @end ifnottex |
6455 | 70 |
71 @item special form | |
72 A @dfn{special form} is a primitive that is like a function but does not | |
73 evaluate all of its arguments in the usual way. It may evaluate only | |
74 some of the arguments, or may evaluate them in an unusual order, or | |
75 several times. Many special forms are described in @ref{Control | |
76 Structures}. | |
77 | |
78 @item macro | |
79 @cindex macro | |
80 A @dfn{macro} is a construct defined in Lisp by the programmer. It | |
81 differs from a function in that it translates a Lisp expression that you | |
82 write into an equivalent expression to be evaluated instead of the | |
12098 | 83 original expression. Macros enable Lisp programmers to do the sorts of |
84 things that special forms can do. @xref{Macros}, for how to define and | |
85 use macros. | |
6455 | 86 |
87 @item command | |
88 @cindex command | |
89 A @dfn{command} is an object that @code{command-execute} can invoke; it | |
90 is a possible definition for a key sequence. Some functions are | |
91 commands; a function written in Lisp is a command if it contains an | |
92 interactive declaration (@pxref{Defining Commands}). Such a function | |
93 can be called from Lisp expressions like other functions; in this case, | |
94 the fact that the function is a command makes no difference. | |
95 | |
96 Keyboard macros (strings and vectors) are commands also, even though | |
97 they are not functions. A symbol is a command if its function | |
98 definition is a command; such symbols can be invoked with @kbd{M-x}. | |
99 The symbol is a function as well if the definition is a function. | |
100 @xref{Command Overview}. | |
101 | |
102 @item keystroke command | |
103 @cindex keystroke command | |
104 A @dfn{keystroke command} is a command that is bound to a key sequence | |
105 (typically one to three keystrokes). The distinction is made here | |
106 merely to avoid confusion with the meaning of ``command'' in non-Emacs | |
107 editors; for Lisp programs, the distinction is normally unimportant. | |
108 | |
109 @item byte-code function | |
110 A @dfn{byte-code function} is a function that has been compiled by the | |
111 byte compiler. @xref{Byte-Code Type}. | |
112 @end table | |
113 | |
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114 @defun functionp object |
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115 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is any kind of function, |
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116 or a special form or macro. |
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117 @end defun |
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118 |
6455 | 119 @defun subrp object |
120 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a built-in function | |
121 (i.e., a Lisp primitive). | |
122 | |
123 @example | |
124 @group | |
125 (subrp 'message) ; @r{@code{message} is a symbol,} | |
126 @result{} nil ; @r{not a subr object.} | |
127 @end group | |
128 @group | |
129 (subrp (symbol-function 'message)) | |
130 @result{} t | |
131 @end group | |
132 @end example | |
133 @end defun | |
134 | |
135 @defun byte-code-function-p object | |
136 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a byte-code | |
137 function. For example: | |
138 | |
139 @example | |
140 @group | |
141 (byte-code-function-p (symbol-function 'next-line)) | |
142 @result{} t | |
143 @end group | |
144 @end example | |
145 @end defun | |
146 | |
33999 | 147 @defun subr-arity subr |
148 @tindex subr-arity | |
149 This function provides information about the argument list of a | |
150 primitive, @var{subr}. The returned value is a pair | |
151 @code{(@var{min} . @var{max})}. @var{min} is the minimum number of | |
152 args. @var{max} is the maximum number or the symbol @code{many}, for a | |
153 function with @code{&rest} arguments, or the symbol @code{unevalled} if | |
154 @var{subr} is a special form. | |
155 @end defun | |
156 | |
6455 | 157 @node Lambda Expressions |
158 @section Lambda Expressions | |
159 @cindex lambda expression | |
160 | |
161 A function written in Lisp is a list that looks like this: | |
162 | |
163 @example | |
164 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{}) | |
165 @r{[}@var{documentation-string}@r{]} | |
166 @r{[}@var{interactive-declaration}@r{]} | |
167 @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
168 @end example | |
169 | |
170 @noindent | |
12098 | 171 Such a list is called a @dfn{lambda expression}. In Emacs Lisp, it |
172 actually is valid as an expression---it evaluates to itself. In some | |
173 other Lisp dialects, a lambda expression is not a valid expression at | |
174 all. In either case, its main use is not to be evaluated as an | |
175 expression, but to be called as a function. | |
6455 | 176 |
177 @menu | |
178 * Lambda Components:: The parts of a lambda expression. | |
179 * Simple Lambda:: A simple example. | |
180 * Argument List:: Details and special features of argument lists. | |
181 * Function Documentation:: How to put documentation in a function. | |
182 @end menu | |
183 | |
184 @node Lambda Components | |
185 @subsection Components of a Lambda Expression | |
186 | |
27193 | 187 @ifnottex |
6455 | 188 |
189 A function written in Lisp (a ``lambda expression'') is a list that | |
190 looks like this: | |
191 | |
192 @example | |
193 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{}) | |
194 [@var{documentation-string}] | |
195 [@var{interactive-declaration}] | |
196 @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
197 @end example | |
27193 | 198 @end ifnottex |
6455 | 199 |
200 @cindex lambda list | |
201 The first element of a lambda expression is always the symbol | |
202 @code{lambda}. This indicates that the list represents a function. The | |
203 reason functions are defined to start with @code{lambda} is so that | |
204 other lists, intended for other uses, will not accidentally be valid as | |
205 functions. | |
206 | |
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207 The second element is a list of symbols---the argument variable names. |
6455 | 208 This is called the @dfn{lambda list}. When a Lisp function is called, |
209 the argument values are matched up against the variables in the lambda | |
210 list, which are given local bindings with the values provided. | |
211 @xref{Local Variables}. | |
212 | |
7193 | 213 The documentation string is a Lisp string object placed within the |
214 function definition to describe the function for the Emacs help | |
215 facilities. @xref{Function Documentation}. | |
6455 | 216 |
217 The interactive declaration is a list of the form @code{(interactive | |
218 @var{code-string})}. This declares how to provide arguments if the | |
219 function is used interactively. Functions with this declaration are called | |
220 @dfn{commands}; they can be called using @kbd{M-x} or bound to a key. | |
221 Functions not intended to be called in this way should not have interactive | |
222 declarations. @xref{Defining Commands}, for how to write an interactive | |
223 declaration. | |
224 | |
225 @cindex body of function | |
226 The rest of the elements are the @dfn{body} of the function: the Lisp | |
227 code to do the work of the function (or, as a Lisp programmer would say, | |
228 ``a list of Lisp forms to evaluate''). The value returned by the | |
229 function is the value returned by the last element of the body. | |
230 | |
231 @node Simple Lambda | |
232 @subsection A Simple Lambda-Expression Example | |
233 | |
234 Consider for example the following function: | |
235 | |
236 @example | |
237 (lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
238 @end example | |
239 | |
240 @noindent | |
241 We can call this function by writing it as the @sc{car} of an | |
242 expression, like this: | |
243 | |
244 @example | |
245 @group | |
246 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
247 1 2 3) | |
248 @end group | |
249 @end example | |
250 | |
251 @noindent | |
252 This call evaluates the body of the lambda expression with the variable | |
253 @code{a} bound to 1, @code{b} bound to 2, and @code{c} bound to 3. | |
254 Evaluation of the body adds these three numbers, producing the result 6; | |
255 therefore, this call to the function returns the value 6. | |
256 | |
257 Note that the arguments can be the results of other function calls, as in | |
258 this example: | |
259 | |
260 @example | |
261 @group | |
262 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
263 1 (* 2 3) (- 5 4)) | |
264 @end group | |
265 @end example | |
266 | |
267 @noindent | |
268 This evaluates the arguments @code{1}, @code{(* 2 3)}, and @code{(- 5 | |
7193 | 269 4)} from left to right. Then it applies the lambda expression to the |
270 argument values 1, 6 and 1 to produce the value 8. | |
6455 | 271 |
272 It is not often useful to write a lambda expression as the @sc{car} of | |
273 a form in this way. You can get the same result, of making local | |
274 variables and giving them values, using the special form @code{let} | |
275 (@pxref{Local Variables}). And @code{let} is clearer and easier to use. | |
276 In practice, lambda expressions are either stored as the function | |
277 definitions of symbols, to produce named functions, or passed as | |
278 arguments to other functions (@pxref{Anonymous Functions}). | |
279 | |
280 However, calls to explicit lambda expressions were very useful in the | |
281 old days of Lisp, before the special form @code{let} was invented. At | |
282 that time, they were the only way to bind and initialize local | |
283 variables. | |
284 | |
285 @node Argument List | |
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286 @subsection Other Features of Argument Lists |
6455 | 287 @kindex wrong-number-of-arguments |
288 @cindex argument binding | |
289 @cindex binding arguments | |
290 | |
291 Our simple sample function, @code{(lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))}, | |
292 specifies three argument variables, so it must be called with three | |
293 arguments: if you try to call it with only two arguments or four | |
294 arguments, you get a @code{wrong-number-of-arguments} error. | |
295 | |
296 It is often convenient to write a function that allows certain | |
297 arguments to be omitted. For example, the function @code{substring} | |
298 accepts three arguments---a string, the start index and the end | |
299 index---but the third argument defaults to the @var{length} of the | |
300 string if you omit it. It is also convenient for certain functions to | |
7193 | 301 accept an indefinite number of arguments, as the functions @code{list} |
6455 | 302 and @code{+} do. |
303 | |
304 @cindex optional arguments | |
305 @cindex rest arguments | |
306 @kindex &optional | |
307 @kindex &rest | |
308 To specify optional arguments that may be omitted when a function | |
309 is called, simply include the keyword @code{&optional} before the optional | |
310 arguments. To specify a list of zero or more extra arguments, include the | |
311 keyword @code{&rest} before one final argument. | |
312 | |
313 Thus, the complete syntax for an argument list is as follows: | |
314 | |
315 @example | |
316 @group | |
317 (@var{required-vars}@dots{} | |
318 @r{[}&optional @var{optional-vars}@dots{}@r{]} | |
319 @r{[}&rest @var{rest-var}@r{]}) | |
320 @end group | |
321 @end example | |
322 | |
323 @noindent | |
324 The square brackets indicate that the @code{&optional} and @code{&rest} | |
325 clauses, and the variables that follow them, are optional. | |
326 | |
327 A call to the function requires one actual argument for each of the | |
328 @var{required-vars}. There may be actual arguments for zero or more of | |
329 the @var{optional-vars}, and there cannot be any actual arguments beyond | |
330 that unless the lambda list uses @code{&rest}. In that case, there may | |
331 be any number of extra actual arguments. | |
332 | |
333 If actual arguments for the optional and rest variables are omitted, | |
7193 | 334 then they always default to @code{nil}. There is no way for the |
6455 | 335 function to distinguish between an explicit argument of @code{nil} and |
7193 | 336 an omitted argument. However, the body of the function is free to |
337 consider @code{nil} an abbreviation for some other meaningful value. | |
338 This is what @code{substring} does; @code{nil} as the third argument to | |
339 @code{substring} means to use the length of the string supplied. | |
6455 | 340 |
341 @cindex CL note---default optional arg | |
342 @quotation | |
343 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp allows the function to specify what | |
344 default value to use when an optional argument is omitted; Emacs Lisp | |
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345 always uses @code{nil}. Emacs Lisp does not support ``supplied-p'' |
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346 variables that tell you whether an argument was explicitly passed. |
6455 | 347 @end quotation |
348 | |
349 For example, an argument list that looks like this: | |
350 | |
351 @example | |
352 (a b &optional c d &rest e) | |
353 @end example | |
354 | |
355 @noindent | |
356 binds @code{a} and @code{b} to the first two actual arguments, which are | |
357 required. If one or two more arguments are provided, @code{c} and | |
358 @code{d} are bound to them respectively; any arguments after the first | |
359 four are collected into a list and @code{e} is bound to that list. If | |
360 there are only two arguments, @code{c} is @code{nil}; if two or three | |
361 arguments, @code{d} is @code{nil}; if four arguments or fewer, @code{e} | |
362 is @code{nil}. | |
363 | |
364 There is no way to have required arguments following optional | |
365 ones---it would not make sense. To see why this must be so, suppose | |
366 that @code{c} in the example were optional and @code{d} were required. | |
367 Suppose three actual arguments are given; which variable would the third | |
368 argument be for? Similarly, it makes no sense to have any more | |
369 arguments (either required or optional) after a @code{&rest} argument. | |
370 | |
371 Here are some examples of argument lists and proper calls: | |
372 | |
373 @smallexample | |
374 ((lambda (n) (1+ n)) ; @r{One required:} | |
375 1) ; @r{requires exactly one argument.} | |
376 @result{} 2 | |
377 ((lambda (n &optional n1) ; @r{One required and one optional:} | |
378 (if n1 (+ n n1) (1+ n))) ; @r{1 or 2 arguments.} | |
379 1 2) | |
380 @result{} 3 | |
381 ((lambda (n &rest ns) ; @r{One required and one rest:} | |
382 (+ n (apply '+ ns))) ; @r{1 or more arguments.} | |
383 1 2 3 4 5) | |
384 @result{} 15 | |
385 @end smallexample | |
386 | |
387 @node Function Documentation | |
388 @subsection Documentation Strings of Functions | |
389 @cindex documentation of function | |
390 | |
391 A lambda expression may optionally have a @dfn{documentation string} just | |
392 after the lambda list. This string does not affect execution of the | |
393 function; it is a kind of comment, but a systematized comment which | |
394 actually appears inside the Lisp world and can be used by the Emacs help | |
395 facilities. @xref{Documentation}, for how the @var{documentation-string} is | |
396 accessed. | |
397 | |
12098 | 398 It is a good idea to provide documentation strings for all the |
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399 functions in your program, even those that are called only from within |
12098 | 400 your program. Documentation strings are like comments, except that they |
401 are easier to access. | |
6455 | 402 |
403 The first line of the documentation string should stand on its own, | |
404 because @code{apropos} displays just this first line. It should consist | |
405 of one or two complete sentences that summarize the function's purpose. | |
406 | |
12098 | 407 The start of the documentation string is usually indented in the source file, |
408 but since these spaces come before the starting double-quote, they are not part of | |
6455 | 409 the string. Some people make a practice of indenting any additional |
7193 | 410 lines of the string so that the text lines up in the program source. |
411 @emph{This is a mistake.} The indentation of the following lines is | |
412 inside the string; what looks nice in the source code will look ugly | |
413 when displayed by the help commands. | |
6455 | 414 |
415 You may wonder how the documentation string could be optional, since | |
416 there are required components of the function that follow it (the body). | |
417 Since evaluation of a string returns that string, without any side effects, | |
418 it has no effect if it is not the last form in the body. Thus, in | |
419 practice, there is no confusion between the first form of the body and the | |
420 documentation string; if the only body form is a string then it serves both | |
421 as the return value and as the documentation. | |
422 | |
423 @node Function Names | |
424 @section Naming a Function | |
425 @cindex function definition | |
426 @cindex named function | |
427 @cindex function name | |
428 | |
429 In most computer languages, every function has a name; the idea of a | |
430 function without a name is nonsensical. In Lisp, a function in the | |
431 strictest sense has no name. It is simply a list whose first element is | |
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432 @code{lambda}, a byte-code function object, or a primitive subr-object. |
6455 | 433 |
434 However, a symbol can serve as the name of a function. This happens | |
435 when you put the function in the symbol's @dfn{function cell} | |
436 (@pxref{Symbol Components}). Then the symbol itself becomes a valid, | |
437 callable function, equivalent to the list or subr-object that its | |
438 function cell refers to. The contents of the function cell are also | |
439 called the symbol's @dfn{function definition}. The procedure of using a | |
440 symbol's function definition in place of the symbol is called | |
441 @dfn{symbol function indirection}; see @ref{Function Indirection}. | |
442 | |
443 In practice, nearly all functions are given names in this way and | |
444 referred to through their names. For example, the symbol @code{car} works | |
445 as a function and does what it does because the primitive subr-object | |
446 @code{#<subr car>} is stored in its function cell. | |
447 | |
448 We give functions names because it is convenient to refer to them by | |
449 their names in Lisp expressions. For primitive subr-objects such as | |
450 @code{#<subr car>}, names are the only way you can refer to them: there | |
451 is no read syntax for such objects. For functions written in Lisp, the | |
452 name is more convenient to use in a call than an explicit lambda | |
453 expression. Also, a function with a name can refer to itself---it can | |
454 be recursive. Writing the function's name in its own definition is much | |
455 more convenient than making the function definition point to itself | |
456 (something that is not impossible but that has various disadvantages in | |
457 practice). | |
458 | |
459 We often identify functions with the symbols used to name them. For | |
460 example, we often speak of ``the function @code{car}'', not | |
461 distinguishing between the symbol @code{car} and the primitive | |
462 subr-object that is its function definition. For most purposes, there | |
463 is no need to distinguish. | |
464 | |
465 Even so, keep in mind that a function need not have a unique name. While | |
466 a given function object @emph{usually} appears in the function cell of only | |
467 one symbol, this is just a matter of convenience. It is easy to store | |
468 it in several symbols using @code{fset}; then each of the symbols is | |
469 equally well a name for the same function. | |
470 | |
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471 A symbol used as a function name may also be used as a variable; these |
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472 two uses of a symbol are independent and do not conflict. (Some Lisp |
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473 dialects, such as Scheme, do not distinguish between a symbol's value |
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474 and its function definition; a symbol's value as a variable is also its |
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475 function definition.) If you have not given a symbol a function |
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476 definition, you cannot use it as a function; whether the symbol has a |
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477 value as a variable makes no difference to this. |
6455 | 478 |
479 @node Defining Functions | |
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480 @section Defining Functions |
6455 | 481 @cindex defining a function |
482 | |
483 We usually give a name to a function when it is first created. This | |
484 is called @dfn{defining a function}, and it is done with the | |
485 @code{defun} special form. | |
486 | |
487 @defspec defun name argument-list body-forms | |
488 @code{defun} is the usual way to define new Lisp functions. It | |
489 defines the symbol @var{name} as a function that looks like this: | |
490 | |
491 @example | |
492 (lambda @var{argument-list} . @var{body-forms}) | |
493 @end example | |
494 | |
495 @code{defun} stores this lambda expression in the function cell of | |
496 @var{name}. It returns the value @var{name}, but usually we ignore this | |
497 value. | |
498 | |
499 As described previously (@pxref{Lambda Expressions}), | |
500 @var{argument-list} is a list of argument names and may include the | |
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501 keywords @code{&optional} and @code{&rest}. Also, the first two of the |
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502 @var{body-forms} may be a documentation string and an interactive |
6455 | 503 declaration. |
504 | |
505 There is no conflict if the same symbol @var{name} is also used as a | |
506 variable, since the symbol's value cell is independent of the function | |
507 cell. @xref{Symbol Components}. | |
508 | |
509 Here are some examples: | |
510 | |
511 @example | |
512 @group | |
513 (defun foo () 5) | |
514 @result{} foo | |
515 @end group | |
516 @group | |
517 (foo) | |
518 @result{} 5 | |
519 @end group | |
520 | |
521 @group | |
522 (defun bar (a &optional b &rest c) | |
523 (list a b c)) | |
524 @result{} bar | |
525 @end group | |
526 @group | |
527 (bar 1 2 3 4 5) | |
528 @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5)) | |
529 @end group | |
530 @group | |
531 (bar 1) | |
532 @result{} (1 nil nil) | |
533 @end group | |
534 @group | |
535 (bar) | |
536 @error{} Wrong number of arguments. | |
537 @end group | |
538 | |
539 @group | |
540 (defun capitalize-backwards () | |
541 "Upcase the last letter of a word." | |
542 (interactive) | |
543 (backward-word 1) | |
544 (forward-word 1) | |
545 (backward-char 1) | |
546 (capitalize-word 1)) | |
547 @result{} capitalize-backwards | |
548 @end group | |
549 @end example | |
550 | |
551 Be careful not to redefine existing functions unintentionally. | |
552 @code{defun} redefines even primitive functions such as @code{car} | |
553 without any hesitation or notification. Redefining a function already | |
554 defined is often done deliberately, and there is no way to distinguish | |
555 deliberate redefinition from unintentional redefinition. | |
556 @end defspec | |
557 | |
558 @defun defalias name definition | |
559 This special form defines the symbol @var{name} as a function, with | |
7193 | 560 definition @var{definition} (which can be any valid Lisp function). |
12098 | 561 |
562 The proper place to use @code{defalias} is where a specific function | |
563 name is being defined---especially where that name appears explicitly in | |
564 the source file being loaded. This is because @code{defalias} records | |
565 which file defined the function, just like @code{defun} | |
566 (@pxref{Unloading}). | |
567 | |
568 By contrast, in programs that manipulate function definitions for other | |
569 purposes, it is better to use @code{fset}, which does not keep such | |
570 records. | |
6455 | 571 @end defun |
572 | |
12098 | 573 See also @code{defsubst}, which defines a function like @code{defun} |
574 and tells the Lisp compiler to open-code it. @xref{Inline Functions}. | |
575 | |
6455 | 576 @node Calling Functions |
577 @section Calling Functions | |
578 @cindex function invocation | |
579 @cindex calling a function | |
580 | |
581 Defining functions is only half the battle. Functions don't do | |
582 anything until you @dfn{call} them, i.e., tell them to run. Calling a | |
583 function is also known as @dfn{invocation}. | |
584 | |
7193 | 585 The most common way of invoking a function is by evaluating a list. |
586 For example, evaluating the list @code{(concat "a" "b")} calls the | |
587 function @code{concat} with arguments @code{"a"} and @code{"b"}. | |
588 @xref{Evaluation}, for a description of evaluation. | |
6455 | 589 |
590 When you write a list as an expression in your program, the function | |
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591 name it calls is written in your program. This means that you choose |
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592 which function to call, and how many arguments to give it, when you |
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593 write the program. Usually that's just what you want. Occasionally you |
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594 need to compute at run time which function to call. To do that, use the |
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595 function @code{funcall}. When you also need to determine at run time |
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596 how many arguments to pass, use @code{apply}. |
6455 | 597 |
598 @defun funcall function &rest arguments | |
599 @code{funcall} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, and returns | |
600 whatever @var{function} returns. | |
601 | |
602 Since @code{funcall} is a function, all of its arguments, including | |
603 @var{function}, are evaluated before @code{funcall} is called. This | |
604 means that you can use any expression to obtain the function to be | |
605 called. It also means that @code{funcall} does not see the expressions | |
606 you write for the @var{arguments}, only their values. These values are | |
607 @emph{not} evaluated a second time in the act of calling @var{function}; | |
608 @code{funcall} enters the normal procedure for calling a function at the | |
609 place where the arguments have already been evaluated. | |
610 | |
611 The argument @var{function} must be either a Lisp function or a | |
612 primitive function. Special forms and macros are not allowed, because | |
613 they make sense only when given the ``unevaluated'' argument | |
614 expressions. @code{funcall} cannot provide these because, as we saw | |
615 above, it never knows them in the first place. | |
616 | |
617 @example | |
618 @group | |
619 (setq f 'list) | |
620 @result{} list | |
621 @end group | |
622 @group | |
623 (funcall f 'x 'y 'z) | |
624 @result{} (x y z) | |
625 @end group | |
626 @group | |
627 (funcall f 'x 'y '(z)) | |
628 @result{} (x y (z)) | |
629 @end group | |
630 @group | |
631 (funcall 'and t nil) | |
632 @error{} Invalid function: #<subr and> | |
633 @end group | |
634 @end example | |
635 | |
26192 | 636 Compare these examples with the examples of @code{apply}. |
6455 | 637 @end defun |
638 | |
639 @defun apply function &rest arguments | |
640 @code{apply} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, just like | |
641 @code{funcall} but with one difference: the last of @var{arguments} is a | |
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642 list of objects, which are passed to @var{function} as separate |
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643 arguments, rather than a single list. We say that @code{apply} |
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644 @dfn{spreads} this list so that each individual element becomes an |
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645 argument. |
6455 | 646 |
647 @code{apply} returns the result of calling @var{function}. As with | |
648 @code{funcall}, @var{function} must either be a Lisp function or a | |
649 primitive function; special forms and macros do not make sense in | |
650 @code{apply}. | |
651 | |
652 @example | |
653 @group | |
654 (setq f 'list) | |
655 @result{} list | |
656 @end group | |
657 @group | |
658 (apply f 'x 'y 'z) | |
659 @error{} Wrong type argument: listp, z | |
660 @end group | |
661 @group | |
662 (apply '+ 1 2 '(3 4)) | |
663 @result{} 10 | |
664 @end group | |
665 @group | |
666 (apply '+ '(1 2 3 4)) | |
667 @result{} 10 | |
668 @end group | |
669 | |
670 @group | |
671 (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil)) | |
672 @result{} (a b c x y z) | |
673 @end group | |
674 @end example | |
675 | |
676 For an interesting example of using @code{apply}, see the description of | |
677 @code{mapcar}, in @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
678 @end defun | |
679 | |
680 @cindex functionals | |
681 It is common for Lisp functions to accept functions as arguments or | |
682 find them in data structures (especially in hook variables and property | |
683 lists) and call them using @code{funcall} or @code{apply}. Functions | |
684 that accept function arguments are often called @dfn{functionals}. | |
685 | |
12098 | 686 Sometimes, when you call a functional, it is useful to supply a no-op |
687 function as the argument. Here are two different kinds of no-op | |
6455 | 688 function: |
689 | |
690 @defun identity arg | |
691 This function returns @var{arg} and has no side effects. | |
692 @end defun | |
693 | |
694 @defun ignore &rest args | |
695 This function ignores any arguments and returns @code{nil}. | |
696 @end defun | |
697 | |
698 @node Mapping Functions | |
699 @section Mapping Functions | |
700 @cindex mapping functions | |
701 | |
702 A @dfn{mapping function} applies a given function to each element of a | |
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703 list or other collection. Emacs Lisp has several such functions; |
6455 | 704 @code{mapcar} and @code{mapconcat}, which scan a list, are described |
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705 here. @xref{Creating Symbols}, for the function @code{mapatoms} which |
26192 | 706 maps over the symbols in an obarray. @xref{Hash Access}, for the |
707 function @code{maphash} which maps over key/value associations in a | |
708 hash table. | |
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709 |
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710 These mapping functions do not allow char-tables because a char-table |
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711 is a sparse array whose nominal range of indices is very large. To map |
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712 over a char-table in a way that deals properly with its sparse nature, |
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713 use the function @code{map-char-table} (@pxref{Char-Tables}). |
6455 | 714 |
715 @defun mapcar function sequence | |
7193 | 716 @code{mapcar} applies @var{function} to each element of @var{sequence} |
717 in turn, and returns a list of the results. | |
6455 | 718 |
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719 The argument @var{sequence} can be any kind of sequence except a |
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720 char-table; that is, a list, a vector, a bool-vector, or a string. The |
6455 | 721 result is always a list. The length of the result is the same as the |
722 length of @var{sequence}. | |
723 | |
724 @smallexample | |
725 @group | |
726 @exdent @r{For example:} | |
727 | |
728 (mapcar 'car '((a b) (c d) (e f))) | |
729 @result{} (a c e) | |
730 (mapcar '1+ [1 2 3]) | |
731 @result{} (2 3 4) | |
732 (mapcar 'char-to-string "abc") | |
733 @result{} ("a" "b" "c") | |
734 @end group | |
735 | |
736 @group | |
737 ;; @r{Call each function in @code{my-hooks}.} | |
738 (mapcar 'funcall my-hooks) | |
739 @end group | |
740 | |
741 @group | |
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742 (defun mapcar* (function &rest args) |
6455 | 743 "Apply FUNCTION to successive cars of all ARGS. |
744 Return the list of results." | |
745 ;; @r{If no list is exhausted,} | |
746 (if (not (memq 'nil args)) | |
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747 ;; @r{apply function to @sc{car}s.} |
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748 (cons (apply function (mapcar 'car args)) |
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749 (apply 'mapcar* function |
6455 | 750 ;; @r{Recurse for rest of elements.} |
751 (mapcar 'cdr args))))) | |
752 @end group | |
753 | |
754 @group | |
755 (mapcar* 'cons '(a b c) '(1 2 3 4)) | |
756 @result{} ((a . 1) (b . 2) (c . 3)) | |
757 @end group | |
758 @end smallexample | |
759 @end defun | |
760 | |
28556 | 761 @defun mapc function sequence |
762 @tindex mapc | |
763 @code{mapc} is like @code{mapcar} except that @var{function} is used for | |
764 side-effects only---the values it returns are ignored, not collected | |
765 into a list. @code{mapc} always returns @var{sequence}. | |
766 @end defun | |
767 | |
6455 | 768 @defun mapconcat function sequence separator |
769 @code{mapconcat} applies @var{function} to each element of | |
770 @var{sequence}: the results, which must be strings, are concatenated. | |
771 Between each pair of result strings, @code{mapconcat} inserts the string | |
772 @var{separator}. Usually @var{separator} contains a space or comma or | |
773 other suitable punctuation. | |
774 | |
775 The argument @var{function} must be a function that can take one | |
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776 argument and return a string. The argument @var{sequence} can be any |
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777 kind of sequence except a char-table; that is, a list, a vector, a |
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778 bool-vector, or a string. |
6455 | 779 |
780 @smallexample | |
781 @group | |
782 (mapconcat 'symbol-name | |
783 '(The cat in the hat) | |
784 " ") | |
785 @result{} "The cat in the hat" | |
786 @end group | |
787 | |
788 @group | |
789 (mapconcat (function (lambda (x) (format "%c" (1+ x)))) | |
790 "HAL-8000" | |
791 "") | |
792 @result{} "IBM.9111" | |
793 @end group | |
794 @end smallexample | |
795 @end defun | |
796 | |
797 @node Anonymous Functions | |
798 @section Anonymous Functions | |
799 @cindex anonymous function | |
800 | |
801 In Lisp, a function is a list that starts with @code{lambda}, a | |
802 byte-code function compiled from such a list, or alternatively a | |
803 primitive subr-object; names are ``extra''. Although usually functions | |
804 are defined with @code{defun} and given names at the same time, it is | |
805 occasionally more concise to use an explicit lambda expression---an | |
806 anonymous function. Such a list is valid wherever a function name is. | |
807 | |
808 Any method of creating such a list makes a valid function. Even this: | |
809 | |
810 @smallexample | |
811 @group | |
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812 (setq silly (append (lambda (x)) (list (list '+ (* 3 4) 'x)))) |
6455 | 813 @result{} (lambda (x) (+ 12 x)) |
814 @end group | |
815 @end smallexample | |
816 | |
817 @noindent | |
818 This computes a list that looks like @code{(lambda (x) (+ 12 x))} and | |
819 makes it the value (@emph{not} the function definition!) of | |
820 @code{silly}. | |
821 | |
822 Here is how we might call this function: | |
823 | |
824 @example | |
825 @group | |
826 (funcall silly 1) | |
827 @result{} 13 | |
828 @end group | |
829 @end example | |
830 | |
831 @noindent | |
832 (It does @emph{not} work to write @code{(silly 1)}, because this function | |
833 is not the @emph{function definition} of @code{silly}. We have not given | |
834 @code{silly} any function definition, just a value as a variable.) | |
835 | |
836 Most of the time, anonymous functions are constants that appear in | |
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837 your program. For example, you might want to pass one as an argument to |
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838 the function @code{mapcar}, which applies any given function to each |
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839 element of a list. |
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840 |
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841 Here we define a function @code{change-property} which |
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842 uses a function as its third argument: |
6455 | 843 |
844 @example | |
845 @group | |
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846 (defun change-property (symbol prop function) |
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847 (let ((value (get symbol prop))) |
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848 (put symbol prop (funcall function value)))) |
6455 | 849 @end group |
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850 @end example |
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851 |
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852 @noindent |
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853 Here we define a function that uses @code{change-property}, |
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854 passing it a function to double a number: |
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855 |
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856 @example |
6455 | 857 @group |
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858 (defun double-property (symbol prop) |
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859 (change-property symbol prop (lambda (x) (* 2 x)))) |
6455 | 860 @end group |
861 @end example | |
862 | |
863 @noindent | |
864 In such cases, we usually use the special form @code{function} instead | |
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865 of simple quotation to quote the anonymous function, like this: |
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866 |
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867 @example |
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868 @group |
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869 (defun double-property (symbol prop) |
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870 (change-property symbol prop |
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871 (function (lambda (x) (* 2 x))))) |
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872 @end group |
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873 @end example |
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874 |
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875 Using @code{function} instead of @code{quote} makes a difference if you |
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876 compile the function @code{double-property}. For example, if you |
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877 compile the second definition of @code{double-property}, the anonymous |
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878 function is compiled as well. By contrast, if you compile the first |
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879 definition which uses ordinary @code{quote}, the argument passed to |
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880 @code{change-property} is the precise list shown: |
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881 |
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882 @example |
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883 (lambda (x) (* x 2)) |
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884 @end example |
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885 |
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886 @noindent |
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887 The Lisp compiler cannot assume this list is a function, even though it |
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888 looks like one, since it does not know what @code{change-property} will |
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889 do with the list. Perhaps it will check whether the @sc{car} of the third |
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890 element is the symbol @code{*}! Using @code{function} tells the |
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891 compiler it is safe to go ahead and compile the constant function. |
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892 |
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893 We sometimes write @code{function} instead of @code{quote} when |
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894 quoting the name of a function, but this usage is just a sort of |
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895 comment: |
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896 |
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897 @example |
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898 (function @var{symbol}) @equiv{} (quote @var{symbol}) @equiv{} '@var{symbol} |
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899 @end example |
6455 | 900 |
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901 @cindex @samp{#'} syntax |
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902 The read syntax @code{#'} is a short-hand for using @code{function}. |
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903 For example, |
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904 |
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905 @example |
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906 #'(lambda (x) (* x x)) |
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907 @end example |
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908 |
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909 @noindent |
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910 is equivalent to |
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911 |
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912 @example |
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913 (function (lambda (x) (* x x))) |
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914 @end example |
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915 |
6455 | 916 @defspec function function-object |
917 @cindex function quoting | |
918 This special form returns @var{function-object} without evaluating it. | |
919 In this, it is equivalent to @code{quote}. However, it serves as a | |
920 note to the Emacs Lisp compiler that @var{function-object} is intended | |
921 to be used only as a function, and therefore can safely be compiled. | |
922 Contrast this with @code{quote}, in @ref{Quoting}. | |
923 @end defspec | |
924 | |
925 See @code{documentation} in @ref{Accessing Documentation}, for a | |
926 realistic example using @code{function} and an anonymous function. | |
927 | |
928 @node Function Cells | |
929 @section Accessing Function Cell Contents | |
930 | |
931 The @dfn{function definition} of a symbol is the object stored in the | |
932 function cell of the symbol. The functions described here access, test, | |
933 and set the function cell of symbols. | |
934 | |
7193 | 935 See also the function @code{indirect-function} in @ref{Function |
936 Indirection}. | |
937 | |
6455 | 938 @defun symbol-function symbol |
939 @kindex void-function | |
940 This returns the object in the function cell of @var{symbol}. If the | |
941 symbol's function cell is void, a @code{void-function} error is | |
942 signaled. | |
943 | |
944 This function does not check that the returned object is a legitimate | |
945 function. | |
946 | |
947 @example | |
948 @group | |
949 (defun bar (n) (+ n 2)) | |
950 @result{} bar | |
951 @end group | |
952 @group | |
953 (symbol-function 'bar) | |
954 @result{} (lambda (n) (+ n 2)) | |
955 @end group | |
956 @group | |
957 (fset 'baz 'bar) | |
958 @result{} bar | |
959 @end group | |
960 @group | |
961 (symbol-function 'baz) | |
962 @result{} bar | |
963 @end group | |
964 @end example | |
965 @end defun | |
966 | |
967 @cindex void function cell | |
968 If you have never given a symbol any function definition, we say that | |
969 that symbol's function cell is @dfn{void}. In other words, the function | |
970 cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to call such a symbol | |
971 as a function, it signals a @code{void-function} error. | |
972 | |
973 Note that void is not the same as @code{nil} or the symbol | |
974 @code{void}. The symbols @code{nil} and @code{void} are Lisp objects, | |
975 and can be stored into a function cell just as any other object can be | |
976 (and they can be valid functions if you define them in turn with | |
7193 | 977 @code{defun}). A void function cell contains no object whatsoever. |
6455 | 978 |
979 You can test the voidness of a symbol's function definition with | |
980 @code{fboundp}. After you have given a symbol a function definition, you | |
981 can make it void once more using @code{fmakunbound}. | |
982 | |
983 @defun fboundp symbol | |
984 This function returns @code{t} if the symbol has an object in its | |
985 function cell, @code{nil} otherwise. It does not check that the object | |
986 is a legitimate function. | |
987 @end defun | |
988 | |
989 @defun fmakunbound symbol | |
990 This function makes @var{symbol}'s function cell void, so that a | |
991 subsequent attempt to access this cell will cause a @code{void-function} | |
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992 error. (See also @code{makunbound}, in @ref{Void Variables}.) |
6455 | 993 |
994 @example | |
995 @group | |
996 (defun foo (x) x) | |
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997 @result{} foo |
6455 | 998 @end group |
999 @group | |
7193 | 1000 (foo 1) |
1001 @result{}1 | |
1002 @end group | |
1003 @group | |
6455 | 1004 (fmakunbound 'foo) |
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1005 @result{} foo |
6455 | 1006 @end group |
1007 @group | |
1008 (foo 1) | |
1009 @error{} Symbol's function definition is void: foo | |
1010 @end group | |
1011 @end example | |
1012 @end defun | |
1013 | |
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1014 @defun fset symbol definition |
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1015 This function stores @var{definition} in the function cell of |
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1016 @var{symbol}. The result is @var{definition}. Normally |
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1017 @var{definition} should be a function or the name of a function, but |
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1018 this is not checked. The argument @var{symbol} is an ordinary evaluated |
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1019 argument. |
6455 | 1020 |
1021 There are three normal uses of this function: | |
1022 | |
1023 @itemize @bullet | |
1024 @item | |
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1025 Copying one symbol's function definition to another---in other words, |
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1026 making an alternate name for a function. (If you think of this as the |
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1027 definition of the new name, you should use @code{defalias} instead of |
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1028 @code{fset}; see @ref{Defining Functions}.) |
6455 | 1029 |
1030 @item | |
1031 Giving a symbol a function definition that is not a list and therefore | |
7193 | 1032 cannot be made with @code{defun}. For example, you can use @code{fset} |
1033 to give a symbol @code{s1} a function definition which is another symbol | |
1034 @code{s2}; then @code{s1} serves as an alias for whatever definition | |
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1035 @code{s2} presently has. (Once again use @code{defalias} instead of |
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1036 @code{fset} if you think of this as the definition of @code{s1}.) |
6455 | 1037 |
1038 @item | |
1039 In constructs for defining or altering functions. If @code{defun} | |
1040 were not a primitive, it could be written in Lisp (as a macro) using | |
1041 @code{fset}. | |
1042 @end itemize | |
1043 | |
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1044 Here are examples of these uses: |
6455 | 1045 |
1046 @example | |
1047 @group | |
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1048 ;; @r{Save @code{foo}'s definition in @code{old-foo}.} |
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1049 (fset 'old-foo (symbol-function 'foo)) |
6455 | 1050 @end group |
1051 | |
1052 @group | |
1053 ;; @r{Make the symbol @code{car} the function definition of @code{xfirst}.} | |
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1054 ;; @r{(Most likely, @code{defalias} would be better than @code{fset} here.)} |
6455 | 1055 (fset 'xfirst 'car) |
1056 @result{} car | |
1057 @end group | |
1058 @group | |
1059 (xfirst '(1 2 3)) | |
1060 @result{} 1 | |
1061 @end group | |
1062 @group | |
1063 (symbol-function 'xfirst) | |
1064 @result{} car | |
1065 @end group | |
1066 @group | |
1067 (symbol-function (symbol-function 'xfirst)) | |
1068 @result{} #<subr car> | |
1069 @end group | |
1070 | |
1071 @group | |
1072 ;; @r{Define a named keyboard macro.} | |
1073 (fset 'kill-two-lines "\^u2\^k") | |
1074 @result{} "\^u2\^k" | |
1075 @end group | |
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1076 |
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1077 @group |
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1078 ;; @r{Here is a function that alters other functions.} |
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1079 (defun copy-function-definition (new old) |
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1080 "Define NEW with the same function definition as OLD." |
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1081 (fset new (symbol-function old))) |
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1082 @end group |
6455 | 1083 @end example |
1084 @end defun | |
1085 | |
1086 When writing a function that extends a previously defined function, | |
12098 | 1087 the following idiom is sometimes used: |
6455 | 1088 |
1089 @example | |
1090 (fset 'old-foo (symbol-function 'foo)) | |
1091 (defun foo () | |
1092 "Just like old-foo, except more so." | |
1093 @group | |
1094 (old-foo) | |
1095 (more-so)) | |
1096 @end group | |
1097 @end example | |
1098 | |
1099 @noindent | |
1100 This does not work properly if @code{foo} has been defined to autoload. | |
1101 In such a case, when @code{foo} calls @code{old-foo}, Lisp attempts | |
1102 to define @code{old-foo} by loading a file. Since this presumably | |
1103 defines @code{foo} rather than @code{old-foo}, it does not produce the | |
1104 proper results. The only way to avoid this problem is to make sure the | |
1105 file is loaded before moving aside the old definition of @code{foo}. | |
1106 | |
12098 | 1107 But it is unmodular and unclean, in any case, for a Lisp file to |
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1108 redefine a function defined elsewhere. It is cleaner to use the advice |
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1109 facility (@pxref{Advising Functions}). |
12098 | 1110 |
6455 | 1111 @node Inline Functions |
1112 @section Inline Functions | |
1113 @cindex inline functions | |
1114 | |
1115 @findex defsubst | |
1116 You can define an @dfn{inline function} by using @code{defsubst} instead | |
1117 of @code{defun}. An inline function works just like an ordinary | |
1118 function except for one thing: when you compile a call to the function, | |
1119 the function's definition is open-coded into the caller. | |
1120 | |
1121 Making a function inline makes explicit calls run faster. But it also | |
1122 has disadvantages. For one thing, it reduces flexibility; if you change | |
1123 the definition of the function, calls already inlined still use the old | |
1124 definition until you recompile them. Since the flexibility of | |
1125 redefining functions is an important feature of Emacs, you should not | |
1126 make a function inline unless its speed is really crucial. | |
1127 | |
1128 Another disadvantage is that making a large function inline can increase | |
1129 the size of compiled code both in files and in memory. Since the speed | |
1130 advantage of inline functions is greatest for small functions, you | |
1131 generally should not make large functions inline. | |
1132 | |
1133 It's possible to define a macro to expand into the same code that an | |
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1134 inline function would execute. (@xref{Macros}.) But the macro would be |
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1135 limited to direct use in expressions---a macro cannot be called with |
6455 | 1136 @code{apply}, @code{mapcar} and so on. Also, it takes some work to |
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1137 convert an ordinary function into a macro. To convert it into an inline |
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1138 function is very easy; simply replace @code{defun} with @code{defsubst}. |
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1139 Since each argument of an inline function is evaluated exactly once, you |
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1140 needn't worry about how many times the body uses the arguments, as you |
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1141 do for macros. (@xref{Argument Evaluation}.) |
6455 | 1142 |
7193 | 1143 Inline functions can be used and open-coded later on in the same file, |
6455 | 1144 following the definition, just like macros. |
1145 | |
12098 | 1146 @c Emacs versions prior to 19 did not have inline functions. |
6455 | 1147 |
1148 @node Related Topics | |
1149 @section Other Topics Related to Functions | |
1150 | |
1151 Here is a table of several functions that do things related to | |
1152 function calling and function definitions. They are documented | |
1153 elsewhere, but we provide cross references here. | |
1154 | |
1155 @table @code | |
1156 @item apply | |
1157 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1158 | |
1159 @item autoload | |
1160 See @ref{Autoload}. | |
1161 | |
1162 @item call-interactively | |
1163 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1164 | |
1165 @item commandp | |
1166 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1167 | |
1168 @item documentation | |
1169 See @ref{Accessing Documentation}. | |
1170 | |
1171 @item eval | |
1172 See @ref{Eval}. | |
1173 | |
1174 @item funcall | |
1175 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1176 | |
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1177 @item function |
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1178 See @ref{Anonymous Functions}. |
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1179 |
6455 | 1180 @item ignore |
1181 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1182 | |
1183 @item indirect-function | |
1184 See @ref{Function Indirection}. | |
1185 | |
1186 @item interactive | |
1187 See @ref{Using Interactive}. | |
1188 | |
1189 @item interactive-p | |
1190 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1191 | |
1192 @item mapatoms | |
1193 See @ref{Creating Symbols}. | |
1194 | |
1195 @item mapcar | |
1196 See @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
1197 | |
21682
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1198 @item map-char-table |
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1199 See @ref{Char-Tables}. |
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1200 |
6455 | 1201 @item mapconcat |
1202 See @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
1203 | |
1204 @item undefined | |
1205 See @ref{Key Lookup}. | |
1206 @end table | |
1207 |