annotate lispref/control.texi @ 81552:34841f02adea

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author Thien-Thi Nguyen <ttn@gnuvola.org>
date Fri, 22 Jun 2007 07:56:01 +0000
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2001, 2002,
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4 @c 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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6 @setfilename ../info/control
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7 @node Control Structures, Variables, Evaluation, Top
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8 @chapter Control Structures
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9 @cindex special forms for control structures
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10 @cindex control structures
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11
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12 A Lisp program consists of expressions or @dfn{forms} (@pxref{Forms}).
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13 We control the order of execution of these forms by enclosing them in
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14 @dfn{control structures}. Control structures are special forms which
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15 control when, whether, or how many times to execute the forms they
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16 contain.
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17
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18 The simplest order of execution is sequential execution: first form
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19 @var{a}, then form @var{b}, and so on. This is what happens when you
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20 write several forms in succession in the body of a function, or at top
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21 level in a file of Lisp code---the forms are executed in the order
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22 written. We call this @dfn{textual order}. For example, if a function
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23 body consists of two forms @var{a} and @var{b}, evaluation of the
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24 function evaluates first @var{a} and then @var{b}. The result of
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25 evaluating @var{b} becomes the value of the function.
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26
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27 Explicit control structures make possible an order of execution other
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28 than sequential.
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29
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30 Emacs Lisp provides several kinds of control structure, including
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31 other varieties of sequencing, conditionals, iteration, and (controlled)
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32 jumps---all discussed below. The built-in control structures are
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33 special forms since their subforms are not necessarily evaluated or not
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34 evaluated sequentially. You can use macros to define your own control
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35 structure constructs (@pxref{Macros}).
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36
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37 @menu
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38 * Sequencing:: Evaluation in textual order.
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39 * Conditionals:: @code{if}, @code{cond}, @code{when}, @code{unless}.
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40 * Combining Conditions:: @code{and}, @code{or}, @code{not}.
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41 * Iteration:: @code{while} loops.
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42 * Nonlocal Exits:: Jumping out of a sequence.
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43 @end menu
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44
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45 @node Sequencing
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46 @section Sequencing
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47
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48 Evaluating forms in the order they appear is the most common way
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49 control passes from one form to another. In some contexts, such as in a
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50 function body, this happens automatically. Elsewhere you must use a
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51 control structure construct to do this: @code{progn}, the simplest
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52 control construct of Lisp.
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54 A @code{progn} special form looks like this:
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55
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56 @example
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57 @group
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58 (progn @var{a} @var{b} @var{c} @dots{})
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59 @end group
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60 @end example
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61
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62 @noindent
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63 and it says to execute the forms @var{a}, @var{b}, @var{c}, and so on, in
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64 that order. These forms are called the @dfn{body} of the @code{progn} form.
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65 The value of the last form in the body becomes the value of the entire
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66 @code{progn}. @code{(progn)} returns @code{nil}.
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67
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68 @cindex implicit @code{progn}
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69 In the early days of Lisp, @code{progn} was the only way to execute
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70 two or more forms in succession and use the value of the last of them.
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71 But programmers found they often needed to use a @code{progn} in the
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72 body of a function, where (at that time) only one form was allowed. So
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73 the body of a function was made into an ``implicit @code{progn}'':
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74 several forms are allowed just as in the body of an actual @code{progn}.
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75 Many other control structures likewise contain an implicit @code{progn}.
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76 As a result, @code{progn} is not used as much as it was many years ago.
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77 It is needed now most often inside an @code{unwind-protect}, @code{and},
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78 @code{or}, or in the @var{then}-part of an @code{if}.
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79
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80 @defspec progn forms@dots{}
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81 This special form evaluates all of the @var{forms}, in textual
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82 order, returning the result of the final form.
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83
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84 @example
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85 @group
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86 (progn (print "The first form")
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87 (print "The second form")
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88 (print "The third form"))
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89 @print{} "The first form"
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90 @print{} "The second form"
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91 @print{} "The third form"
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92 @result{} "The third form"
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93 @end group
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94 @end example
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95 @end defspec
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96
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97 Two other control constructs likewise evaluate a series of forms but return
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98 a different value:
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99
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100 @defspec prog1 form1 forms@dots{}
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101 This special form evaluates @var{form1} and all of the @var{forms}, in
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102 textual order, returning the result of @var{form1}.
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103
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104 @example
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105 @group
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106 (prog1 (print "The first form")
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107 (print "The second form")
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108 (print "The third form"))
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109 @print{} "The first form"
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110 @print{} "The second form"
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111 @print{} "The third form"
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112 @result{} "The first form"
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113 @end group
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114 @end example
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115
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116 Here is a way to remove the first element from a list in the variable
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117 @code{x}, then return the value of that former element:
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118
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119 @example
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120 (prog1 (car x) (setq x (cdr x)))
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121 @end example
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122 @end defspec
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123
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124 @defspec prog2 form1 form2 forms@dots{}
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125 This special form evaluates @var{form1}, @var{form2}, and all of the
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126 following @var{forms}, in textual order, returning the result of
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127 @var{form2}.
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128
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129 @example
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130 @group
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131 (prog2 (print "The first form")
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132 (print "The second form")
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133 (print "The third form"))
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134 @print{} "The first form"
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135 @print{} "The second form"
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136 @print{} "The third form"
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137 @result{} "The second form"
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138 @end group
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139 @end example
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140 @end defspec
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141
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142 @node Conditionals
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143 @section Conditionals
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144 @cindex conditional evaluation
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145
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146 Conditional control structures choose among alternatives. Emacs Lisp
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147 has four conditional forms: @code{if}, which is much the same as in
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148 other languages; @code{when} and @code{unless}, which are variants of
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149 @code{if}; and @code{cond}, which is a generalized case statement.
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150
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151 @defspec if condition then-form else-forms@dots{}
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152 @code{if} chooses between the @var{then-form} and the @var{else-forms}
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153 based on the value of @var{condition}. If the evaluated @var{condition} is
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154 non-@code{nil}, @var{then-form} is evaluated and the result returned.
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155 Otherwise, the @var{else-forms} are evaluated in textual order, and the
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156 value of the last one is returned. (The @var{else} part of @code{if} is
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157 an example of an implicit @code{progn}. @xref{Sequencing}.)
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158
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159 If @var{condition} has the value @code{nil}, and no @var{else-forms} are
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160 given, @code{if} returns @code{nil}.
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161
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162 @code{if} is a special form because the branch that is not selected is
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163 never evaluated---it is ignored. Thus, in the example below,
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164 @code{true} is not printed because @code{print} is never called.
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165
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166 @example
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167 @group
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168 (if nil
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169 (print 'true)
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170 'very-false)
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171 @result{} very-false
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172 @end group
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173 @end example
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174 @end defspec
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175
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176 @defmac when condition then-forms@dots{}
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177 This is a variant of @code{if} where there are no @var{else-forms},
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178 and possibly several @var{then-forms}. In particular,
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179
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180 @example
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181 (when @var{condition} @var{a} @var{b} @var{c})
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182 @end example
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183
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184 @noindent
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185 is entirely equivalent to
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186
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187 @example
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188 (if @var{condition} (progn @var{a} @var{b} @var{c}) nil)
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189 @end example
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190 @end defmac
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191
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192 @defmac unless condition forms@dots{}
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193 This is a variant of @code{if} where there is no @var{then-form}:
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194
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195 @example
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196 (unless @var{condition} @var{a} @var{b} @var{c})
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197 @end example
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198
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199 @noindent
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200 is entirely equivalent to
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201
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202 @example
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203 (if @var{condition} nil
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204 @var{a} @var{b} @var{c})
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205 @end example
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206 @end defmac
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207
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208 @defspec cond clause@dots{}
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209 @code{cond} chooses among an arbitrary number of alternatives. Each
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210 @var{clause} in the @code{cond} must be a list. The @sc{car} of this
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211 list is the @var{condition}; the remaining elements, if any, the
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212 @var{body-forms}. Thus, a clause looks like this:
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213
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214 @example
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215 (@var{condition} @var{body-forms}@dots{})
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216 @end example
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217
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218 @code{cond} tries the clauses in textual order, by evaluating the
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219 @var{condition} of each clause. If the value of @var{condition} is
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220 non-@code{nil}, the clause ``succeeds''; then @code{cond} evaluates its
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221 @var{body-forms}, and the value of the last of @var{body-forms} becomes
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222 the value of the @code{cond}. The remaining clauses are ignored.
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223
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224 If the value of @var{condition} is @code{nil}, the clause ``fails,'' so
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225 the @code{cond} moves on to the following clause, trying its
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226 @var{condition}.
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227
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228 If every @var{condition} evaluates to @code{nil}, so that every clause
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229 fails, @code{cond} returns @code{nil}.
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230
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231 A clause may also look like this:
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232
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233 @example
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234 (@var{condition})
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235 @end example
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236
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237 @noindent
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238 Then, if @var{condition} is non-@code{nil} when tested, the value of
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239 @var{condition} becomes the value of the @code{cond} form.
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240
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241 The following example has four clauses, which test for the cases where
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242 the value of @code{x} is a number, string, buffer and symbol,
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243 respectively:
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244
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245 @example
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246 @group
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247 (cond ((numberp x) x)
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248 ((stringp x) x)
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249 ((bufferp x)
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250 (setq temporary-hack x) ; @r{multiple body-forms}
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251 (buffer-name x)) ; @r{in one clause}
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252 ((symbolp x) (symbol-value x)))
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253 @end group
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254 @end example
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255
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256 Often we want to execute the last clause whenever none of the previous
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257 clauses was successful. To do this, we use @code{t} as the
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258 @var{condition} of the last clause, like this: @code{(t
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259 @var{body-forms})}. The form @code{t} evaluates to @code{t}, which is
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260 never @code{nil}, so this clause never fails, provided the @code{cond}
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261 gets to it at all.
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262
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263 For example,
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264
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265 @example
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266 @group
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267 (setq a 5)
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268 (cond ((eq a 'hack) 'foo)
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269 (t "default"))
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270 @result{} "default"
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271 @end group
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272 @end example
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273
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274 @noindent
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275 This @code{cond} expression returns @code{foo} if the value of @code{a}
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276 is @code{hack}, and returns the string @code{"default"} otherwise.
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277 @end defspec
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278
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279 Any conditional construct can be expressed with @code{cond} or with
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280 @code{if}. Therefore, the choice between them is a matter of style.
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281 For example:
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282
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283 @example
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284 @group
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285 (if @var{a} @var{b} @var{c})
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286 @equiv{}
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287 (cond (@var{a} @var{b}) (t @var{c}))
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288 @end group
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289 @end example
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290
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291 @node Combining Conditions
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292 @section Constructs for Combining Conditions
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293
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294 This section describes three constructs that are often used together
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295 with @code{if} and @code{cond} to express complicated conditions. The
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296 constructs @code{and} and @code{or} can also be used individually as
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297 kinds of multiple conditional constructs.
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298
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299 @defun not condition
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300 This function tests for the falsehood of @var{condition}. It returns
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301 @code{t} if @var{condition} is @code{nil}, and @code{nil} otherwise.
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302 The function @code{not} is identical to @code{null}, and we recommend
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303 using the name @code{null} if you are testing for an empty list.
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304 @end defun
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305
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306 @defspec and conditions@dots{}
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307 The @code{and} special form tests whether all the @var{conditions} are
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308 true. It works by evaluating the @var{conditions} one by one in the
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309 order written.
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310
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311 If any of the @var{conditions} evaluates to @code{nil}, then the result
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312 of the @code{and} must be @code{nil} regardless of the remaining
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313 @var{conditions}; so @code{and} returns @code{nil} right away, ignoring
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314 the remaining @var{conditions}.
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315
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316 If all the @var{conditions} turn out non-@code{nil}, then the value of
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317 the last of them becomes the value of the @code{and} form. Just
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318 @code{(and)}, with no @var{conditions}, returns @code{t}, appropriate
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319 because all the @var{conditions} turned out non-@code{nil}. (Think
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320 about it; which one did not?)
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321
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322 Here is an example. The first condition returns the integer 1, which is
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323 not @code{nil}. Similarly, the second condition returns the integer 2,
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324 which is not @code{nil}. The third condition is @code{nil}, so the
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325 remaining condition is never evaluated.
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326
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327 @example
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328 @group
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329 (and (print 1) (print 2) nil (print 3))
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330 @print{} 1
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331 @print{} 2
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332 @result{} nil
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333 @end group
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334 @end example
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335
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336 Here is a more realistic example of using @code{and}:
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337
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338 @example
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339 @group
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340 (if (and (consp foo) (eq (car foo) 'x))
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341 (message "foo is a list starting with x"))
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342 @end group
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343 @end example
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344
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345 @noindent
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346 Note that @code{(car foo)} is not executed if @code{(consp foo)} returns
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347 @code{nil}, thus avoiding an error.
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348
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349 @code{and} expressions can also be written using either @code{if} or
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350 @code{cond}. Here's how:
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351
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352 @example
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353 @group
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354 (and @var{arg1} @var{arg2} @var{arg3})
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355 @equiv{}
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356 (if @var{arg1} (if @var{arg2} @var{arg3}))
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357 @equiv{}
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358 (cond (@var{arg1} (cond (@var{arg2} @var{arg3}))))
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359 @end group
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360 @end example
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361 @end defspec
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362
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363 @defspec or conditions@dots{}
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364 The @code{or} special form tests whether at least one of the
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365 @var{conditions} is true. It works by evaluating all the
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366 @var{conditions} one by one in the order written.
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367
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368 If any of the @var{conditions} evaluates to a non-@code{nil} value, then
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369 the result of the @code{or} must be non-@code{nil}; so @code{or} returns
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370 right away, ignoring the remaining @var{conditions}. The value it
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371 returns is the non-@code{nil} value of the condition just evaluated.
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372
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373 If all the @var{conditions} turn out @code{nil}, then the @code{or}
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374 expression returns @code{nil}. Just @code{(or)}, with no
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375 @var{conditions}, returns @code{nil}, appropriate because all the
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376 @var{conditions} turned out @code{nil}. (Think about it; which one
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377 did not?)
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378
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379 For example, this expression tests whether @code{x} is either
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380 @code{nil} or the integer zero:
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381
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382 @example
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383 (or (eq x nil) (eq x 0))
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384 @end example
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385
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386 Like the @code{and} construct, @code{or} can be written in terms of
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387 @code{cond}. For example:
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388
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389 @example
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390 @group
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391 (or @var{arg1} @var{arg2} @var{arg3})
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392 @equiv{}
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393 (cond (@var{arg1})
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394 (@var{arg2})
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395 (@var{arg3}))
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396 @end group
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397 @end example
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398
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399 You could almost write @code{or} in terms of @code{if}, but not quite:
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400
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401 @example
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402 @group
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403 (if @var{arg1} @var{arg1}
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404 (if @var{arg2} @var{arg2}
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405 @var{arg3}))
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406 @end group
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407 @end example
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408
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409 @noindent
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410 This is not completely equivalent because it can evaluate @var{arg1} or
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411 @var{arg2} twice. By contrast, @code{(or @var{arg1} @var{arg2}
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412 @var{arg3})} never evaluates any argument more than once.
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413 @end defspec
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414
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415 @node Iteration
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416 @section Iteration
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417 @cindex iteration
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418 @cindex recursion
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419
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420 Iteration means executing part of a program repetitively. For
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421 example, you might want to repeat some computation once for each element
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422 of a list, or once for each integer from 0 to @var{n}. You can do this
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423 in Emacs Lisp with the special form @code{while}:
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424
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425 @defspec while condition forms@dots{}
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426 @code{while} first evaluates @var{condition}. If the result is
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427 non-@code{nil}, it evaluates @var{forms} in textual order. Then it
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428 reevaluates @var{condition}, and if the result is non-@code{nil}, it
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429 evaluates @var{forms} again. This process repeats until @var{condition}
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430 evaluates to @code{nil}.
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431
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432 There is no limit on the number of iterations that may occur. The loop
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433 will continue until either @var{condition} evaluates to @code{nil} or
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434 until an error or @code{throw} jumps out of it (@pxref{Nonlocal Exits}).
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435
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436 The value of a @code{while} form is always @code{nil}.
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437
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438 @example
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439 @group
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440 (setq num 0)
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441 @result{} 0
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442 @end group
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443 @group
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444 (while (< num 4)
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445 (princ (format "Iteration %d." num))
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446 (setq num (1+ num)))
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447 @print{} Iteration 0.
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448 @print{} Iteration 1.
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449 @print{} Iteration 2.
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450 @print{} Iteration 3.
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451 @result{} nil
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452 @end group
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453 @end example
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454
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455 To write a ``repeat...until'' loop, which will execute something on each
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456 iteration and then do the end-test, put the body followed by the
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457 end-test in a @code{progn} as the first argument of @code{while}, as
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458 shown here:
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459
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460 @example
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461 @group
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462 (while (progn
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463 (forward-line 1)
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464 (not (looking-at "^$"))))
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465 @end group
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466 @end example
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467
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468 @noindent
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469 This moves forward one line and continues moving by lines until it
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470 reaches an empty line. It is peculiar in that the @code{while} has no
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471 body, just the end test (which also does the real work of moving point).
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472 @end defspec
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473
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474 The @code{dolist} and @code{dotimes} macros provide convenient ways to
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475 write two common kinds of loops.
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476
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477 @defmac dolist (var list [result]) body@dots{}
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478 This construct executes @var{body} once for each element of
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479 @var{list}, binding the variable @var{var} locally to hold the current
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480 element. Then it returns the value of evaluating @var{result}, or
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481 @code{nil} if @var{result} is omitted. For example, here is how you
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482 could use @code{dolist} to define the @code{reverse} function:
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483
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484 @example
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485 (defun reverse (list)
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486 (let (value)
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487 (dolist (elt list value)
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488 (setq value (cons elt value)))))
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489 @end example
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490 @end defmac
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491
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492 @defmac dotimes (var count [result]) body@dots{}
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493 This construct executes @var{body} once for each integer from 0
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494 (inclusive) to @var{count} (exclusive), binding the variable @var{var}
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495 to the integer for the current iteration. Then it returns the value
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496 of evaluating @var{result}, or @code{nil} if @var{result} is omitted.
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497 Here is an example of using @code{dotimes} to do something 100 times:
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498
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499 @example
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500 (dotimes (i 100)
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501 (insert "I will not obey absurd orders\n"))
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502 @end example
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503 @end defmac
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504
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505 @node Nonlocal Exits
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506 @section Nonlocal Exits
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507 @cindex nonlocal exits
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508
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509 A @dfn{nonlocal exit} is a transfer of control from one point in a
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510 program to another remote point. Nonlocal exits can occur in Emacs Lisp
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511 as a result of errors; you can also use them under explicit control.
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512 Nonlocal exits unbind all variable bindings made by the constructs being
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513 exited.
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514
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515 @menu
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516 * Catch and Throw:: Nonlocal exits for the program's own purposes.
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517 * Examples of Catch:: Showing how such nonlocal exits can be written.
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518 * Errors:: How errors are signaled and handled.
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519 * Cleanups:: Arranging to run a cleanup form if an error happens.
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520 @end menu
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521
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522 @node Catch and Throw
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523 @subsection Explicit Nonlocal Exits: @code{catch} and @code{throw}
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524
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525 Most control constructs affect only the flow of control within the
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526 construct itself. The function @code{throw} is the exception to this
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527 rule of normal program execution: it performs a nonlocal exit on
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528 request. (There are other exceptions, but they are for error handling
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529 only.) @code{throw} is used inside a @code{catch}, and jumps back to
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530 that @code{catch}. For example:
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531
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532 @example
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533 @group
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534 (defun foo-outer ()
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535 (catch 'foo
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536 (foo-inner)))
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537
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538 (defun foo-inner ()
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539 @dots{}
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540 (if x
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541 (throw 'foo t))
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542 @dots{})
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543 @end group
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544 @end example
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545
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546 @noindent
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547 The @code{throw} form, if executed, transfers control straight back to
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548 the corresponding @code{catch}, which returns immediately. The code
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549 following the @code{throw} is not executed. The second argument of
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550 @code{throw} is used as the return value of the @code{catch}.
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551
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552 The function @code{throw} finds the matching @code{catch} based on the
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553 first argument: it searches for a @code{catch} whose first argument is
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554 @code{eq} to the one specified in the @code{throw}. If there is more
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555 than one applicable @code{catch}, the innermost one takes precedence.
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556 Thus, in the above example, the @code{throw} specifies @code{foo}, and
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557 the @code{catch} in @code{foo-outer} specifies the same symbol, so that
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558 @code{catch} is the applicable one (assuming there is no other matching
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559 @code{catch} in between).
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560
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561 Executing @code{throw} exits all Lisp constructs up to the matching
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562 @code{catch}, including function calls. When binding constructs such as
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563 @code{let} or function calls are exited in this way, the bindings are
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564 unbound, just as they are when these constructs exit normally
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565 (@pxref{Local Variables}). Likewise, @code{throw} restores the buffer
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566 and position saved by @code{save-excursion} (@pxref{Excursions}), and
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567 the narrowing status saved by @code{save-restriction} and the window
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568 selection saved by @code{save-window-excursion} (@pxref{Window
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569 Configurations}). It also runs any cleanups established with the
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570 @code{unwind-protect} special form when it exits that form
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571 (@pxref{Cleanups}).
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572
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573 The @code{throw} need not appear lexically within the @code{catch}
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574 that it jumps to. It can equally well be called from another function
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575 called within the @code{catch}. As long as the @code{throw} takes place
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576 chronologically after entry to the @code{catch}, and chronologically
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577 before exit from it, it has access to that @code{catch}. This is why
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578 @code{throw} can be used in commands such as @code{exit-recursive-edit}
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579 that throw back to the editor command loop (@pxref{Recursive Editing}).
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580
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581 @cindex CL note---only @code{throw} in Emacs
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582 @quotation
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583 @b{Common Lisp note:} Most other versions of Lisp, including Common Lisp,
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584 have several ways of transferring control nonsequentially: @code{return},
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585 @code{return-from}, and @code{go}, for example. Emacs Lisp has only
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586 @code{throw}.
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587 @end quotation
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588
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589 @defspec catch tag body@dots{}
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590 @cindex tag on run time stack
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591 @code{catch} establishes a return point for the @code{throw} function.
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592 The return point is distinguished from other such return points by
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593 @var{tag}, which may be any Lisp object except @code{nil}. The argument
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594 @var{tag} is evaluated normally before the return point is established.
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595
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596 With the return point in effect, @code{catch} evaluates the forms of the
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597 @var{body} in textual order. If the forms execute normally (without
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598 error or nonlocal exit) the value of the last body form is returned from
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599 the @code{catch}.
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600
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601 If a @code{throw} is executed during the execution of @var{body},
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602 specifying the same value @var{tag}, the @code{catch} form exits
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603 immediately; the value it returns is whatever was specified as the
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604 second argument of @code{throw}.
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605 @end defspec
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606
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607 @defun throw tag value
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608 The purpose of @code{throw} is to return from a return point previously
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609 established with @code{catch}. The argument @var{tag} is used to choose
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610 among the various existing return points; it must be @code{eq} to the value
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611 specified in the @code{catch}. If multiple return points match @var{tag},
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612 the innermost one is used.
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613
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614 The argument @var{value} is used as the value to return from that
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615 @code{catch}.
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616
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617 @kindex no-catch
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618 If no return point is in effect with tag @var{tag}, then a @code{no-catch}
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619 error is signaled with data @code{(@var{tag} @var{value})}.
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620 @end defun
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621
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622 @node Examples of Catch
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623 @subsection Examples of @code{catch} and @code{throw}
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624
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625 One way to use @code{catch} and @code{throw} is to exit from a doubly
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626 nested loop. (In most languages, this would be done with a ``go to.'')
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627 Here we compute @code{(foo @var{i} @var{j})} for @var{i} and @var{j}
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628 varying from 0 to 9:
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629
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630 @example
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631 @group
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632 (defun search-foo ()
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633 (catch 'loop
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634 (let ((i 0))
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635 (while (< i 10)
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636 (let ((j 0))
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637 (while (< j 10)
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638 (if (foo i j)
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639 (throw 'loop (list i j)))
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640 (setq j (1+ j))))
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641 (setq i (1+ i))))))
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642 @end group
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643 @end example
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parents:
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644
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645 @noindent
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646 If @code{foo} ever returns non-@code{nil}, we stop immediately and return a
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parents:
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647 list of @var{i} and @var{j}. If @code{foo} always returns @code{nil}, the
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parents:
diff changeset
648 @code{catch} returns normally, and the value is @code{nil}, since that
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parents:
diff changeset
649 is the result of the @code{while}.
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parents:
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650
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651 Here are two tricky examples, slightly different, showing two
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parents:
diff changeset
652 return points at once. First, two return points with the same tag,
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parents:
diff changeset
653 @code{hack}:
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654
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655 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
656 @group
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diff changeset
657 (defun catch2 (tag)
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parents:
diff changeset
658 (catch tag
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parents:
diff changeset
659 (throw 'hack 'yes)))
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parents:
diff changeset
660 @result{} catch2
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parents:
diff changeset
661 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
662
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parents:
diff changeset
663 @group
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23a1cea22d13 Trailing whitespace deleted.
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parents: 45254
diff changeset
664 (catch 'hack
6453
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parents:
diff changeset
665 (print (catch2 'hack))
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parents:
diff changeset
666 'no)
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parents:
diff changeset
667 @print{} yes
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parents:
diff changeset
668 @result{} no
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
669 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
670 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
671
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parents:
diff changeset
672 @noindent
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parents:
diff changeset
673 Since both return points have tags that match the @code{throw}, it goes to
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parents:
diff changeset
674 the inner one, the one established in @code{catch2}. Therefore,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
675 @code{catch2} returns normally with value @code{yes}, and this value is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
676 printed. Finally the second body form in the outer @code{catch}, which is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
677 @code{'no}, is evaluated and returned from the outer @code{catch}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
678
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parents:
diff changeset
679 Now let's change the argument given to @code{catch2}:
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parents:
diff changeset
680
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parents:
diff changeset
681 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
682 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
683 (catch 'hack
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parents:
diff changeset
684 (print (catch2 'quux))
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parents:
diff changeset
685 'no)
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parents:
diff changeset
686 @result{} yes
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parents:
diff changeset
687 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
688 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
689
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parents:
diff changeset
690 @noindent
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
691 We still have two return points, but this time only the outer one has
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
692 the tag @code{hack}; the inner one has the tag @code{quux} instead.
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
693 Therefore, @code{throw} makes the outer @code{catch} return the value
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
694 @code{yes}. The function @code{print} is never called, and the
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
695 body-form @code{'no} is never evaluated.
6453
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parents:
diff changeset
696
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parents:
diff changeset
697 @node Errors
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parents:
diff changeset
698 @subsection Errors
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
699 @cindex errors
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
700
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
701 When Emacs Lisp attempts to evaluate a form that, for some reason,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
702 cannot be evaluated, it @dfn{signals} an @dfn{error}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
703
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
704 When an error is signaled, Emacs's default reaction is to print an
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
705 error message and terminate execution of the current command. This is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
706 the right thing to do in most cases, such as if you type @kbd{C-f} at
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
707 the end of the buffer.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
708
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
709 In complicated programs, simple termination may not be what you want.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
710 For example, the program may have made temporary changes in data
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
711 structures, or created temporary buffers that should be deleted before
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
712 the program is finished. In such cases, you would use
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
713 @code{unwind-protect} to establish @dfn{cleanup expressions} to be
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
714 evaluated in case of error. (@xref{Cleanups}.) Occasionally, you may
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
715 wish the program to continue execution despite an error in a subroutine.
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
716 In these cases, you would use @code{condition-case} to establish
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
717 @dfn{error handlers} to recover control in case of error.
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
718
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
719 Resist the temptation to use error handling to transfer control from
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
720 one part of the program to another; use @code{catch} and @code{throw}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
721 instead. @xref{Catch and Throw}.
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parents:
diff changeset
722
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
723 @menu
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
724 * Signaling Errors:: How to report an error.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
725 * Processing of Errors:: What Emacs does when you report an error.
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parents:
diff changeset
726 * Handling Errors:: How you can trap errors and continue execution.
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
727 * Error Symbols:: How errors are classified for trapping them.
6453
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parents:
diff changeset
728 @end menu
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
729
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
730 @node Signaling Errors
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parents:
diff changeset
731 @subsubsection How to Signal an Error
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
732 @cindex signaling errors
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
733
63636
75c04f750f89 Fix spellings.
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents: 60037
diff changeset
734 @dfn{Signaling} an error means beginning error processing. Error
45254
9d5a9e59c339 Clarify what signalling an error means.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 27385
diff changeset
735 processing normally aborts all or part of the running program and
9d5a9e59c339 Clarify what signalling an error means.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 27385
diff changeset
736 returns to a point that is set up to handle the error
9d5a9e59c339 Clarify what signalling an error means.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 27385
diff changeset
737 (@pxref{Processing of Errors}). Here we describe how to signal an
9d5a9e59c339 Clarify what signalling an error means.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 27385
diff changeset
738 error.
9d5a9e59c339 Clarify what signalling an error means.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 27385
diff changeset
739
6453
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parents:
diff changeset
740 Most errors are signaled ``automatically'' within Lisp primitives
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
741 which you call for other purposes, such as if you try to take the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
742 @sc{car} of an integer or move forward a character at the end of the
25089
309fe4eb6522 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22274
diff changeset
743 buffer. You can also signal errors explicitly with the functions
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
744 @code{error} and @code{signal}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
745
49600
23a1cea22d13 Trailing whitespace deleted.
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents: 45254
diff changeset
746 Quitting, which happens when the user types @kbd{C-g}, is not
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
747 considered an error, but it is handled almost like an error.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
748 @xref{Quitting}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
749
45254
9d5a9e59c339 Clarify what signalling an error means.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 27385
diff changeset
750 Every error specifies an error message, one way or another. The
9d5a9e59c339 Clarify what signalling an error means.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 27385
diff changeset
751 message should state what is wrong (``File does not exist''), not how
9d5a9e59c339 Clarify what signalling an error means.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 27385
diff changeset
752 things ought to be (``File must exist''). The convention in Emacs
9d5a9e59c339 Clarify what signalling an error means.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 27385
diff changeset
753 Lisp is that error messages should start with a capital letter, but
9d5a9e59c339 Clarify what signalling an error means.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 27385
diff changeset
754 should not end with any sort of punctuation.
25751
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25089
diff changeset
755
6453
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parents:
diff changeset
756 @defun error format-string &rest args
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
757 This function signals an error with an error message constructed by
53453
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
758 applying @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting Strings}) to
6453
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parents:
diff changeset
759 @var{format-string} and @var{args}.
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parents:
diff changeset
760
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
761 These examples show typical uses of @code{error}:
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parents:
diff changeset
762
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
763 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
764 @group
21682
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
765 (error "That is an error -- try something else")
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
766 @error{} That is an error -- try something else
6453
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parents:
diff changeset
767 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
768
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parents:
diff changeset
769 @group
21682
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
770 (error "You have committed %d errors" 10)
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
771 @error{} You have committed 10 errors
6453
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parents:
diff changeset
772 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
773 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
774
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
775 @code{error} works by calling @code{signal} with two arguments: the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
776 error symbol @code{error}, and a list containing the string returned by
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
777 @code{format}.
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parents:
diff changeset
778
21007
66d807bdc5b4 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 16850
diff changeset
779 @strong{Warning:} If you want to use your own string as an error message
66d807bdc5b4 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 16850
diff changeset
780 verbatim, don't just write @code{(error @var{string})}. If @var{string}
66d807bdc5b4 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 16850
diff changeset
781 contains @samp{%}, it will be interpreted as a format specifier, with
66d807bdc5b4 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 16850
diff changeset
782 undesirable results. Instead, use @code{(error "%s" @var{string})}.
6453
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parents:
diff changeset
783 @end defun
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
784
56215
c9aa4127a482 Reposition @anchor's.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 53453
diff changeset
785 @defun signal error-symbol data
53453
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
786 @anchor{Definition of signal}
77638
cf45e2c7b2a6 no @anchor in mid-paragraph
Karl Berry <karl@gnu.org>
parents: 75250
diff changeset
787 This function signals an error named by @var{error-symbol}. The
cf45e2c7b2a6 no @anchor in mid-paragraph
Karl Berry <karl@gnu.org>
parents: 75250
diff changeset
788 argument @var{data} is a list of additional Lisp objects relevant to
cf45e2c7b2a6 no @anchor in mid-paragraph
Karl Berry <karl@gnu.org>
parents: 75250
diff changeset
789 the circumstances of the error.
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
790
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
791 The argument @var{error-symbol} must be an @dfn{error symbol}---a symbol
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
792 bearing a property @code{error-conditions} whose value is a list of
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
793 condition names. This is how Emacs Lisp classifies different sorts of
53453
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
794 errors. @xref{Error Symbols}, for a description of error symbols,
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
795 error conditions and condition names.
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
796
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
797 If the error is not handled, the two arguments are used in printing
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
798 the error message. Normally, this error message is provided by the
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
799 @code{error-message} property of @var{error-symbol}. If @var{data} is
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
800 non-@code{nil}, this is followed by a colon and a comma separated list
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
801 of the unevaluated elements of @var{data}. For @code{error}, the
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
802 error message is the @sc{car} of @var{data} (that must be a string).
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
803 Subcategories of @code{file-error} are handled specially.
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parents:
diff changeset
804
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diff changeset
805 The number and significance of the objects in @var{data} depends on
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
806 @var{error-symbol}. For example, with a @code{wrong-type-arg} error,
21682
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
807 there should be two objects in the list: a predicate that describes the type
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
808 that was expected, and the object that failed to fit that type.
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parents:
diff changeset
809
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parents:
diff changeset
810 Both @var{error-symbol} and @var{data} are available to any error
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
811 handlers that handle the error: @code{condition-case} binds a local
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parents:
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812 variable to a list of the form @code{(@var{error-symbol} .@:
53453
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
813 @var{data})} (@pxref{Handling Errors}).
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parents:
diff changeset
814
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parents:
diff changeset
815 The function @code{signal} never returns (though in older Emacs versions
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
816 it could sometimes return).
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parents:
diff changeset
817
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818 @smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
819 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
820 (signal 'wrong-number-of-arguments '(x y))
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parents:
diff changeset
821 @error{} Wrong number of arguments: x, y
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parents:
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822 @end group
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parents:
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823
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824 @group
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
825 (signal 'no-such-error '("My unknown error condition"))
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
826 @error{} peculiar error: "My unknown error condition"
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parents:
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827 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
828 @end smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
829 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
830
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
831 @cindex CL note---no continuable errors
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parents:
diff changeset
832 @quotation
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parents:
diff changeset
833 @b{Common Lisp note:} Emacs Lisp has nothing like the Common Lisp
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
834 concept of continuable errors.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
835 @end quotation
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parents:
diff changeset
836
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parents:
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837 @node Processing of Errors
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parents:
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838 @subsubsection How Emacs Processes Errors
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parents:
diff changeset
839
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parents:
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840 When an error is signaled, @code{signal} searches for an active
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parents:
diff changeset
841 @dfn{handler} for the error. A handler is a sequence of Lisp
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parents:
diff changeset
842 expressions designated to be executed if an error happens in part of the
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parents:
diff changeset
843 Lisp program. If the error has an applicable handler, the handler is
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parents:
diff changeset
844 executed, and control resumes following the handler. The handler
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parents: 6453
diff changeset
845 executes in the environment of the @code{condition-case} that
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parents:
diff changeset
846 established it; all functions called within that @code{condition-case}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
847 have already been exited, and the handler cannot return to them.
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parents:
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848
71948
df5c12c54d24 (Processing of Errors): Add command-error-function.
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parents: 71927
diff changeset
849 If there is no applicable handler for the error, it terminates the
df5c12c54d24 (Processing of Errors): Add command-error-function.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 71927
diff changeset
850 current command and returns control to the editor command loop. (The
df5c12c54d24 (Processing of Errors): Add command-error-function.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 71927
diff changeset
851 command loop has an implicit handler for all kinds of errors.) The
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parents:
diff changeset
852 command loop's handler uses the error symbol and associated data to
71948
df5c12c54d24 (Processing of Errors): Add command-error-function.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 71927
diff changeset
853 print an error message. You can use the variable
df5c12c54d24 (Processing of Errors): Add command-error-function.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 71927
diff changeset
854 @code{command-error-function} to control how this is done:
df5c12c54d24 (Processing of Errors): Add command-error-function.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 71927
diff changeset
855
df5c12c54d24 (Processing of Errors): Add command-error-function.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 71927
diff changeset
856 @defvar command-error-function
df5c12c54d24 (Processing of Errors): Add command-error-function.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 71927
diff changeset
857 This variable, if non-@code{nil}, specifies a function to use to
df5c12c54d24 (Processing of Errors): Add command-error-function.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 71927
diff changeset
858 handle errors that return control to the Emacs command loop. The
df5c12c54d24 (Processing of Errors): Add command-error-function.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 71927
diff changeset
859 function should take three arguments: @var{data}, a list of the same
df5c12c54d24 (Processing of Errors): Add command-error-function.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 71927
diff changeset
860 form that @code{condition-case} would bind to its variable;
df5c12c54d24 (Processing of Errors): Add command-error-function.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 71927
diff changeset
861 @var{context}, a string describing the situation in which the error
73410
3941cd9501a7 (Processing of Errors): Use @var for an argument, not @code.
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents: 71957
diff changeset
862 occurred, or (more often) @code{nil}; and @var{caller}, the Lisp
71948
df5c12c54d24 (Processing of Errors): Add command-error-function.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 71927
diff changeset
863 function which called the primitive that signaled the error.
df5c12c54d24 (Processing of Errors): Add command-error-function.
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parents: 71927
diff changeset
864 @end defvar
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diff changeset
865
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parents:
diff changeset
866 @cindex @code{debug-on-error} use
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
867 An error that has no explicit handler may call the Lisp debugger. The
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
868 debugger is enabled if the variable @code{debug-on-error} (@pxref{Error
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
869 Debugging}) is non-@code{nil}. Unlike error handlers, the debugger runs
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
870 in the environment of the error, so that you can examine values of
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
871 variables precisely as they were at the time of the error.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
872
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
873 @node Handling Errors
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
874 @subsubsection Writing Code to Handle Errors
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
875 @cindex error handler
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
876 @cindex handling errors
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
877
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
878 The usual effect of signaling an error is to terminate the command
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
879 that is running and return immediately to the Emacs editor command loop.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
880 You can arrange to trap errors occurring in a part of your program by
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
881 establishing an error handler, with the special form
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
882 @code{condition-case}. A simple example looks like this:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
883
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
884 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
885 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
886 (condition-case nil
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
887 (delete-file filename)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
888 (error nil))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
889 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
890 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
891
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
892 @noindent
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
893 This deletes the file named @var{filename}, catching any error and
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
894 returning @code{nil} if an error occurs.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
895
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
896 The second argument of @code{condition-case} is called the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
897 @dfn{protected form}. (In the example above, the protected form is a
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
898 call to @code{delete-file}.) The error handlers go into effect when
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
899 this form begins execution and are deactivated when this form returns.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
900 They remain in effect for all the intervening time. In particular, they
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
901 are in effect during the execution of functions called by this form, in
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
902 their subroutines, and so on. This is a good thing, since, strictly
6453
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parents:
diff changeset
903 speaking, errors can be signaled only by Lisp primitives (including
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
904 @code{signal} and @code{error}) called by the protected form, not by the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
905 protected form itself.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
906
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
907 The arguments after the protected form are handlers. Each handler
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
908 lists one or more @dfn{condition names} (which are symbols) to specify
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
909 which errors it will handle. The error symbol specified when an error
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
910 is signaled also defines a list of condition names. A handler applies
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
911 to an error if they have any condition names in common. In the example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
912 above, there is one handler, and it specifies one condition name,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
913 @code{error}, which covers all errors.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
914
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
915 The search for an applicable handler checks all the established handlers
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
916 starting with the most recently established one. Thus, if two nested
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
917 @code{condition-case} forms offer to handle the same error, the inner of
25751
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parents: 25089
diff changeset
918 the two gets to handle it.
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parents:
diff changeset
919
21007
66d807bdc5b4 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 16850
diff changeset
920 If an error is handled by some @code{condition-case} form, this
66d807bdc5b4 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 16850
diff changeset
921 ordinarily prevents the debugger from being run, even if
66d807bdc5b4 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 16850
diff changeset
922 @code{debug-on-error} says this error should invoke the debugger.
66d807bdc5b4 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 16850
diff changeset
923 @xref{Error Debugging}. If you want to be able to debug errors that are
66d807bdc5b4 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 16850
diff changeset
924 caught by a @code{condition-case}, set the variable
66d807bdc5b4 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 16850
diff changeset
925 @code{debug-on-signal} to a non-@code{nil} value.
66d807bdc5b4 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 16850
diff changeset
926
6453
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diff changeset
927 When an error is handled, control returns to the handler. Before this
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
928 happens, Emacs unbinds all variable bindings made by binding constructs
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
929 that are being exited and executes the cleanups of all
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
930 @code{unwind-protect} forms that are exited. Once control arrives at
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parents:
diff changeset
931 the handler, the body of the handler is executed.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
932
16736
981e116b4ac6 Minor cleanups for overfull hboxes.
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parents: 15725
diff changeset
933 After execution of the handler body, execution returns from the
981e116b4ac6 Minor cleanups for overfull hboxes.
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parents: 15725
diff changeset
934 @code{condition-case} form. Because the protected form is exited
981e116b4ac6 Minor cleanups for overfull hboxes.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 15725
diff changeset
935 completely before execution of the handler, the handler cannot resume
981e116b4ac6 Minor cleanups for overfull hboxes.
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parents: 15725
diff changeset
936 execution at the point of the error, nor can it examine variable
6453
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parents:
diff changeset
937 bindings that were made within the protected form. All it can do is
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parents:
diff changeset
938 clean up and proceed.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
939
21682
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diff changeset
940 The @code{condition-case} construct is often used to trap errors that
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
941 are predictable, such as failure to open a file in a call to
6453
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parents:
diff changeset
942 @code{insert-file-contents}. It is also used to trap errors that are
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
943 totally unpredictable, such as when the program evaluates an expression
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
944 read from the user.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
945
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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diff changeset
946 Error signaling and handling have some resemblance to @code{throw} and
25751
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parents: 25089
diff changeset
947 @code{catch} (@pxref{Catch and Throw}), but they are entirely separate
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parents: 25089
diff changeset
948 facilities. An error cannot be caught by a @code{catch}, and a
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parents: 25089
diff changeset
949 @code{throw} cannot be handled by an error handler (though using
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parents: 25089
diff changeset
950 @code{throw} when there is no suitable @code{catch} signals an error
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
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diff changeset
951 that can be handled).
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952
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953 @defspec condition-case var protected-form handlers@dots{}
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parents:
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954 This special form establishes the error handlers @var{handlers} around
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parents:
diff changeset
955 the execution of @var{protected-form}. If @var{protected-form} executes
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parents:
diff changeset
956 without error, the value it returns becomes the value of the
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diff changeset
957 @code{condition-case} form; in this case, the @code{condition-case} has
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parents:
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958 no effect. The @code{condition-case} form makes a difference when an
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diff changeset
959 error occurs during @var{protected-form}.
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960
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961 Each of the @var{handlers} is a list of the form @code{(@var{conditions}
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parents:
diff changeset
962 @var{body}@dots{})}. Here @var{conditions} is an error condition name
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parents:
diff changeset
963 to be handled, or a list of condition names; @var{body} is one or more
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parents:
diff changeset
964 Lisp expressions to be executed when this handler handles an error.
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parents:
diff changeset
965 Here are examples of handlers:
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parents:
diff changeset
966
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967 @smallexample
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diff changeset
968 @group
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diff changeset
969 (error nil)
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parents:
diff changeset
970
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diff changeset
971 (arith-error (message "Division by zero"))
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parents:
diff changeset
972
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parents:
diff changeset
973 ((arith-error file-error)
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parents:
diff changeset
974 (message
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parents:
diff changeset
975 "Either division by zero or failure to open a file"))
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parents:
diff changeset
976 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
977 @end smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
978
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diff changeset
979 Each error that occurs has an @dfn{error symbol} that describes what
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parents:
diff changeset
980 kind of error it is. The @code{error-conditions} property of this
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cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6453
diff changeset
981 symbol is a list of condition names (@pxref{Error Symbols}). Emacs
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
982 searches all the active @code{condition-case} forms for a handler that
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parents:
diff changeset
983 specifies one or more of these condition names; the innermost matching
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parents:
diff changeset
984 @code{condition-case} handles the error. Within this
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parents:
diff changeset
985 @code{condition-case}, the first applicable handler handles the error.
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parents:
diff changeset
986
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parents:
diff changeset
987 After executing the body of the handler, the @code{condition-case}
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parents:
diff changeset
988 returns normally, using the value of the last form in the handler body
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parents:
diff changeset
989 as the overall value.
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parents:
diff changeset
990
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parents: 12098
diff changeset
991 @cindex error description
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diff changeset
992 The argument @var{var} is a variable. @code{condition-case} does not
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parents:
diff changeset
993 bind this variable when executing the @var{protected-form}, only when it
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parents: 12098
diff changeset
994 handles an error. At that time, it binds @var{var} locally to an
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Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12098
diff changeset
995 @dfn{error description}, which is a list giving the particulars of the
bf32c17c153b Changes for Emacs 19.32.
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12098
diff changeset
996 error. The error description has the form @code{(@var{error-symbol}
bf32c17c153b Changes for Emacs 19.32.
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12098
diff changeset
997 . @var{data})}. The handler can refer to this list to decide what to
bf32c17c153b Changes for Emacs 19.32.
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12098
diff changeset
998 do. For example, if the error is for failure opening a file, the file
bf32c17c153b Changes for Emacs 19.32.
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12098
diff changeset
999 name is the second element of @var{data}---the third element of the
bf32c17c153b Changes for Emacs 19.32.
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12098
diff changeset
1000 error description.
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parents:
diff changeset
1001
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parents:
diff changeset
1002 If @var{var} is @code{nil}, that means no variable is bound. Then the
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parents:
diff changeset
1003 error symbol and associated data are not available to the handler.
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parents:
diff changeset
1004 @end defspec
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parents:
diff changeset
1005
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parents: 12098
diff changeset
1006 @defun error-message-string error-description
bf32c17c153b Changes for Emacs 19.32.
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12098
diff changeset
1007 This function returns the error message string for a given error
bf32c17c153b Changes for Emacs 19.32.
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12098
diff changeset
1008 descriptor. It is useful if you want to handle an error by printing the
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28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1009 usual error message for that error. @xref{Definition of signal}.
15725
bf32c17c153b Changes for Emacs 19.32.
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12098
diff changeset
1010 @end defun
bf32c17c153b Changes for Emacs 19.32.
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12098
diff changeset
1011
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diff changeset
1012 @cindex @code{arith-error} example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1013 Here is an example of using @code{condition-case} to handle the error
15725
bf32c17c153b Changes for Emacs 19.32.
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12098
diff changeset
1014 that results from dividing by zero. The handler displays the error
bf32c17c153b Changes for Emacs 19.32.
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12098
diff changeset
1015 message (but without a beep), then returns a very large number.
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parents:
diff changeset
1016
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1017 @smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1018 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1019 (defun safe-divide (dividend divisor)
49600
23a1cea22d13 Trailing whitespace deleted.
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents: 45254
diff changeset
1020 (condition-case err
6453
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parents:
diff changeset
1021 ;; @r{Protected form.}
49600
23a1cea22d13 Trailing whitespace deleted.
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents: 45254
diff changeset
1022 (/ dividend divisor)
22274
f0cd03a7dac9 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 22138
diff changeset
1023 @end group
f0cd03a7dac9 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 22138
diff changeset
1024 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1025 ;; @r{The handler.}
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parents:
diff changeset
1026 (arith-error ; @r{Condition.}
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bf32c17c153b Changes for Emacs 19.32.
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12098
diff changeset
1027 ;; @r{Display the usual message for this error.}
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parents: 12098
diff changeset
1028 (message "%s" (error-message-string err))
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diff changeset
1029 1000000)))
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parents:
diff changeset
1030 @result{} safe-divide
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parents:
diff changeset
1031 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
1032
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diff changeset
1033 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1034 (safe-divide 5 0)
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parents:
diff changeset
1035 @print{} Arithmetic error: (arith-error)
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parents:
diff changeset
1036 @result{} 1000000
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1037 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1038 @end smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
1039
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parents:
diff changeset
1040 @noindent
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parents:
diff changeset
1041 The handler specifies condition name @code{arith-error} so that it will handle only division-by-zero errors. Other kinds of errors will not be handled, at least not by this @code{condition-case}. Thus,
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parents:
diff changeset
1042
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parents:
diff changeset
1043 @smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
1044 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1045 (safe-divide nil 3)
21007
66d807bdc5b4 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 16850
diff changeset
1046 @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, nil
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diff changeset
1047 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
1048 @end smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
1049
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parents:
diff changeset
1050 Here is a @code{condition-case} that catches all kinds of errors,
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parents:
diff changeset
1051 including those signaled with @code{error}:
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parents:
diff changeset
1052
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parents:
diff changeset
1053 @smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
1054 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1055 (setq baz 34)
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parents:
diff changeset
1056 @result{} 34
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parents:
diff changeset
1057 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
1058
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diff changeset
1059 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1060 (condition-case err
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parents:
diff changeset
1061 (if (eq baz 35)
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parents:
diff changeset
1062 t
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diff changeset
1063 ;; @r{This is a call to the function @code{error}.}
12098
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 7734
diff changeset
1064 (error "Rats! The variable %s was %s, not 35" 'baz baz))
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parents:
diff changeset
1065 ;; @r{This is the handler; it is not a form.}
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diff changeset
1066 (error (princ (format "The error was: %s" err))
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diff changeset
1067 2))
12098
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 7734
diff changeset
1068 @print{} The error was: (error "Rats! The variable baz was 34, not 35")
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diff changeset
1069 @result{} 2
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parents:
diff changeset
1070 @end group
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diff changeset
1071 @end smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
1072
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diff changeset
1073 @node Error Symbols
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diff changeset
1074 @subsubsection Error Symbols and Condition Names
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diff changeset
1075 @cindex error symbol
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parents:
diff changeset
1076 @cindex error name
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parents:
diff changeset
1077 @cindex condition name
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parents:
diff changeset
1078 @cindex user-defined error
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parents:
diff changeset
1079 @kindex error-conditions
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parents:
diff changeset
1080
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parents:
diff changeset
1081 When you signal an error, you specify an @dfn{error symbol} to specify
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parents:
diff changeset
1082 the kind of error you have in mind. Each error has one and only one
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parents:
diff changeset
1083 error symbol to categorize it. This is the finest classification of
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parents:
diff changeset
1084 errors defined by the Emacs Lisp language.
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parents:
diff changeset
1085
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diff changeset
1086 These narrow classifications are grouped into a hierarchy of wider
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parents:
diff changeset
1087 classes called @dfn{error conditions}, identified by @dfn{condition
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parents:
diff changeset
1088 names}. The narrowest such classes belong to the error symbols
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diff changeset
1089 themselves: each error symbol is also a condition name. There are also
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parents:
diff changeset
1090 condition names for more extensive classes, up to the condition name
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parents: 52401
diff changeset
1091 @code{error} which takes in all kinds of errors (but not @code{quit}).
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
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parents: 52401
diff changeset
1092 Thus, each error has one or more condition names: @code{error}, the
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1093 error symbol if that is distinct from @code{error}, and perhaps some
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1094 intermediate classifications.
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diff changeset
1095
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parents:
diff changeset
1096 In order for a symbol to be an error symbol, it must have an
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parents:
diff changeset
1097 @code{error-conditions} property which gives a list of condition names.
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6453
diff changeset
1098 This list defines the conditions that this kind of error belongs to.
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diff changeset
1099 (The error symbol itself, and the symbol @code{error}, should always be
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parents:
diff changeset
1100 members of this list.) Thus, the hierarchy of condition names is
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1101 defined by the @code{error-conditions} properties of the error symbols.
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parents: 52401
diff changeset
1102 Because quitting is not considered an error, the value of the
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1103 @code{error-conditions} property of @code{quit} is just @code{(quit)}.
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1104
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28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1105 @cindex peculiar error
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1106 In addition to the @code{error-conditions} list, the error symbol
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1107 should have an @code{error-message} property whose value is a string to
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1108 be printed when that error is signaled but not handled. If the
53453
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1109 error symbol has no @code{error-message} property or if the
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1110 @code{error-message} property exists, but is not a string, the error
53453
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1111 message @samp{peculiar error} is used. @xref{Definition of signal}.
6453
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parents:
diff changeset
1112
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1113 Here is how we define a new error symbol, @code{new-error}:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1114
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1115 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1116 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1117 (put 'new-error
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1118 'error-conditions
49600
23a1cea22d13 Trailing whitespace deleted.
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents: 45254
diff changeset
1119 '(error my-own-errors new-error))
6453
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1120 @result{} (error my-own-errors new-error)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1121 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1122 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1123 (put 'new-error 'error-message "A new error")
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1124 @result{} "A new error"
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1125 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1126 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1127
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1128 @noindent
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1129 This error has three condition names: @code{new-error}, the narrowest
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1130 classification; @code{my-own-errors}, which we imagine is a wider
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1131 classification; and @code{error}, which is the widest of all.
12098
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 7734
diff changeset
1132
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 7734
diff changeset
1133 The error string should start with a capital letter but it should
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 7734
diff changeset
1134 not end with a period. This is for consistency with the rest of Emacs.
49600
23a1cea22d13 Trailing whitespace deleted.
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents: 45254
diff changeset
1135
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parents:
diff changeset
1136 Naturally, Emacs will never signal @code{new-error} on its own; only
53453
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1137 an explicit call to @code{signal} (@pxref{Definition of signal}) in
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1138 your code can do this:
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1139
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1140 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1141 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1142 (signal 'new-error '(x y))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1143 @error{} A new error: x, y
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1144 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1145 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1146
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1147 This error can be handled through any of the three condition names.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1148 This example handles @code{new-error} and any other errors in the class
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1149 @code{my-own-errors}:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1150
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1151 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1152 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1153 (condition-case foo
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1154 (bar nil t)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1155 (my-own-errors nil))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1156 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1157 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1158
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1159 The significant way that errors are classified is by their condition
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1160 names---the names used to match errors with handlers. An error symbol
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1161 serves only as a convenient way to specify the intended error message
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1162 and list of condition names. It would be cumbersome to give
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1163 @code{signal} a list of condition names rather than one error symbol.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1164
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1165 By contrast, using only error symbols without condition names would
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1166 seriously decrease the power of @code{condition-case}. Condition names
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1167 make it possible to categorize errors at various levels of generality
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1168 when you write an error handler. Using error symbols alone would
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1169 eliminate all but the narrowest level of classification.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1170
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1171 @xref{Standard Errors}, for a list of all the standard error symbols
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1172 and their conditions.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1173
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1174 @node Cleanups
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1175 @subsection Cleaning Up from Nonlocal Exits
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1176
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1177 The @code{unwind-protect} construct is essential whenever you
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1178 temporarily put a data structure in an inconsistent state; it permits
60037
45e78cd94f23 (Combining Conditions): Wording cleanup.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 56215
diff changeset
1179 you to make the data consistent again in the event of an error or
45e78cd94f23 (Combining Conditions): Wording cleanup.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 56215
diff changeset
1180 throw. (Another more specific cleanup construct that is used only for
45e78cd94f23 (Combining Conditions): Wording cleanup.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 56215
diff changeset
1181 changes in buffer contents is the atomic change group; @ref{Atomic
45e78cd94f23 (Combining Conditions): Wording cleanup.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 56215
diff changeset
1182 Changes}.)
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1183
53453
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1184 @defspec unwind-protect body-form cleanup-forms@dots{}
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1185 @cindex cleanup forms
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1186 @cindex protected forms
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1187 @cindex error cleanup
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1188 @cindex unwinding
53453
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1189 @code{unwind-protect} executes @var{body-form} with a guarantee that
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1190 the @var{cleanup-forms} will be evaluated if control leaves
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1191 @var{body-form}, no matter how that happens. @var{body-form} may
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1192 complete normally, or execute a @code{throw} out of the
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1193 @code{unwind-protect}, or cause an error; in all cases, the
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1194 @var{cleanup-forms} will be evaluated.
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1195
53453
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1196 If @var{body-form} finishes normally, @code{unwind-protect} returns the
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1197 value of @var{body-form}, after it evaluates the @var{cleanup-forms}.
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1198 If @var{body-form} does not finish, @code{unwind-protect} does not
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1199 return any value in the normal sense.
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1200
53453
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1201 Only @var{body-form} is protected by the @code{unwind-protect}. If any
25751
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25089
diff changeset
1202 of the @var{cleanup-forms} themselves exits nonlocally (via a
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25089
diff changeset
1203 @code{throw} or an error), @code{unwind-protect} is @emph{not}
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1204 guaranteed to evaluate the rest of them. If the failure of one of the
53453
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1205 @var{cleanup-forms} has the potential to cause trouble, then protect
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1206 it with another @code{unwind-protect} around that form.
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1207
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1208 The number of currently active @code{unwind-protect} forms counts,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1209 together with the number of local variable bindings, against the limit
53453
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1210 @code{max-specpdl-size} (@pxref{Definition of max-specpdl-size,, Local
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1211 Variables}).
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1212 @end defspec
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1213
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1214 For example, here we make an invisible buffer for temporary use, and
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1215 make sure to kill it before finishing:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1216
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1217 @smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1218 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1219 (save-excursion
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1220 (let ((buffer (get-buffer-create " *temp*")))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1221 (set-buffer buffer)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1222 (unwind-protect
53453
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1223 @var{body-form}
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1224 (kill-buffer buffer))))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1225 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1226 @end smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1227
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1228 @noindent
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1229 You might think that we could just as well write @code{(kill-buffer
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1230 (current-buffer))} and dispense with the variable @code{buffer}.
53453
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1231 However, the way shown above is safer, if @var{body-form} happens to
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1232 get an error after switching to a different buffer! (Alternatively,
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1233 you could write another @code{save-excursion} around @var{body-form},
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1234 to ensure that the temporary buffer becomes current again in time to
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1235 kill it.)
21682
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
1236
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
1237 Emacs includes a standard macro called @code{with-temp-buffer} which
53453
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1238 expands into more or less the code shown above (@pxref{Definition of
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1239 with-temp-buffer,, Current Buffer}). Several of the macros defined in
28b887271e09 Various small changes in addition to the following.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents: 52401
diff changeset
1240 this manual use @code{unwind-protect} in this way.
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1241
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1242 @findex ftp-login
25751
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25089
diff changeset
1243 Here is an actual example derived from an FTP package. It creates a
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25089
diff changeset
1244 process (@pxref{Processes}) to try to establish a connection to a remote
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25089
diff changeset
1245 machine. As the function @code{ftp-login} is highly susceptible to
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25089
diff changeset
1246 numerous problems that the writer of the function cannot anticipate, it
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25089
diff changeset
1247 is protected with a form that guarantees deletion of the process in the
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25089
diff changeset
1248 event of failure. Otherwise, Emacs might fill up with useless
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25089
diff changeset
1249 subprocesses.
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1250
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1251 @smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1252 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1253 (let ((win nil))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1254 (unwind-protect
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1255 (progn
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1256 (setq process (ftp-setup-buffer host file))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1257 (if (setq win (ftp-login process host user password))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1258 (message "Logged in")
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1259 (error "Ftp login failed")))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1260 (or win (and process (delete-process process)))))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1261 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1262 @end smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1263
25751
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25089
diff changeset
1264 This example has a small bug: if the user types @kbd{C-g} to
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1265 quit, and the quit happens immediately after the function
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1266 @code{ftp-setup-buffer} returns but before the variable @code{process} is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1267 set, the process will not be killed. There is no easy way to fix this bug,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1268 but at least it is very unlikely.
52401
695cf19ef79e Add arch taglines
Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1269
695cf19ef79e Add arch taglines
Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1270 @ignore
695cf19ef79e Add arch taglines
Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1271 arch-tag: 8abc30d4-4d3a-47f9-b908-e9e971c18c6d
695cf19ef79e Add arch taglines
Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 49600
diff changeset
1272 @end ignore