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annotate lispref/intro.texi @ 50407:41c0eed9d556
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date | Wed, 02 Apr 2003 21:38:43 +0000 |
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6453 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 2002 |
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4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6453 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/intro | |
7 | |
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8 @c Versino of the manual. |
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9 @set VERSION 2.9 |
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10 |
29256 | 11 @node Introduction, Lisp Data Types, Top, Top |
6453 | 12 @comment node-name, next, previous, up |
13 @chapter Introduction | |
14 | |
15 Most of the GNU Emacs text editor is written in the programming | |
16 language called Emacs Lisp. You can write new code in Emacs Lisp and | |
17 install it as an extension to the editor. However, Emacs Lisp is more | |
18 than a mere ``extension language''; it is a full computer programming | |
19 language in its own right. You can use it as you would any other | |
20 programming language. | |
21 | |
22 Because Emacs Lisp is designed for use in an editor, it has special | |
23 features for scanning and parsing text as well as features for handling | |
24 files, buffers, displays, subprocesses, and so on. Emacs Lisp is | |
25 closely integrated with the editing facilities; thus, editing commands | |
26 are functions that can also conveniently be called from Lisp programs, | |
27 and parameters for customization are ordinary Lisp variables. | |
28 | |
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29 This manual attempts to be a full description of Emacs Lisp. For a |
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30 beginner's introduction to Emacs Lisp, see @cite{An Introduction to |
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31 Emacs Lisp Programming}, by Bob Chassell, also published by the Free |
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32 Software Foundation. This manual presumes considerable familiarity with |
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33 the use of Emacs for editing; see @cite{The GNU Emacs Manual} for this |
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34 basic information. |
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35 |
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36 Generally speaking, the earlier chapters describe features of Emacs |
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37 Lisp that have counterparts in many programming languages, and later |
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38 chapters describe features that are peculiar to Emacs Lisp or relate |
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39 specifically to editing. |
6453 | 40 |
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41 This is edition @value{VERSION}. |
6453 | 42 |
43 @menu | |
44 * Caveats:: Flaws and a request for help. | |
45 * Lisp History:: Emacs Lisp is descended from Maclisp. | |
46 * Conventions:: How the manual is formatted. | |
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47 * Version Info:: Which Emacs version is running? |
6453 | 48 * Acknowledgements:: The authors, editors, and sponsors of this manual. |
49 @end menu | |
50 | |
51 @node Caveats | |
52 @section Caveats | |
40470 | 53 @cindex bugs in this manual |
6453 | 54 |
55 This manual has gone through numerous drafts. It is nearly complete | |
7114 | 56 but not flawless. There are a few topics that are not covered, either |
57 because we consider them secondary (such as most of the individual | |
58 modes) or because they are yet to be written. Because we are not able | |
59 to deal with them completely, we have left out several parts | |
60 intentionally. This includes most information about usage on VMS. | |
6453 | 61 |
62 The manual should be fully correct in what it does cover, and it is | |
63 therefore open to criticism on anything it says---from specific examples | |
64 and descriptive text, to the ordering of chapters and sections. If | |
65 something is confusing, or you find that you have to look at the sources | |
66 or experiment to learn something not covered in the manual, then perhaps | |
67 the manual should be fixed. Please let us know. | |
68 | |
69 @iftex | |
25875 | 70 As you use this manual, we ask that you mark pages with corrections so |
71 you can later look them up and send them to us. If you think of a simple, | |
7114 | 72 real-life example for a function or group of functions, please make an |
6453 | 73 effort to write it up and send it in. Please reference any comments to |
74 the chapter name, section name, and function name, as appropriate, since | |
7114 | 75 page numbers and chapter and section numbers will change and we may have |
76 trouble finding the text you are talking about. Also state the number | |
77 of the edition you are criticizing. | |
6453 | 78 @end iftex |
27193 | 79 @ifnottex |
6453 | 80 |
81 As you use this manual, we ask that you send corrections as soon as you | |
82 find them. If you think of a simple, real life example for a function | |
83 or group of functions, please make an effort to write it up and send it | |
84 in. Please reference any comments to the node name and function or | |
85 variable name, as appropriate. Also state the number of the edition | |
25875 | 86 you are criticizing. |
27193 | 87 @end ifnottex |
6453 | 88 |
48019 | 89 @cindex bugs |
90 @cindex suggestions | |
6453 | 91 Please mail comments and corrections to |
92 | |
93 @example | |
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94 bug-lisp-manual@@gnu.org |
6453 | 95 @end example |
96 | |
97 @noindent | |
98 We let mail to this list accumulate unread until someone decides to | |
99 apply the corrections. Months, and sometimes years, go by between | |
100 updates. So please attach no significance to the lack of a reply---your | |
101 mail @emph{will} be acted on in due time. If you want to contact the | |
102 Emacs maintainers more quickly, send mail to | |
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103 @code{bug-gnu-emacs@@gnu.org}. |
6453 | 104 |
105 @node Lisp History | |
106 @section Lisp History | |
107 @cindex Lisp history | |
108 | |
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109 Lisp (LISt Processing language) was first developed in the late 1950s |
6453 | 110 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for research in artificial |
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111 intelligence. The great power of the Lisp language makes it ideal |
6453 | 112 for other purposes as well, such as writing editing commands. |
113 | |
114 @cindex Maclisp | |
115 @cindex Common Lisp | |
116 Dozens of Lisp implementations have been built over the years, each | |
117 with its own idiosyncrasies. Many of them were inspired by Maclisp, | |
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118 which was written in the 1960s at MIT's Project MAC. Eventually the |
7114 | 119 implementors of the descendants of Maclisp came together and developed a |
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120 standard for Lisp systems, called Common Lisp. In the meantime, Gerry |
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121 Sussman and Guy Steele at MIT developed a simplified but very powerful |
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122 dialect of Lisp, called Scheme. |
6453 | 123 |
124 GNU Emacs Lisp is largely inspired by Maclisp, and a little by Common | |
125 Lisp. If you know Common Lisp, you will notice many similarities. | |
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126 However, many features of Common Lisp have been omitted or |
6453 | 127 simplified in order to reduce the memory requirements of GNU Emacs. |
128 Sometimes the simplifications are so drastic that a Common Lisp user | |
129 might be very confused. We will occasionally point out how GNU Emacs | |
130 Lisp differs from Common Lisp. If you don't know Common Lisp, don't | |
131 worry about it; this manual is self-contained. | |
132 | |
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133 @pindex cl |
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134 A certain amount of Common Lisp emulation is available via the |
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135 @file{cl} library. @xref{Top,, Common Lisp Extension, cl, Common Lisp |
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136 Extensions}. |
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137 |
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138 Emacs Lisp is not at all influenced by Scheme; but the GNU project has |
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139 an implementation of Scheme, called Guile. We use Guile in all new GNU |
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140 software that calls for extensibility. |
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141 |
6453 | 142 @node Conventions |
143 @section Conventions | |
144 | |
145 This section explains the notational conventions that are used in this | |
146 manual. You may want to skip this section and refer back to it later. | |
147 | |
148 @menu | |
149 * Some Terms:: Explanation of terms we use in this manual. | |
150 * nil and t:: How the symbols @code{nil} and @code{t} are used. | |
151 * Evaluation Notation:: The format we use for examples of evaluation. | |
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152 * Printing Notation:: The format we use when examples print text. |
6453 | 153 * Error Messages:: The format we use for examples of errors. |
154 * Buffer Text Notation:: The format we use for buffer contents in examples. | |
155 * Format of Descriptions:: Notation for describing functions, variables, etc. | |
156 @end menu | |
157 | |
158 @node Some Terms | |
159 @subsection Some Terms | |
160 | |
161 Throughout this manual, the phrases ``the Lisp reader'' and ``the Lisp | |
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162 printer'' refer to those routines in Lisp that convert textual |
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163 representations of Lisp objects into actual Lisp objects, and vice |
6453 | 164 versa. @xref{Printed Representation}, for more details. You, the |
165 person reading this manual, are thought of as ``the programmer'' and are | |
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166 addressed as ``you''. ``The user'' is the person who uses Lisp |
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167 programs, including those you write. |
6453 | 168 |
169 @cindex fonts | |
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170 Examples of Lisp code are formatted like this: @code{(list 1 2 3)}. |
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171 Names that represent metasyntactic variables, or arguments to a function |
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172 being described, are formatted like this: @var{first-number}. |
6453 | 173 |
174 @node nil and t | |
175 @subsection @code{nil} and @code{t} | |
176 @cindex @code{nil}, uses of | |
177 @cindex truth value | |
178 @cindex boolean | |
179 @cindex false | |
180 | |
12098 | 181 In Lisp, the symbol @code{nil} has three separate meanings: it |
6453 | 182 is a symbol with the name @samp{nil}; it is the logical truth value |
183 @var{false}; and it is the empty list---the list of zero elements. | |
184 When used as a variable, @code{nil} always has the value @code{nil}. | |
185 | |
186 As far as the Lisp reader is concerned, @samp{()} and @samp{nil} are | |
187 identical: they stand for the same object, the symbol @code{nil}. The | |
188 different ways of writing the symbol are intended entirely for human | |
189 readers. After the Lisp reader has read either @samp{()} or @samp{nil}, | |
190 there is no way to determine which representation was actually written | |
191 by the programmer. | |
192 | |
193 In this manual, we use @code{()} when we wish to emphasize that it | |
194 means the empty list, and we use @code{nil} when we wish to emphasize | |
195 that it means the truth value @var{false}. That is a good convention to use | |
196 in Lisp programs also. | |
197 | |
198 @example | |
199 (cons 'foo ()) ; @r{Emphasize the empty list} | |
200 (not nil) ; @r{Emphasize the truth value @var{false}} | |
201 @end example | |
202 | |
203 @cindex @code{t} and truth | |
204 @cindex true | |
205 In contexts where a truth value is expected, any non-@code{nil} value | |
206 is considered to be @var{true}. However, @code{t} is the preferred way | |
207 to represent the truth value @var{true}. When you need to choose a | |
208 value which represents @var{true}, and there is no other basis for | |
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209 choosing, use @code{t}. The symbol @code{t} always has the value |
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210 @code{t}. |
6453 | 211 |
212 In Emacs Lisp, @code{nil} and @code{t} are special symbols that always | |
213 evaluate to themselves. This is so that you do not need to quote them | |
214 to use them as constants in a program. An attempt to change their | |
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215 values results in a @code{setting-constant} error. The same is true of |
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216 any symbol whose name starts with a colon (@samp{:}). @xref{Constant |
6453 | 217 Variables}. |
218 | |
219 @node Evaluation Notation | |
220 @subsection Evaluation Notation | |
221 @cindex evaluation notation | |
222 @cindex documentation notation | |
223 | |
224 A Lisp expression that you can evaluate is called a @dfn{form}. | |
225 Evaluating a form always produces a result, which is a Lisp object. In | |
226 the examples in this manual, this is indicated with @samp{@result{}}: | |
227 | |
228 @example | |
229 (car '(1 2)) | |
230 @result{} 1 | |
231 @end example | |
232 | |
233 @noindent | |
234 You can read this as ``@code{(car '(1 2))} evaluates to 1''. | |
235 | |
236 When a form is a macro call, it expands into a new form for Lisp to | |
237 evaluate. We show the result of the expansion with | |
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238 @samp{@expansion{}}. We may or may not show the result of the |
6453 | 239 evaluation of the expanded form. |
240 | |
241 @example | |
242 (third '(a b c)) | |
243 @expansion{} (car (cdr (cdr '(a b c)))) | |
244 @result{} c | |
245 @end example | |
246 | |
7114 | 247 Sometimes to help describe one form we show another form that |
6453 | 248 produces identical results. The exact equivalence of two forms is |
249 indicated with @samp{@equiv{}}. | |
250 | |
251 @example | |
252 (make-sparse-keymap) @equiv{} (list 'keymap) | |
253 @end example | |
254 | |
255 @node Printing Notation | |
256 @subsection Printing Notation | |
257 @cindex printing notation | |
258 | |
259 Many of the examples in this manual print text when they are | |
7114 | 260 evaluated. If you execute example code in a Lisp Interaction buffer |
261 (such as the buffer @samp{*scratch*}), the printed text is inserted into | |
262 the buffer. If you execute the example by other means (such as by | |
263 evaluating the function @code{eval-region}), the printed text is | |
26288 | 264 displayed in the echo area. |
6453 | 265 |
266 Examples in this manual indicate printed text with @samp{@print{}}, | |
267 irrespective of where that text goes. The value returned by evaluating | |
268 the form (here @code{bar}) follows on a separate line. | |
269 | |
270 @example | |
271 @group | |
272 (progn (print 'foo) (print 'bar)) | |
273 @print{} foo | |
274 @print{} bar | |
275 @result{} bar | |
276 @end group | |
277 @end example | |
278 | |
279 @node Error Messages | |
280 @subsection Error Messages | |
281 @cindex error message notation | |
282 | |
283 Some examples signal errors. This normally displays an error message | |
284 in the echo area. We show the error message on a line starting with | |
285 @samp{@error{}}. Note that @samp{@error{}} itself does not appear in | |
286 the echo area. | |
287 | |
288 @example | |
289 (+ 23 'x) | |
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290 @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, x |
6453 | 291 @end example |
292 | |
293 @node Buffer Text Notation | |
294 @subsection Buffer Text Notation | |
295 @cindex buffer text notation | |
296 | |
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297 Some examples describe modifications to the contents of a buffer, by |
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298 showing the ``before'' and ``after'' versions of the text. These |
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299 examples show the contents of the buffer in question between two lines |
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300 of dashes containing the buffer name. In addition, @samp{@point{}} |
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301 indicates the location of point. (The symbol for point, of course, is |
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302 not part of the text in the buffer; it indicates the place |
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303 @emph{between} two characters where point is currently located.) |
6453 | 304 |
305 @example | |
306 ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- | |
307 This is the @point{}contents of foo. | |
308 ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- | |
309 | |
310 (insert "changed ") | |
311 @result{} nil | |
312 ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- | |
313 This is the changed @point{}contents of foo. | |
314 ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- | |
315 @end example | |
316 | |
317 @node Format of Descriptions | |
318 @subsection Format of Descriptions | |
319 @cindex description format | |
320 | |
321 Functions, variables, macros, commands, user options, and special | |
322 forms are described in this manual in a uniform format. The first | |
323 line of a description contains the name of the item followed by its | |
324 arguments, if any. | |
27193 | 325 @ifnottex |
6453 | 326 The category---function, variable, or whatever---appears at the |
327 beginning of the line. | |
27193 | 328 @end ifnottex |
6453 | 329 @iftex |
330 The category---function, variable, or whatever---is printed next to the | |
331 right margin. | |
332 @end iftex | |
333 The description follows on succeeding lines, sometimes with examples. | |
334 | |
335 @menu | |
336 * A Sample Function Description:: A description of an imaginary | |
337 function, @code{foo}. | |
338 * A Sample Variable Description:: A description of an imaginary | |
339 variable, | |
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340 @code{electric-future-map}. |
6453 | 341 @end menu |
342 | |
343 @node A Sample Function Description | |
344 @subsubsection A Sample Function Description | |
345 @cindex function descriptions | |
346 @cindex command descriptions | |
347 @cindex macro descriptions | |
348 @cindex special form descriptions | |
349 | |
350 In a function description, the name of the function being described | |
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351 appears first. It is followed on the same line by a list of argument |
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352 names. These names are also used in the body of the description, to |
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353 stand for the values of the arguments. |
6453 | 354 |
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355 The appearance of the keyword @code{&optional} in the argument list |
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356 indicates that the subsequent arguments may be omitted (omitted |
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357 arguments default to @code{nil}). Do not write @code{&optional} when |
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358 you call the function. |
6453 | 359 |
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360 The keyword @code{&rest} (which must be followed by a single argument |
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361 name) indicates that any number of arguments can follow. The single |
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362 following argument name will have a value, as a variable, which is a |
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363 list of all these remaining arguments. Do not write @code{&rest} when |
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364 you call the function. |
6453 | 365 |
366 Here is a description of an imaginary function @code{foo}: | |
367 | |
368 @defun foo integer1 &optional integer2 &rest integers | |
369 The function @code{foo} subtracts @var{integer1} from @var{integer2}, | |
370 then adds all the rest of the arguments to the result. If @var{integer2} | |
371 is not supplied, then the number 19 is used by default. | |
372 | |
373 @example | |
374 (foo 1 5 3 9) | |
375 @result{} 16 | |
376 (foo 5) | |
377 @result{} 14 | |
378 @end example | |
379 | |
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380 @need 1500 |
6453 | 381 More generally, |
382 | |
383 @example | |
384 (foo @var{w} @var{x} @var{y}@dots{}) | |
385 @equiv{} | |
386 (+ (- @var{x} @var{w}) @var{y}@dots{}) | |
387 @end example | |
388 @end defun | |
389 | |
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390 Any argument whose name contains the name of a type (e.g., |
6453 | 391 @var{integer}, @var{integer1} or @var{buffer}) is expected to be of that |
392 type. A plural of a type (such as @var{buffers}) often means a list of | |
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393 objects of that type. Arguments named @var{object} may be of any type. |
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394 (@xref{Lisp Data Types}, for a list of Emacs object types.) Arguments |
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395 with other sorts of names (e.g., @var{new-file}) are discussed |
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396 specifically in the description of the function. In some sections, |
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397 features common to the arguments of several functions are described at |
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398 the beginning. |
6453 | 399 |
400 @xref{Lambda Expressions}, for a more complete description of optional | |
401 and rest arguments. | |
402 | |
403 Command, macro, and special form descriptions have the same format, | |
404 but the word `Function' is replaced by `Command', `Macro', or `Special | |
405 Form', respectively. Commands are simply functions that may be called | |
406 interactively; macros process their arguments differently from functions | |
407 (the arguments are not evaluated), but are presented the same way. | |
408 | |
409 Special form descriptions use a more complex notation to specify | |
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410 optional and repeated arguments because they can break the argument |
6453 | 411 list down into separate arguments in more complicated ways. |
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412 @samp{@r{[}@var{optional-arg}@r{]}} means that @var{optional-arg} is |
6453 | 413 optional and @samp{@var{repeated-args}@dots{}} stands for zero or more |
414 arguments. Parentheses are used when several arguments are grouped into | |
415 additional levels of list structure. Here is an example: | |
416 | |
417 @defspec count-loop (@var{var} [@var{from} @var{to} [@var{inc}]]) @var{body}@dots{} | |
418 This imaginary special form implements a loop that executes the | |
419 @var{body} forms and then increments the variable @var{var} on each | |
420 iteration. On the first iteration, the variable has the value | |
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421 @var{from}; on subsequent iterations, it is incremented by one (or by |
6453 | 422 @var{inc} if that is given). The loop exits before executing @var{body} |
423 if @var{var} equals @var{to}. Here is an example: | |
424 | |
425 @example | |
426 (count-loop (i 0 10) | |
427 (prin1 i) (princ " ") | |
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428 (prin1 (aref vector i)) |
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429 (terpri)) |
6453 | 430 @end example |
431 | |
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432 If @var{from} and @var{to} are omitted, @var{var} is bound to |
6453 | 433 @code{nil} before the loop begins, and the loop exits if @var{var} is |
434 non-@code{nil} at the beginning of an iteration. Here is an example: | |
435 | |
436 @example | |
437 (count-loop (done) | |
438 (if (pending) | |
439 (fixit) | |
440 (setq done t))) | |
441 @end example | |
442 | |
443 In this special form, the arguments @var{from} and @var{to} are | |
444 optional, but must both be present or both absent. If they are present, | |
445 @var{inc} may optionally be specified as well. These arguments are | |
446 grouped with the argument @var{var} into a list, to distinguish them | |
447 from @var{body}, which includes all remaining elements of the form. | |
448 @end defspec | |
449 | |
450 @node A Sample Variable Description | |
451 @subsubsection A Sample Variable Description | |
452 @cindex variable descriptions | |
453 @cindex option descriptions | |
454 | |
455 A @dfn{variable} is a name that can hold a value. Although any | |
456 variable can be set by the user, certain variables that exist | |
457 specifically so that users can change them are called @dfn{user | |
458 options}. Ordinary variables and user options are described using a | |
459 format like that for functions except that there are no arguments. | |
460 | |
461 Here is a description of the imaginary @code{electric-future-map} | |
462 variable.@refill | |
463 | |
464 @defvar electric-future-map | |
465 The value of this variable is a full keymap used by Electric Command | |
466 Future mode. The functions in this map allow you to edit commands you | |
467 have not yet thought about executing. | |
468 @end defvar | |
469 | |
470 User option descriptions have the same format, but `Variable' is | |
471 replaced by `User Option'. | |
472 | |
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473 @node Version Info |
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474 @section Version Information |
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475 |
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476 These facilities provide information about which version of Emacs is |
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477 in use. |
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478 |
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479 @deffn Command emacs-version |
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480 This function returns a string describing the version of Emacs that is |
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481 running. It is useful to include this string in bug reports. |
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482 |
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483 @smallexample |
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484 @group |
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485 (emacs-version) |
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486 @result{} "GNU Emacs 20.3.5 (i486-pc-linux-gnulibc1, X toolkit) |
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487 of Sat Feb 14 1998 on psilocin.gnu.org" |
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488 @end group |
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489 @end smallexample |
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490 |
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491 Called interactively, the function prints the same information in the |
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492 echo area. |
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493 @end deffn |
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494 |
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495 @defvar emacs-build-time |
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496 The value of this variable indicates the time at which Emacs was built |
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497 at the local site. It is a list of three integers, like the value |
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498 of @code{current-time} (@pxref{Time of Day}). |
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499 |
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500 @example |
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501 @group |
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502 emacs-build-time |
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503 @result{} (13623 62065 344633) |
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504 @end group |
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505 @end example |
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506 @end defvar |
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507 |
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508 @defvar emacs-version |
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509 The value of this variable is the version of Emacs being run. It is a |
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510 string such as @code{"20.3.1"}. The last number in this string is not |
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511 really part of the Emacs release version number; it is incremented each |
36986 | 512 time you build Emacs in any given directory. A value with four numeric |
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513 components, such as @code{"20.3.9.1"}, indicates an unreleased test |
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514 version. |
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515 @end defvar |
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516 |
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517 The following two variables have existed since Emacs version 19.23: |
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518 |
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519 @defvar emacs-major-version |
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520 The major version number of Emacs, as an integer. For Emacs version |
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521 20.3, the value is 20. |
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522 @end defvar |
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523 |
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524 @defvar emacs-minor-version |
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525 The minor version number of Emacs, as an integer. For Emacs version |
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526 20.3, the value is 3. |
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527 @end defvar |
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528 |
6453 | 529 @node Acknowledgements |
530 @section Acknowledgements | |
531 | |
532 This manual was written by Robert Krawitz, Bil Lewis, Dan LaLiberte, | |
533 Richard M. Stallman and Chris Welty, the volunteers of the GNU manual | |
534 group, in an effort extending over several years. Robert J. Chassell | |
535 helped to review and edit the manual, with the support of the Defense | |
536 Advanced Research Projects Agency, ARPA Order 6082, arranged by Warren | |
25875 | 537 A. Hunt, Jr.@: of Computational Logic, Inc. |
6453 | 538 |
539 Corrections were supplied by Karl Berry, Jim Blandy, Bard Bloom, | |
540 Stephane Boucher, David Boyes, Alan Carroll, Richard Davis, Lawrence | |
541 R. Dodd, Peter Doornbosch, David A. Duff, Chris Eich, Beverly | |
542 Erlebacher, David Eckelkamp, Ralf Fassel, Eirik Fuller, Stephen Gildea, | |
543 Bob Glickstein, Eric Hanchrow, George Hartzell, Nathan Hess, Masayuki | |
544 Ida, Dan Jacobson, Jak Kirman, Bob Knighten, Frederick M. Korz, Joe | |
545 Lammens, Glenn M. Lewis, K. Richard Magill, Brian Marick, Roland | |
546 McGrath, Skip Montanaro, John Gardiner Myers, Thomas A. Peterson, | |
547 Francesco Potorti, Friedrich Pukelsheim, Arnold D. Robbins, Raul | |
25875 | 548 Rockwell, Per Starb@"ack, Shinichirou Sugou, Kimmo Suominen, Edward Tharp, |
6453 | 549 Bill Trost, Rickard Westman, Jean White, Matthew Wilding, Carl Witty, |
550 Dale Worley, Rusty Wright, and David D. Zuhn. |