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annotate lispref/objects.texi @ 60529:4358de407410
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date | Wed, 09 Mar 2005 00:29:14 +0000 |
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6447 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2003 |
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4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6447 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/objects | |
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7 @node Lisp Data Types, Numbers, Introduction, Top |
6447 | 8 @chapter Lisp Data Types |
9 @cindex object | |
10 @cindex Lisp object | |
11 @cindex type | |
12 @cindex data type | |
13 | |
14 A Lisp @dfn{object} is a piece of data used and manipulated by Lisp | |
15 programs. For our purposes, a @dfn{type} or @dfn{data type} is a set of | |
16 possible objects. | |
17 | |
18 Every object belongs to at least one type. Objects of the same type | |
19 have similar structures and may usually be used in the same contexts. | |
20 Types can overlap, and objects can belong to two or more types. | |
21 Consequently, we can ask whether an object belongs to a particular type, | |
22 but not for ``the'' type of an object. | |
23 | |
24 @cindex primitive type | |
25 A few fundamental object types are built into Emacs. These, from | |
26188 | 26 which all other types are constructed, are called @dfn{primitive types}. |
27 Each object belongs to one and only one primitive type. These types | |
28 include @dfn{integer}, @dfn{float}, @dfn{cons}, @dfn{symbol}, | |
29 @dfn{string}, @dfn{vector}, @dfn{hash-table}, @dfn{subr}, and | |
30 @dfn{byte-code function}, plus several special types, such as | |
31 @dfn{buffer}, that are related to editing. (@xref{Editing Types}.) | |
6447 | 32 |
33 Each primitive type has a corresponding Lisp function that checks | |
34 whether an object is a member of that type. | |
35 | |
36 Note that Lisp is unlike many other languages in that Lisp objects are | |
37 @dfn{self-typing}: the primitive type of the object is implicit in the | |
38 object itself. For example, if an object is a vector, nothing can treat | |
39 it as a number; Lisp knows it is a vector, not a number. | |
40 | |
41 In most languages, the programmer must declare the data type of each | |
42 variable, and the type is known by the compiler but not represented in | |
43 the data. Such type declarations do not exist in Emacs Lisp. A Lisp | |
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44 variable can have any type of value, and it remembers whatever value |
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45 you store in it, type and all. (Actually, a small number of Emacs |
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46 Lisp variables can only take on values of a certain type. |
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47 @xref{Variables with Restricted Values}.) |
6447 | 48 |
49 This chapter describes the purpose, printed representation, and read | |
50 syntax of each of the standard types in GNU Emacs Lisp. Details on how | |
51 to use these types can be found in later chapters. | |
52 | |
53 @menu | |
54 * Printed Representation:: How Lisp objects are represented as text. | |
55 * Comments:: Comments and their formatting conventions. | |
56 * Programming Types:: Types found in all Lisp systems. | |
57 * Editing Types:: Types specific to Emacs. | |
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58 * Circular Objects:: Read syntax for circular structure. |
6447 | 59 * Type Predicates:: Tests related to types. |
60 * Equality Predicates:: Tests of equality between any two objects. | |
61 @end menu | |
62 | |
63 @node Printed Representation | |
64 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
65 @section Printed Representation and Read Syntax | |
66 @cindex printed representation | |
67 @cindex read syntax | |
68 | |
69 The @dfn{printed representation} of an object is the format of the | |
70 output generated by the Lisp printer (the function @code{prin1}) for | |
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71 that object. Every data type has a unique printed representation. |
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72 The @dfn{read syntax} of an object is the format of the input accepted |
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73 by the Lisp reader (the function @code{read}) for that object. This |
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74 is not necessarily unique; many kinds of object have more than one |
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75 syntax. @xref{Read and Print}. |
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76 |
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77 @cindex hash notation |
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78 In most cases, an object's printed representation is also a read |
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79 syntax for the object. However, some types have no read syntax, since |
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80 it does not make sense to enter objects of these types as constants in |
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81 a Lisp program. These objects are printed in @dfn{hash notation}: the |
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82 characters @samp{#<} followed by a descriptive string (typically the |
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83 type name followed by the name of the object), and closed with a |
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84 matching @samp{>}. For example: |
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85 |
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86 @example |
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87 (current-buffer) |
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88 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> |
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89 @end example |
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90 |
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91 @noindent |
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92 Hash notation cannot be read at all, so the Lisp reader signals the |
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93 error @code{invalid-read-syntax} whenever it encounters @samp{#<}. |
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94 @kindex invalid-read-syntax |
6447 | 95 |
96 In other languages, an expression is text; it has no other form. In | |
97 Lisp, an expression is primarily a Lisp object and only secondarily the | |
98 text that is the object's read syntax. Often there is no need to | |
99 emphasize this distinction, but you must keep it in the back of your | |
100 mind, or you will occasionally be very confused. | |
101 | |
102 When you evaluate an expression interactively, the Lisp interpreter | |
103 first reads the textual representation of it, producing a Lisp object, | |
104 and then evaluates that object (@pxref{Evaluation}). However, | |
105 evaluation and reading are separate activities. Reading returns the | |
106 Lisp object represented by the text that is read; the object may or may | |
107 not be evaluated later. @xref{Input Functions}, for a description of | |
108 @code{read}, the basic function for reading objects. | |
109 | |
110 @node Comments | |
111 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
112 @section Comments | |
113 @cindex comments | |
114 @cindex @samp{;} in comment | |
115 | |
116 A @dfn{comment} is text that is written in a program only for the sake | |
117 of humans that read the program, and that has no effect on the meaning | |
118 of the program. In Lisp, a semicolon (@samp{;}) starts a comment if it | |
119 is not within a string or character constant. The comment continues to | |
120 the end of line. The Lisp reader discards comments; they do not become | |
121 part of the Lisp objects which represent the program within the Lisp | |
122 system. | |
123 | |
12098 | 124 The @samp{#@@@var{count}} construct, which skips the next @var{count} |
125 characters, is useful for program-generated comments containing binary | |
126 data. The Emacs Lisp byte compiler uses this in its output files | |
127 (@pxref{Byte Compilation}). It isn't meant for source files, however. | |
128 | |
6447 | 129 @xref{Comment Tips}, for conventions for formatting comments. |
130 | |
131 @node Programming Types | |
132 @section Programming Types | |
133 @cindex programming types | |
134 | |
135 There are two general categories of types in Emacs Lisp: those having | |
136 to do with Lisp programming, and those having to do with editing. The | |
137 former exist in many Lisp implementations, in one form or another. The | |
138 latter are unique to Emacs Lisp. | |
139 | |
140 @menu | |
141 * Integer Type:: Numbers without fractional parts. | |
142 * Floating Point Type:: Numbers with fractional parts and with a large range. | |
143 * Character Type:: The representation of letters, numbers and | |
144 control characters. | |
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145 * Symbol Type:: A multi-use object that refers to a function, |
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146 variable, or property list, and has a unique identity. |
6447 | 147 * Sequence Type:: Both lists and arrays are classified as sequences. |
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148 * Cons Cell Type:: Cons cells, and lists (which are made from cons cells). |
6447 | 149 * Array Type:: Arrays include strings and vectors. |
150 * String Type:: An (efficient) array of characters. | |
151 * Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays. | |
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152 * Char-Table Type:: One-dimensional sparse arrays indexed by characters. |
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153 * Bool-Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays of @code{t} or @code{nil}. |
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154 * Hash Table Type:: Super-fast lookup tables. |
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155 * Function Type:: A piece of executable code you can call from elsewhere. |
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156 * Macro Type:: A method of expanding an expression into another |
6447 | 157 expression, more fundamental but less pretty. |
158 * Primitive Function Type:: A function written in C, callable from Lisp. | |
159 * Byte-Code Type:: A function written in Lisp, then compiled. | |
160 * Autoload Type:: A type used for automatically loading seldom-used | |
161 functions. | |
162 @end menu | |
163 | |
164 @node Integer Type | |
165 @subsection Integer Type | |
166 | |
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167 The range of values for integers in Emacs Lisp is @minus{}268435456 to |
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168 268435455 (29 bits; i.e., |
27193 | 169 @ifnottex |
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170 -2**28 |
27193 | 171 @end ifnottex |
6447 | 172 @tex |
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173 @math{-2^{28}} |
6447 | 174 @end tex |
175 to | |
27193 | 176 @ifnottex |
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177 2**28 - 1) |
27193 | 178 @end ifnottex |
6447 | 179 @tex |
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180 @math{2^{28}-1}) |
6447 | 181 @end tex |
10559 | 182 on most machines. (Some machines may provide a wider range.) It is |
183 important to note that the Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions do not check | |
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184 for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 268435455)} is @minus{}268435456 on most |
10559 | 185 machines. |
6447 | 186 |
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187 The read syntax for integers is a sequence of (base ten) digits with an |
6447 | 188 optional sign at the beginning and an optional period at the end. The |
189 printed representation produced by the Lisp interpreter never has a | |
190 leading @samp{+} or a final @samp{.}. | |
191 | |
192 @example | |
193 @group | |
194 -1 ; @r{The integer -1.} | |
195 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
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196 1. ; @r{Also the integer 1.} |
6447 | 197 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} |
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198 536870913 ; @r{Also the integer 1 on a 29-bit implementation.} |
6447 | 199 @end group |
200 @end example | |
201 | |
202 @xref{Numbers}, for more information. | |
203 | |
204 @node Floating Point Type | |
205 @subsection Floating Point Type | |
206 | |
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207 Floating point numbers are the computer equivalent of scientific |
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208 notation; you can think of a floating point number as a fraction |
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209 together with a power of ten. The precise number of significant |
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210 figures and the range of possible exponents is machine-specific; Emacs |
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211 uses the C data type @code{double} to store the value, and internally |
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212 this records a power of 2 rather than a power of 10. |
6447 | 213 |
214 The printed representation for floating point numbers requires either | |
215 a decimal point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or | |
216 both. For example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, | |
217 @samp{1.5e3}, and @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point | |
218 number whose value is 1500. They are all equivalent. | |
219 | |
220 @xref{Numbers}, for more information. | |
221 | |
222 @node Character Type | |
223 @subsection Character Type | |
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224 @cindex @acronym{ASCII} character codes |
6447 | 225 |
226 A @dfn{character} in Emacs Lisp is nothing more than an integer. In | |
227 other words, characters are represented by their character codes. For | |
228 example, the character @kbd{A} is represented as the @w{integer 65}. | |
229 | |
230 Individual characters are not often used in programs. It is far more | |
231 common to work with @emph{strings}, which are sequences composed of | |
232 characters. @xref{String Type}. | |
233 | |
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234 Characters in strings, buffers, and files are currently limited to |
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235 the range of 0 to 524287---nineteen bits. But not all values in that |
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236 range are valid character codes. Codes 0 through 127 are |
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237 @acronym{ASCII} codes; the rest are non-@acronym{ASCII} |
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238 (@pxref{Non-ASCII Characters}). Characters that represent keyboard |
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239 input have a much wider range, to encode modifier keys such as |
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240 Control, Meta and Shift. |
6447 | 241 |
242 @cindex read syntax for characters | |
243 @cindex printed representation for characters | |
244 @cindex syntax for characters | |
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245 @cindex @samp{?} in character constant |
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246 @cindex question mark in character constant |
6447 | 247 Since characters are really integers, the printed representation of a |
248 character is a decimal number. This is also a possible read syntax for | |
249 a character, but writing characters that way in Lisp programs is a very | |
250 bad idea. You should @emph{always} use the special read syntax formats | |
251 that Emacs Lisp provides for characters. These syntax formats start | |
252 with a question mark. | |
253 | |
254 The usual read syntax for alphanumeric characters is a question mark | |
255 followed by the character; thus, @samp{?A} for the character | |
256 @kbd{A}, @samp{?B} for the character @kbd{B}, and @samp{?a} for the | |
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257 character @kbd{a}. |
6447 | 258 |
259 For example: | |
260 | |
261 @example | |
262 ?Q @result{} 81 ?q @result{} 113 | |
263 @end example | |
264 | |
265 You can use the same syntax for punctuation characters, but it is | |
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266 often a good idea to add a @samp{\} so that the Emacs commands for |
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267 editing Lisp code don't get confused. For example, @samp{?\(} is the |
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268 way to write the open-paren character. If the character is @samp{\}, |
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269 you @emph{must} use a second @samp{\} to quote it: @samp{?\\}. |
6447 | 270 |
271 @cindex whitespace | |
272 @cindex bell character | |
273 @cindex @samp{\a} | |
274 @cindex backspace | |
275 @cindex @samp{\b} | |
276 @cindex tab | |
277 @cindex @samp{\t} | |
278 @cindex vertical tab | |
279 @cindex @samp{\v} | |
280 @cindex formfeed | |
281 @cindex @samp{\f} | |
282 @cindex newline | |
283 @cindex @samp{\n} | |
284 @cindex return | |
285 @cindex @samp{\r} | |
286 @cindex escape | |
287 @cindex @samp{\e} | |
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288 @cindex space |
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289 @cindex @samp{\s} |
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290 You can express the characters control-g, backspace, tab, newline, |
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291 vertical tab, formfeed, space, return, del, and escape as @samp{?\a}, |
37418 | 292 @samp{?\b}, @samp{?\t}, @samp{?\n}, @samp{?\v}, @samp{?\f}, |
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293 @samp{?\s}, @samp{?\r}, @samp{?\d}, and @samp{?\e}, respectively. |
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294 Thus, |
6447 | 295 |
296 @example | |
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297 ?\a @result{} 7 ; @r{control-g, @kbd{C-g}} |
6447 | 298 ?\b @result{} 8 ; @r{backspace, @key{BS}, @kbd{C-h}} |
299 ?\t @result{} 9 ; @r{tab, @key{TAB}, @kbd{C-i}} | |
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300 ?\n @result{} 10 ; @r{newline, @kbd{C-j}} |
6447 | 301 ?\v @result{} 11 ; @r{vertical tab, @kbd{C-k}} |
302 ?\f @result{} 12 ; @r{formfeed character, @kbd{C-l}} | |
303 ?\r @result{} 13 ; @r{carriage return, @key{RET}, @kbd{C-m}} | |
304 ?\e @result{} 27 ; @r{escape character, @key{ESC}, @kbd{C-[}} | |
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305 ?\s @result{} 32 ; @r{space character, @key{SPC}} |
6447 | 306 ?\\ @result{} 92 ; @r{backslash character, @kbd{\}} |
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307 ?\d @result{} 127 ; @r{delete character, @key{DEL}} |
6447 | 308 @end example |
309 | |
310 @cindex escape sequence | |
311 These sequences which start with backslash are also known as | |
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312 @dfn{escape sequences}, because backslash plays the role of an |
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313 ``escape character''; this terminology has nothing to do with the |
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314 character @key{ESC}. @samp{\s} is meant for use only in character |
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315 constants; in string constants, just write the space. |
6447 | 316 |
317 @cindex control characters | |
318 Control characters may be represented using yet another read syntax. | |
319 This consists of a question mark followed by a backslash, caret, and the | |
320 corresponding non-control character, in either upper or lower case. For | |
321 example, both @samp{?\^I} and @samp{?\^i} are valid read syntax for the | |
322 character @kbd{C-i}, the character whose value is 9. | |
323 | |
324 Instead of the @samp{^}, you can use @samp{C-}; thus, @samp{?\C-i} is | |
325 equivalent to @samp{?\^I} and to @samp{?\^i}: | |
326 | |
327 @example | |
328 ?\^I @result{} 9 ?\C-I @result{} 9 | |
329 @end example | |
330 | |
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331 In strings and buffers, the only control characters allowed are those |
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332 that exist in @acronym{ASCII}; but for keyboard input purposes, you can turn |
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333 any character into a control character with @samp{C-}. The character |
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334 codes for these non-@acronym{ASCII} control characters include the |
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335 @tex |
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336 @math{2^{26}} |
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337 @end tex |
27193 | 338 @ifnottex |
12098 | 339 2**26 |
27193 | 340 @end ifnottex |
12098 | 341 bit as well as the code for the corresponding non-control |
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342 character. Ordinary terminals have no way of generating non-@acronym{ASCII} |
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343 control characters, but you can generate them straightforwardly using X |
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344 and other window systems. |
6447 | 345 |
12098 | 346 For historical reasons, Emacs treats the @key{DEL} character as |
347 the control equivalent of @kbd{?}: | |
6447 | 348 |
349 @example | |
350 ?\^? @result{} 127 ?\C-? @result{} 127 | |
351 @end example | |
352 | |
12098 | 353 @noindent |
354 As a result, it is currently not possible to represent the character | |
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355 @kbd{Control-?}, which is a meaningful input character under X, using |
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356 @samp{\C-}. It is not easy to change this, as various Lisp files refer |
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357 to @key{DEL} in this way. |
12098 | 358 |
6447 | 359 For representing control characters to be found in files or strings, |
360 we recommend the @samp{^} syntax; for control characters in keyboard | |
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361 input, we prefer the @samp{C-} syntax. Which one you use does not |
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362 affect the meaning of the program, but may guide the understanding of |
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363 people who read it. |
6447 | 364 |
365 @cindex meta characters | |
366 A @dfn{meta character} is a character typed with the @key{META} | |
367 modifier key. The integer that represents such a character has the | |
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368 @tex |
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369 @math{2^{27}} |
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370 @end tex |
27193 | 371 @ifnottex |
12098 | 372 2**27 |
27193 | 373 @end ifnottex |
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374 bit set. We use high bits for this and other modifiers to make |
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375 possible a wide range of basic character codes. |
6447 | 376 |
12098 | 377 In a string, the |
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378 @tex |
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379 @math{2^{7}} |
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380 @end tex |
27193 | 381 @ifnottex |
12098 | 382 2**7 |
27193 | 383 @end ifnottex |
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384 bit attached to an @acronym{ASCII} character indicates a meta |
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385 character; thus, the meta characters that can fit in a string have |
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386 codes in the range from 128 to 255, and are the meta versions of the |
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387 ordinary @acronym{ASCII} characters. (In Emacs versions 18 and older, |
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388 this convention was used for characters outside of strings as well.) |
6447 | 389 |
390 The read syntax for meta characters uses @samp{\M-}. For example, | |
391 @samp{?\M-A} stands for @kbd{M-A}. You can use @samp{\M-} together with | |
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392 octal character codes (see below), with @samp{\C-}, or with any other |
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393 syntax for a character. Thus, you can write @kbd{M-A} as @samp{?\M-A}, |
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394 or as @samp{?\M-\101}. Likewise, you can write @kbd{C-M-b} as |
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395 @samp{?\M-\C-b}, @samp{?\C-\M-b}, or @samp{?\M-\002}. |
6447 | 396 |
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397 The case of a graphic character is indicated by its character code; |
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398 for example, @acronym{ASCII} distinguishes between the characters @samp{a} |
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399 and @samp{A}. But @acronym{ASCII} has no way to represent whether a control |
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400 character is upper case or lower case. Emacs uses the |
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401 @tex |
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402 @math{2^{25}} |
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403 @end tex |
27193 | 404 @ifnottex |
12098 | 405 2**25 |
27193 | 406 @end ifnottex |
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407 bit to indicate that the shift key was used in typing a control |
12098 | 408 character. This distinction is possible only when you use X terminals |
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409 or other special terminals; ordinary terminals do not report the |
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410 distinction to the computer in any way. The Lisp syntax for |
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411 the shift bit is @samp{\S-}; thus, @samp{?\C-\S-o} or @samp{?\C-\S-O} |
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412 represents the shifted-control-o character. |
6447 | 413 |
414 @cindex hyper characters | |
415 @cindex super characters | |
416 @cindex alt characters | |
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417 The X Window System defines three other |
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418 @anchor{modifier bits}modifier bits that can be set |
6447 | 419 in a character: @dfn{hyper}, @dfn{super} and @dfn{alt}. The syntaxes |
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420 for these bits are @samp{\H-}, @samp{\s-} and @samp{\A-}. (Case is |
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421 significant in these prefixes.) Thus, @samp{?\H-\M-\A-x} represents |
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422 @kbd{Alt-Hyper-Meta-x}. (Note that @samp{\s} with no following @samp{-} |
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423 represents the space character.) |
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424 @tex |
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425 Numerically, the bit values are @math{2^{22}} for alt, @math{2^{23}} |
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426 for super and @math{2^{24}} for hyper. |
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427 @end tex |
27193 | 428 @ifnottex |
12098 | 429 Numerically, the |
430 bit values are 2**22 for alt, 2**23 for super and 2**24 for hyper. | |
27193 | 431 @end ifnottex |
6447 | 432 |
433 @cindex @samp{\} in character constant | |
434 @cindex backslash in character constant | |
435 @cindex octal character code | |
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436 Finally, the most general read syntax for a character represents the |
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437 character code in either octal or hex. To use octal, write a question |
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438 mark followed by a backslash and the octal character code (up to three |
6447 | 439 octal digits); thus, @samp{?\101} for the character @kbd{A}, |
440 @samp{?\001} for the character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\002} for the | |
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441 character @kbd{C-b}. Although this syntax can represent any @acronym{ASCII} |
6447 | 442 character, it is preferred only when the precise octal value is more |
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443 important than the @acronym{ASCII} representation. |
6447 | 444 |
445 @example | |
446 @group | |
447 ?\012 @result{} 10 ?\n @result{} 10 ?\C-j @result{} 10 | |
448 ?\101 @result{} 65 ?A @result{} 65 | |
449 @end group | |
450 @end example | |
451 | |
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452 To use hex, write a question mark followed by a backslash, @samp{x}, |
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453 and the hexadecimal character code. You can use any number of hex |
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454 digits, so you can represent any character code in this way. |
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455 Thus, @samp{?\x41} for the character @kbd{A}, @samp{?\x1} for the |
35477 | 456 character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\x8e0} for the Latin-1 character |
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457 @iftex |
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458 @samp{@`a}. |
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459 @end iftex |
27193 | 460 @ifnottex |
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461 @samp{a} with grave accent. |
27193 | 462 @end ifnottex |
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463 |
6447 | 464 A backslash is allowed, and harmless, preceding any character without |
465 a special escape meaning; thus, @samp{?\+} is equivalent to @samp{?+}. | |
466 There is no reason to add a backslash before most characters. However, | |
467 you should add a backslash before any of the characters | |
468 @samp{()\|;'`"#.,} to avoid confusing the Emacs commands for editing | |
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469 Lisp code. You can also add a backslash before whitespace characters such as |
6447 | 470 space, tab, newline and formfeed. However, it is cleaner to use one of |
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471 the easily readable escape sequences, such as @samp{\t} or @samp{\s}, |
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472 instead of an actual whitespace character such as a tab or a space. |
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473 (If you do write backslash followed by a space, you should write |
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474 an extra space after the character constant to separate it from the |
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475 following text.) |
6447 | 476 |
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477 @node Symbol Type |
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478 @subsection Symbol Type |
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479 |
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480 A @dfn{symbol} in GNU Emacs Lisp is an object with a name. The |
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481 symbol name serves as the printed representation of the symbol. In |
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482 ordinary Lisp use, with one single obarray (@pxref{Creating Symbols}, |
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483 a symbol's name is unique---no two symbols have the same name. |
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484 |
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485 A symbol can serve as a variable, as a function name, or to hold a |
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486 property list. Or it may serve only to be distinct from all other Lisp |
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487 objects, so that its presence in a data structure may be recognized |
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488 reliably. In a given context, usually only one of these uses is |
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489 intended. But you can use one symbol in all of these ways, |
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490 independently. |
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491 |
26188 | 492 A symbol whose name starts with a colon (@samp{:}) is called a |
493 @dfn{keyword symbol}. These symbols automatically act as constants, and | |
494 are normally used only by comparing an unknown symbol with a few | |
495 specific alternatives. | |
496 | |
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497 @cindex @samp{\} in symbols |
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498 @cindex backslash in symbols |
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499 A symbol name can contain any characters whatever. Most symbol names |
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500 are written with letters, digits, and the punctuation characters |
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501 @samp{-+=*/}. Such names require no special punctuation; the characters |
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502 of the name suffice as long as the name does not look like a number. |
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503 (If it does, write a @samp{\} at the beginning of the name to force |
31561 | 504 interpretation as a symbol.) The characters @samp{_~!@@$%^&:<>@{@}?} are |
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505 less often used but also require no special punctuation. Any other |
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506 characters may be included in a symbol's name by escaping them with a |
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507 backslash. In contrast to its use in strings, however, a backslash in |
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508 the name of a symbol simply quotes the single character that follows the |
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509 backslash. For example, in a string, @samp{\t} represents a tab |
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510 character; in the name of a symbol, however, @samp{\t} merely quotes the |
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511 letter @samp{t}. To have a symbol with a tab character in its name, you |
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512 must actually use a tab (preceded with a backslash). But it's rare to |
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513 do such a thing. |
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514 |
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515 @cindex CL note---case of letters |
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516 @quotation |
7734 | 517 @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, lower case letters are always |
12098 | 518 ``folded'' to upper case, unless they are explicitly escaped. In Emacs |
519 Lisp, upper case and lower case letters are distinct. | |
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520 @end quotation |
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521 |
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522 Here are several examples of symbol names. Note that the @samp{+} in |
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523 the fifth example is escaped to prevent it from being read as a number. |
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524 This is not necessary in the fourth example because the rest of the name |
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525 makes it invalid as a number. |
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526 |
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527 @example |
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528 @group |
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529 foo ; @r{A symbol named @samp{foo}.} |
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530 FOO ; @r{A symbol named @samp{FOO}, different from @samp{foo}.} |
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531 char-to-string ; @r{A symbol named @samp{char-to-string}.} |
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532 @end group |
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533 @group |
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534 1+ ; @r{A symbol named @samp{1+}} |
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535 ; @r{(not @samp{+1}, which is an integer).} |
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536 @end group |
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537 @group |
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538 \+1 ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+1}} |
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539 ; @r{(not a very readable name).} |
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540 @end group |
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541 @group |
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542 \(*\ 1\ 2\) ; @r{A symbol named @samp{(* 1 2)} (a worse name).} |
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543 @c the @'s in this next line use up three characters, hence the |
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544 @c apparent misalignment of the comment. |
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545 +-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@} ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@}}.} |
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546 ; @r{These characters need not be escaped.} |
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547 @end group |
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548 @end example |
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549 |
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550 @ifinfo |
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551 @c This uses ``colon'' instead of a literal `:' because Info cannot |
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552 @c cope with a `:' in a menu |
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553 @cindex @samp{#@var{colon}} read syntax |
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554 @end ifinfo |
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555 @ifnotinfo |
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556 @cindex @samp{#:} read syntax |
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557 @end ifnotinfo |
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558 Normally the Lisp reader interns all symbols (@pxref{Creating |
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559 Symbols}). To prevent interning, you can write @samp{#:} before the |
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560 name of the symbol. |
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561 |
6447 | 562 @node Sequence Type |
563 @subsection Sequence Types | |
564 | |
565 A @dfn{sequence} is a Lisp object that represents an ordered set of | |
566 elements. There are two kinds of sequence in Emacs Lisp, lists and | |
567 arrays. Thus, an object of type list or of type array is also | |
568 considered a sequence. | |
569 | |
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570 Arrays are further subdivided into strings, vectors, char-tables and |
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571 bool-vectors. Vectors can hold elements of any type, but string |
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572 elements must be characters, and bool-vector elements must be @code{t} |
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573 or @code{nil}. Char-tables are like vectors except that they are |
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574 indexed by any valid character code. The characters in a string can |
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575 have text properties like characters in a buffer (@pxref{Text |
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576 Properties}), but vectors do not support text properties, even when |
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577 their elements happen to be characters. |
6447 | 578 |
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579 Lists, strings and the other array types are different, but they have |
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580 important similarities. For example, all have a length @var{l}, and all |
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581 have elements which can be indexed from zero to @var{l} minus one. |
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582 Several functions, called sequence functions, accept any kind of |
6447 | 583 sequence. For example, the function @code{elt} can be used to extract |
584 an element of a sequence, given its index. @xref{Sequences Arrays | |
585 Vectors}. | |
586 | |
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587 It is generally impossible to read the same sequence twice, since |
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588 sequences are always created anew upon reading. If you read the read |
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589 syntax for a sequence twice, you get two sequences with equal contents. |
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590 There is one exception: the empty list @code{()} always stands for the |
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591 same object, @code{nil}. |
6447 | 592 |
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593 @node Cons Cell Type |
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594 @subsection Cons Cell and List Types |
6447 | 595 @cindex address field of register |
596 @cindex decrement field of register | |
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597 @cindex pointers |
6447 | 598 |
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599 A @dfn{cons cell} is an object that consists of two slots, called the |
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600 @sc{car} slot and the @sc{cdr} slot. Each slot can @dfn{hold} or |
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601 @dfn{refer to} any Lisp object. We also say that ``the @sc{car} of |
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602 this cons cell is'' whatever object its @sc{car} slot currently holds, |
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603 and likewise for the @sc{cdr}. |
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604 |
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605 @quotation |
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606 A note to C programmers: in Lisp, we do not distinguish between |
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607 ``holding'' a value and ``pointing to'' the value, because pointers in |
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608 Lisp are implicit. |
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609 @end quotation |
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610 |
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611 A @dfn{list} is a series of cons cells, linked together so that the |
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612 @sc{cdr} slot of each cons cell holds either the next cons cell or the |
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613 empty list. The empty list is actually the symbol @code{nil}. |
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614 @xref{Lists}, for functions that work on lists. Because most cons |
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615 cells are used as part of lists, the phrase @dfn{list structure} has |
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616 come to refer to any structure made out of cons cells. |
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617 |
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618 @cindex atom |
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619 Because cons cells are so central to Lisp, we also have a word for |
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620 ``an object which is not a cons cell''. These objects are called |
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621 @dfn{atoms}. |
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622 |
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623 @cindex parenthesis |
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624 The read syntax and printed representation for lists are identical, and |
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625 consist of a left parenthesis, an arbitrary number of elements, and a |
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626 right parenthesis. Here are examples of lists: |
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627 |
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628 @example |
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629 (A 2 "A") ; @r{A list of three elements.} |
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630 () ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} |
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631 nil ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} |
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632 ("A ()") ; @r{A list of one element: the string @code{"A ()"}.} |
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633 (A ()) ; @r{A list of two elements: @code{A} and the empty list.} |
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634 (A nil) ; @r{Equivalent to the previous.} |
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635 ((A B C)) ; @r{A list of one element} |
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636 ; @r{(which is a list of three elements).} |
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637 @end example |
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638 |
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639 Upon reading, each object inside the parentheses becomes an element |
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640 of the list. That is, a cons cell is made for each element. The |
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641 @sc{car} slot of the cons cell holds the element, and its @sc{cdr} |
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642 slot refers to the next cons cell of the list, which holds the next |
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643 element in the list. The @sc{cdr} slot of the last cons cell is set to |
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644 hold @code{nil}. |
6447 | 645 |
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646 The names @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} derive from the history of Lisp. The |
6447 | 647 original Lisp implementation ran on an @w{IBM 704} computer which |
648 divided words into two parts, called the ``address'' part and the | |
649 ``decrement''; @sc{car} was an instruction to extract the contents of | |
650 the address part of a register, and @sc{cdr} an instruction to extract | |
651 the contents of the decrement. By contrast, ``cons cells'' are named | |
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652 for the function @code{cons} that creates them, which in turn was named |
6447 | 653 for its purpose, the construction of cells. |
654 | |
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655 @menu |
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656 * Box Diagrams:: Drawing pictures of lists. |
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657 * Dotted Pair Notation:: A general syntax for cons cells. |
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658 * Association List Type:: A specially constructed list. |
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659 @end menu |
6447 | 660 |
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661 @node Box Diagrams |
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662 @subsubsection Drawing Lists as Box Diagrams |
6447 | 663 @cindex box diagrams, for lists |
664 @cindex diagrams, boxed, for lists | |
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665 |
6447 | 666 A list can be illustrated by a diagram in which the cons cells are |
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667 shown as pairs of boxes, like dominoes. (The Lisp reader cannot read |
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668 such an illustration; unlike the textual notation, which can be |
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669 understood by both humans and computers, the box illustrations can be |
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670 understood only by humans.) This picture represents the three-element |
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671 list @code{(rose violet buttercup)}: |
6447 | 672 |
673 @example | |
674 @group | |
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675 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
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676 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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677 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 678 | | | |
679 | | | | |
680 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup | |
681 @end group | |
682 @end example | |
683 | |
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684 In this diagram, each box represents a slot that can hold or refer to |
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685 any Lisp object. Each pair of boxes represents a cons cell. Each arrow |
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686 represents a reference to a Lisp object, either an atom or another cons |
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687 cell. |
6447 | 688 |
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689 In this example, the first box, which holds the @sc{car} of the first |
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690 cons cell, refers to or ``holds'' @code{rose} (a symbol). The second |
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691 box, holding the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell, refers to the next |
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692 pair of boxes, the second cons cell. The @sc{car} of the second cons |
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693 cell is @code{violet}, and its @sc{cdr} is the third cons cell. The |
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694 @sc{cdr} of the third (and last) cons cell is @code{nil}. |
6447 | 695 |
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696 Here is another diagram of the same list, @code{(rose violet |
6447 | 697 buttercup)}, sketched in a different manner: |
698 | |
699 @smallexample | |
700 @group | |
701 --------------- ---------------- ------------------- | |
702 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
703 | rose | o-------->| violet | o-------->| buttercup | nil | | |
704 | | | | | | | | | | |
705 --------------- ---------------- ------------------- | |
706 @end group | |
707 @end smallexample | |
708 | |
709 @cindex @samp{(@dots{})} in lists | |
710 @cindex @code{nil} in lists | |
711 @cindex empty list | |
712 A list with no elements in it is the @dfn{empty list}; it is identical | |
713 to the symbol @code{nil}. In other words, @code{nil} is both a symbol | |
714 and a list. | |
715 | |
716 Here is the list @code{(A ())}, or equivalently @code{(A nil)}, | |
717 depicted with boxes and arrows: | |
718 | |
719 @example | |
720 @group | |
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721 --- --- --- --- |
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722 | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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723 --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 724 | | |
725 | | | |
726 --> A --> nil | |
727 @end group | |
728 @end example | |
729 | |
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730 Here is a more complex illustration, showing the three-element list, |
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731 @code{((pine needles) oak maple)}, the first element of which is a |
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732 two-element list: |
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733 |
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734 @example |
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735 @group |
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736 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
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737 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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738 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
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739 | | | |
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740 | | | |
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741 | --> oak --> maple |
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742 | |
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743 | --- --- --- --- |
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744 --> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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745 --- --- --- --- |
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746 | | |
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747 | | |
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748 --> pine --> needles |
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749 @end group |
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750 @end example |
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751 |
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752 The same list represented in the first box notation looks like this: |
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753 |
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754 @example |
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755 @group |
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756 -------------- -------------- -------------- |
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757 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | |
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758 | o | o------->| oak | o------->| maple | nil | |
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759 | | | | | | | | | | |
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760 -- | --------- -------------- -------------- |
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761 | |
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762 | |
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763 | -------------- ---------------- |
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764 | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | |
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765 ------>| pine | o------->| needles | nil | |
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766 | | | | | | |
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767 -------------- ---------------- |
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768 @end group |
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769 @end example |
6447 | 770 |
771 @node Dotted Pair Notation | |
772 @subsubsection Dotted Pair Notation | |
773 @cindex dotted pair notation | |
774 @cindex @samp{.} in lists | |
775 | |
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776 @dfn{Dotted pair notation} is a general syntax for cons cells that |
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777 represents the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} explicitly. In this syntax, |
6447 | 778 @code{(@var{a} .@: @var{b})} stands for a cons cell whose @sc{car} is |
779 the object @var{a}, and whose @sc{cdr} is the object @var{b}. Dotted | |
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780 pair notation is more general than list syntax because the @sc{cdr} |
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781 does not have to be a list. However, it is more cumbersome in cases |
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782 where list syntax would work. In dotted pair notation, the list |
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783 @samp{(1 2 3)} is written as @samp{(1 . (2 . (3 . nil)))}. For |
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784 @code{nil}-terminated lists, you can use either notation, but list |
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785 notation is usually clearer and more convenient. When printing a |
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786 list, the dotted pair notation is only used if the @sc{cdr} of a cons |
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787 cell is not a list. |
6447 | 788 |
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789 Here's an example using boxes to illustrate dotted pair notation. |
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790 This example shows the pair @code{(rose . violet)}: |
6447 | 791 |
792 @example | |
793 @group | |
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794 --- --- |
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795 | | |--> violet |
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796 --- --- |
6447 | 797 | |
798 | | |
799 --> rose | |
800 @end group | |
801 @end example | |
802 | |
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803 You can combine dotted pair notation with list notation to represent |
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804 conveniently a chain of cons cells with a non-@code{nil} final @sc{cdr}. |
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805 You write a dot after the last element of the list, followed by the |
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806 @sc{cdr} of the final cons cell. For example, @code{(rose violet |
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807 . buttercup)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . buttercup))}. |
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808 The object looks like this: |
6447 | 809 |
810 @example | |
811 @group | |
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812 --- --- --- --- |
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813 | | |--> | | |--> buttercup |
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814 --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 815 | | |
816 | | | |
817 --> rose --> violet | |
818 @end group | |
819 @end example | |
820 | |
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821 The syntax @code{(rose .@: violet .@: buttercup)} is invalid because |
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822 there is nothing that it could mean. If anything, it would say to put |
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823 @code{buttercup} in the @sc{cdr} of a cons cell whose @sc{cdr} is already |
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824 used for @code{violet}. |
6447 | 825 |
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826 The list @code{(rose violet)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet))}, |
6447 | 827 and looks like this: |
828 | |
829 @example | |
830 @group | |
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831 --- --- --- --- |
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832 | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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833 --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 834 | | |
835 | | | |
836 --> rose --> violet | |
837 @end group | |
838 @end example | |
839 | |
840 Similarly, the three-element list @code{(rose violet buttercup)} | |
841 is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . (buttercup)))}. | |
27193 | 842 @ifnottex |
6447 | 843 It looks like this: |
844 | |
845 @example | |
846 @group | |
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847 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
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848 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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849 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 850 | | | |
851 | | | | |
852 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup | |
853 @end group | |
854 @end example | |
27193 | 855 @end ifnottex |
6447 | 856 |
857 @node Association List Type | |
858 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
859 @subsubsection Association List Type | |
860 | |
861 An @dfn{association list} or @dfn{alist} is a specially-constructed | |
862 list whose elements are cons cells. In each element, the @sc{car} is | |
863 considered a @dfn{key}, and the @sc{cdr} is considered an | |
864 @dfn{associated value}. (In some cases, the associated value is stored | |
865 in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr}.) Association lists are often used as | |
866 stacks, since it is easy to add or remove associations at the front of | |
867 the list. | |
868 | |
869 For example, | |
870 | |
871 @example | |
872 (setq alist-of-colors | |
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873 '((rose . red) (lily . white) (buttercup . yellow))) |
6447 | 874 @end example |
875 | |
876 @noindent | |
877 sets the variable @code{alist-of-colors} to an alist of three elements. In the | |
878 first element, @code{rose} is the key and @code{red} is the value. | |
879 | |
880 @xref{Association Lists}, for a further explanation of alists and for | |
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881 functions that work on alists. @xref{Hash Tables}, for another kind of |
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882 lookup table, which is much faster for handling a large number of keys. |
6447 | 883 |
884 @node Array Type | |
885 @subsection Array Type | |
886 | |
887 An @dfn{array} is composed of an arbitrary number of slots for | |
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888 holding or referring to other Lisp objects, arranged in a contiguous block of |
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889 memory. Accessing any element of an array takes approximately the same |
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890 amount of time. In contrast, accessing an element of a list requires |
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891 time proportional to the position of the element in the list. (Elements |
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892 at the end of a list take longer to access than elements at the |
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893 beginning of a list.) |
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894 |
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895 Emacs defines four types of array: strings, vectors, bool-vectors, and |
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896 char-tables. |
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897 |
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898 A string is an array of characters and a vector is an array of |
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899 arbitrary objects. A bool-vector can hold only @code{t} or @code{nil}. |
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900 These kinds of array may have any length up to the largest integer. |
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901 Char-tables are sparse arrays indexed by any valid character code; they |
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902 can hold arbitrary objects. |
6447 | 903 |
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904 The first element of an array has index zero, the second element has |
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905 index 1, and so on. This is called @dfn{zero-origin} indexing. For |
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906 example, an array of four elements has indices 0, 1, 2, @w{and 3}. The |
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907 largest possible index value is one less than the length of the array. |
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908 Once an array is created, its length is fixed. |
6447 | 909 |
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910 All Emacs Lisp arrays are one-dimensional. (Most other programming |
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911 languages support multidimensional arrays, but they are not essential; |
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912 you can get the same effect with nested one-dimensional arrays.) Each |
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913 type of array has its own read syntax; see the following sections for |
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914 details. |
6447 | 915 |
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916 The array type is contained in the sequence type and |
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917 contains the string type, the vector type, the bool-vector type, and the |
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918 char-table type. |
6447 | 919 |
920 @node String Type | |
921 @subsection String Type | |
922 | |
923 A @dfn{string} is an array of characters. Strings are used for many | |
924 purposes in Emacs, as can be expected in a text editor; for example, as | |
925 the names of Lisp symbols, as messages for the user, and to represent | |
926 text extracted from buffers. Strings in Lisp are constants: evaluation | |
927 of a string returns the same string. | |
928 | |
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929 @xref{Strings and Characters}, for functions that operate on strings. |
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930 |
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931 @menu |
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932 * Syntax for Strings:: |
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933 * Non-ASCII in Strings:: |
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934 * Nonprinting Characters:: |
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935 * Text Props and Strings:: |
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936 @end menu |
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937 |
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938 @node Syntax for Strings |
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939 @subsubsection Syntax for Strings |
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940 |
6447 | 941 @cindex @samp{"} in strings |
942 @cindex double-quote in strings | |
943 @cindex @samp{\} in strings | |
944 @cindex backslash in strings | |
945 The read syntax for strings is a double-quote, an arbitrary number of | |
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946 characters, and another double-quote, @code{"like this"}. To include a |
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947 double-quote in a string, precede it with a backslash; thus, @code{"\""} |
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948 is a string containing just a single double-quote character. Likewise, |
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949 you can include a backslash by preceding it with another backslash, like |
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950 this: @code{"this \\ is a single embedded backslash"}. |
6447 | 951 |
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952 @cindex newline in strings |
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953 The newline character is not special in the read syntax for strings; |
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954 if you write a new line between the double-quotes, it becomes a |
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955 character in the string. But an escaped newline---one that is preceded |
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956 by @samp{\}---does not become part of the string; i.e., the Lisp reader |
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957 ignores an escaped newline while reading a string. An escaped space |
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958 @w{@samp{\ }} is likewise ignored. |
6447 | 959 |
960 @example | |
961 "It is useful to include newlines | |
962 in documentation strings, | |
963 but the newline is \ | |
964 ignored if escaped." | |
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965 @result{} "It is useful to include newlines |
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966 in documentation strings, |
6447 | 967 but the newline is ignored if escaped." |
968 @end example | |
969 | |
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970 @node Non-ASCII in Strings |
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971 @subsubsection Non-@acronym{ASCII} Characters in Strings |
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972 |
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973 You can include a non-@acronym{ASCII} international character in a string |
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974 constant by writing it literally. There are two text representations |
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975 for non-@acronym{ASCII} characters in Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte |
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976 and multibyte. If the string constant is read from a multibyte source, |
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977 such as a multibyte buffer or string, or a file that would be visited as |
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978 multibyte, then the character is read as a multibyte character, and that |
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979 makes the string multibyte. If the string constant is read from a |
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980 unibyte source, then the character is read as unibyte and that makes the |
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981 string unibyte. |
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982 |
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983 You can also represent a multibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character with its |
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984 character code: use a hex escape, @samp{\x@var{nnnnnnn}}, with as many |
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985 digits as necessary. (Multibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character codes are all |
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986 greater than 256.) Any character which is not a valid hex digit |
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987 terminates this construct. If the next character in the string could be |
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988 interpreted as a hex digit, write @w{@samp{\ }} (backslash and space) to |
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989 terminate the hex escape---for example, @w{@samp{\x8e0\ }} represents |
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990 one character, @samp{a} with grave accent. @w{@samp{\ }} in a string |
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991 constant is just like backslash-newline; it does not contribute any |
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992 character to the string, but it does terminate the preceding hex escape. |
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993 |
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994 You can represent a unibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character with its |
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995 character code, which must be in the range from 128 (0200 octal) to |
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996 255 (0377 octal). If you write all such character codes in octal and |
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997 the string contains no other characters forcing it to be multibyte, |
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998 this produces a unibyte string. However, using any hex escape in a |
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999 string (even for an @acronym{ASCII} character) forces the string to be |
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1000 multibyte. |
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1001 |
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1002 @xref{Text Representations}, for more information about the two |
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1003 text representations. |
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1004 |
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1005 @node Nonprinting Characters |
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1006 @subsubsection Nonprinting Characters in Strings |
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1007 |
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1008 You can use the same backslash escape-sequences in a string constant |
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1009 as in character literals (but do not use the question mark that begins a |
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1010 character constant). For example, you can write a string containing the |
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1011 nonprinting characters tab and @kbd{C-a}, with commas and spaces between |
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1012 them, like this: @code{"\t, \C-a"}. @xref{Character Type}, for a |
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1013 description of the read syntax for characters. |
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1014 |
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1015 However, not all of the characters you can write with backslash |
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1016 escape-sequences are valid in strings. The only control characters that |
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1017 a string can hold are the @acronym{ASCII} control characters. Strings do not |
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1018 distinguish case in @acronym{ASCII} control characters. |
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1019 |
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1020 Properly speaking, strings cannot hold meta characters; but when a |
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1021 string is to be used as a key sequence, there is a special convention |
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1022 that provides a way to represent meta versions of @acronym{ASCII} |
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1023 characters in a string. If you use the @samp{\M-} syntax to indicate |
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1024 a meta character in a string constant, this sets the |
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1025 @tex |
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1026 @math{2^{7}} |
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1027 @end tex |
27193 | 1028 @ifnottex |
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1029 2**7 |
27193 | 1030 @end ifnottex |
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1031 bit of the character in the string. If the string is used in |
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1032 @code{define-key} or @code{lookup-key}, this numeric code is translated |
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1033 into the equivalent meta character. @xref{Character Type}. |
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1034 |
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1035 Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super, or alt |
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1036 modifiers. |
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1037 |
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1038 @node Text Props and Strings |
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1039 @subsubsection Text Properties in Strings |
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1040 |
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1041 A string can hold properties for the characters it contains, in |
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1042 addition to the characters themselves. This enables programs that copy |
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1043 text between strings and buffers to copy the text's properties with no |
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1044 special effort. @xref{Text Properties}, for an explanation of what text |
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1045 properties mean. Strings with text properties use a special read and |
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1046 print syntax: |
6447 | 1047 |
1048 @example | |
1049 #("@var{characters}" @var{property-data}...) | |
1050 @end example | |
1051 | |
1052 @noindent | |
1053 where @var{property-data} consists of zero or more elements, in groups | |
1054 of three as follows: | |
1055 | |
1056 @example | |
1057 @var{beg} @var{end} @var{plist} | |
1058 @end example | |
1059 | |
1060 @noindent | |
1061 The elements @var{beg} and @var{end} are integers, and together specify | |
1062 a range of indices in the string; @var{plist} is the property list for | |
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1063 that range. For example, |
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1064 |
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1065 @example |
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1066 #("foo bar" 0 3 (face bold) 3 4 nil 4 7 (face italic)) |
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1067 @end example |
6447 | 1068 |
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1069 @noindent |
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1070 represents a string whose textual contents are @samp{foo bar}, in which |
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1071 the first three characters have a @code{face} property with value |
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1072 @code{bold}, and the last three have a @code{face} property with value |
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1073 @code{italic}. (The fourth character has no text properties, so its |
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1074 property list is @code{nil}. It is not actually necessary to mention |
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1075 ranges with @code{nil} as the property list, since any characters not |
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1076 mentioned in any range will default to having no properties.) |
6447 | 1077 |
1078 @node Vector Type | |
1079 @subsection Vector Type | |
1080 | |
1081 A @dfn{vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type. It | |
1082 takes a constant amount of time to access any element of a vector. (In | |
1083 a list, the access time of an element is proportional to the distance of | |
1084 the element from the beginning of the list.) | |
1085 | |
1086 The printed representation of a vector consists of a left square | |
1087 bracket, the elements, and a right square bracket. This is also the | |
1088 read syntax. Like numbers and strings, vectors are considered constants | |
1089 for evaluation. | |
1090 | |
1091 @example | |
1092 [1 "two" (three)] ; @r{A vector of three elements.} | |
1093 @result{} [1 "two" (three)] | |
1094 @end example | |
1095 | |
1096 @xref{Vectors}, for functions that work with vectors. | |
1097 | |
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1098 @node Char-Table Type |
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1099 @subsection Char-Table Type |
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1100 |
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1101 A @dfn{char-table} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type, |
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1102 indexed by character codes. Char-tables have certain extra features to |
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1103 make them more useful for many jobs that involve assigning information |
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1104 to character codes---for example, a char-table can have a parent to |
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1105 inherit from, a default value, and a small number of extra slots to use for |
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1106 special purposes. A char-table can also specify a single value for |
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1107 a whole character set. |
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1108 |
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1109 The printed representation of a char-table is like a vector |
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1110 except that there is an extra @samp{#^} at the beginning. |
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1111 |
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1112 @xref{Char-Tables}, for special functions to operate on char-tables. |
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1113 Uses of char-tables include: |
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1114 |
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1115 @itemize @bullet |
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1116 @item |
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1117 Case tables (@pxref{Case Tables}). |
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1118 |
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1119 @item |
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1120 Character category tables (@pxref{Categories}). |
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1121 |
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1122 @item |
38788 | 1123 Display tables (@pxref{Display Tables}). |
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1124 |
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1125 @item |
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1126 Syntax tables (@pxref{Syntax Tables}). |
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1127 @end itemize |
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1128 |
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1129 @node Bool-Vector Type |
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1130 @subsection Bool-Vector Type |
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1131 |
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1132 A @dfn{bool-vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements that |
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1133 must be @code{t} or @code{nil}. |
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1134 |
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1135 The printed representation of a bool-vector is like a string, except |
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1136 that it begins with @samp{#&} followed by the length. The string |
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1137 constant that follows actually specifies the contents of the bool-vector |
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1138 as a bitmap---each ``character'' in the string contains 8 bits, which |
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1139 specify the next 8 elements of the bool-vector (1 stands for @code{t}, |
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1140 and 0 for @code{nil}). The least significant bits of the character |
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1141 correspond to the lowest indices in the bool-vector. |
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1142 |
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1143 @example |
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1144 (make-bool-vector 3 t) |
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1145 @result{} #&3"^G" |
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1146 (make-bool-vector 3 nil) |
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1147 @result{} #&3"^@@" |
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1148 @end example |
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1149 |
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1150 @noindent |
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1151 These results make sense, because the binary code for @samp{C-g} is |
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1152 111 and @samp{C-@@} is the character with code 0. |
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1153 |
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1154 If the length is not a multiple of 8, the printed representation |
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1155 shows extra elements, but these extras really make no difference. For |
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1156 instance, in the next example, the two bool-vectors are equal, because |
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1157 only the first 3 bits are used: |
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1158 |
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1159 @example |
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1160 (equal #&3"\377" #&3"\007") |
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1161 @result{} t |
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1162 @end example |
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1163 |
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1164 @node Hash Table Type |
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1165 @subsection Hash Table Type |
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1166 |
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1167 A hash table is a very fast kind of lookup table, somewhat like an |
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1168 alist in that it maps keys to corresponding values, but much faster. |
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1169 Hash tables have no read syntax, and |
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1170 print using hash notation. @xref{Hash Tables}. |
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1171 |
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1172 @example |
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1173 (make-hash-table) |
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1174 @result{} #<hash-table 'eql nil 0/65 0x83af980> |
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1175 @end example |
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1176 |
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1177 @node Function Type |
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1178 @subsection Function Type |
6447 | 1179 |
1180 Just as functions in other programming languages are executable, | |
1181 @dfn{Lisp function} objects are pieces of executable code. However, | |
1182 functions in Lisp are primarily Lisp objects, and only secondarily the | |
1183 text which represents them. These Lisp objects are lambda expressions: | |
1184 lists whose first element is the symbol @code{lambda} (@pxref{Lambda | |
1185 Expressions}). | |
1186 | |
1187 In most programming languages, it is impossible to have a function | |
1188 without a name. In Lisp, a function has no intrinsic name. A lambda | |
1189 expression is also called an @dfn{anonymous function} (@pxref{Anonymous | |
1190 Functions}). A named function in Lisp is actually a symbol with a valid | |
1191 function in its function cell (@pxref{Defining Functions}). | |
1192 | |
1193 Most of the time, functions are called when their names are written in | |
1194 Lisp expressions in Lisp programs. However, you can construct or obtain | |
1195 a function object at run time and then call it with the primitive | |
1196 functions @code{funcall} and @code{apply}. @xref{Calling Functions}. | |
1197 | |
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1198 @node Macro Type |
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1199 @subsection Macro Type |
6447 | 1200 |
1201 A @dfn{Lisp macro} is a user-defined construct that extends the Lisp | |
1202 language. It is represented as an object much like a function, but with | |
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1203 different argument-passing semantics. A Lisp macro has the form of a |
6447 | 1204 list whose first element is the symbol @code{macro} and whose @sc{cdr} |
1205 is a Lisp function object, including the @code{lambda} symbol. | |
1206 | |
1207 Lisp macro objects are usually defined with the built-in | |
1208 @code{defmacro} function, but any list that begins with @code{macro} is | |
1209 a macro as far as Emacs is concerned. @xref{Macros}, for an explanation | |
1210 of how to write a macro. | |
1211 | |
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1212 @strong{Warning}: Lisp macros and keyboard macros (@pxref{Keyboard |
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1213 Macros}) are entirely different things. When we use the word ``macro'' |
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1214 without qualification, we mean a Lisp macro, not a keyboard macro. |
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1215 |
6447 | 1216 @node Primitive Function Type |
1217 @subsection Primitive Function Type | |
1218 @cindex special forms | |
1219 | |
1220 A @dfn{primitive function} is a function callable from Lisp but | |
1221 written in the C programming language. Primitive functions are also | |
1222 called @dfn{subrs} or @dfn{built-in functions}. (The word ``subr'' is | |
1223 derived from ``subroutine''.) Most primitive functions evaluate all | |
1224 their arguments when they are called. A primitive function that does | |
1225 not evaluate all its arguments is called a @dfn{special form} | |
1226 (@pxref{Special Forms}).@refill | |
1227 | |
1228 It does not matter to the caller of a function whether the function is | |
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1229 primitive. However, this does matter if you try to redefine a primitive |
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1230 with a function written in Lisp. The reason is that the primitive |
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1231 function may be called directly from C code. Calls to the redefined |
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1232 function from Lisp will use the new definition, but calls from C code |
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1233 may still use the built-in definition. Therefore, @strong{we discourage |
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1234 redefinition of primitive functions}. |
6447 | 1235 |
1236 The term @dfn{function} refers to all Emacs functions, whether written | |
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1237 in Lisp or C. @xref{Function Type}, for information about the |
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1238 functions written in Lisp. |
6447 | 1239 |
1240 Primitive functions have no read syntax and print in hash notation | |
1241 with the name of the subroutine. | |
1242 | |
1243 @example | |
1244 @group | |
1245 (symbol-function 'car) ; @r{Access the function cell} | |
1246 ; @r{of the symbol.} | |
1247 @result{} #<subr car> | |
1248 (subrp (symbol-function 'car)) ; @r{Is this a primitive function?} | |
1249 @result{} t ; @r{Yes.} | |
1250 @end group | |
1251 @end example | |
1252 | |
1253 @node Byte-Code Type | |
1254 @subsection Byte-Code Function Type | |
1255 | |
1256 The byte compiler produces @dfn{byte-code function objects}. | |
1257 Internally, a byte-code function object is much like a vector; however, | |
1258 the evaluator handles this data type specially when it appears as a | |
1259 function to be called. @xref{Byte Compilation}, for information about | |
1260 the byte compiler. | |
1261 | |
12098 | 1262 The printed representation and read syntax for a byte-code function |
1263 object is like that for a vector, with an additional @samp{#} before the | |
1264 opening @samp{[}. | |
6447 | 1265 |
1266 @node Autoload Type | |
1267 @subsection Autoload Type | |
1268 | |
1269 An @dfn{autoload object} is a list whose first element is the symbol | |
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1270 @code{autoload}. It is stored as the function definition of a symbol, |
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1271 where it serves as a placeholder for the real definition. The autoload |
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1272 object says that the real definition is found in a file of Lisp code |
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1273 that should be loaded when necessary. It contains the name of the file, |
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1274 plus some other information about the real definition. |
6447 | 1275 |
1276 After the file has been loaded, the symbol should have a new function | |
1277 definition that is not an autoload object. The new definition is then | |
1278 called as if it had been there to begin with. From the user's point of | |
1279 view, the function call works as expected, using the function definition | |
1280 in the loaded file. | |
1281 | |
1282 An autoload object is usually created with the function | |
1283 @code{autoload}, which stores the object in the function cell of a | |
1284 symbol. @xref{Autoload}, for more details. | |
1285 | |
1286 @node Editing Types | |
1287 @section Editing Types | |
1288 @cindex editing types | |
1289 | |
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1290 The types in the previous section are used for general programming |
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1291 purposes, and most of them are common to most Lisp dialects. Emacs Lisp |
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1292 provides several additional data types for purposes connected with |
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1293 editing. |
6447 | 1294 |
1295 @menu | |
1296 * Buffer Type:: The basic object of editing. | |
1297 * Marker Type:: A position in a buffer. | |
1298 * Window Type:: Buffers are displayed in windows. | |
1299 * Frame Type:: Windows subdivide frames. | |
1300 * Window Configuration Type:: Recording the way a frame is subdivided. | |
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1301 * Frame Configuration Type:: Recording the status of all frames. |
6447 | 1302 * Process Type:: A process running on the underlying OS. |
1303 * Stream Type:: Receive or send characters. | |
1304 * Keymap Type:: What function a keystroke invokes. | |
1305 * Overlay Type:: How an overlay is represented. | |
1306 @end menu | |
1307 | |
1308 @node Buffer Type | |
1309 @subsection Buffer Type | |
1310 | |
1311 A @dfn{buffer} is an object that holds text that can be edited | |
1312 (@pxref{Buffers}). Most buffers hold the contents of a disk file | |
1313 (@pxref{Files}) so they can be edited, but some are used for other | |
1314 purposes. Most buffers are also meant to be seen by the user, and | |
1315 therefore displayed, at some time, in a window (@pxref{Windows}). But a | |
1316 buffer need not be displayed in any window. | |
1317 | |
1318 The contents of a buffer are much like a string, but buffers are not | |
1319 used like strings in Emacs Lisp, and the available operations are | |
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1320 different. For example, you can insert text efficiently into an |
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1321 existing buffer, altering the buffer's contents, whereas ``inserting'' |
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1322 text into a string requires concatenating substrings, and the result is |
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1323 an entirely new string object. |
6447 | 1324 |
1325 Each buffer has a designated position called @dfn{point} | |
1326 (@pxref{Positions}). At any time, one buffer is the @dfn{current | |
1327 buffer}. Most editing commands act on the contents of the current | |
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1328 buffer in the neighborhood of point. Many of the standard Emacs |
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1329 functions manipulate or test the characters in the current buffer; a |
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1330 whole chapter in this manual is devoted to describing these functions |
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1331 (@pxref{Text}). |
6447 | 1332 |
1333 Several other data structures are associated with each buffer: | |
1334 | |
1335 @itemize @bullet | |
1336 @item | |
1337 a local syntax table (@pxref{Syntax Tables}); | |
1338 | |
1339 @item | |
1340 a local keymap (@pxref{Keymaps}); and, | |
1341 | |
1342 @item | |
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1343 a list of buffer-local variable bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local Variables}). |
12098 | 1344 |
1345 @item | |
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1346 overlays (@pxref{Overlays}). |
12098 | 1347 |
1348 @item | |
1349 text properties for the text in the buffer (@pxref{Text Properties}). | |
6447 | 1350 @end itemize |
1351 | |
1352 @noindent | |
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1353 The local keymap and variable list contain entries that individually |
6447 | 1354 override global bindings or values. These are used to customize the |
1355 behavior of programs in different buffers, without actually changing the | |
1356 programs. | |
1357 | |
12098 | 1358 A buffer may be @dfn{indirect}, which means it shares the text |
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1359 of another buffer, but presents it differently. @xref{Indirect Buffers}. |
12098 | 1360 |
1361 Buffers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, showing the | |
6447 | 1362 buffer name. |
1363 | |
1364 @example | |
1365 @group | |
1366 (current-buffer) | |
1367 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> | |
1368 @end group | |
1369 @end example | |
1370 | |
1371 @node Marker Type | |
1372 @subsection Marker Type | |
1373 | |
1374 A @dfn{marker} denotes a position in a specific buffer. Markers | |
1375 therefore have two components: one for the buffer, and one for the | |
1376 position. Changes in the buffer's text automatically relocate the | |
1377 position value as necessary to ensure that the marker always points | |
1378 between the same two characters in the buffer. | |
1379 | |
1380 Markers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1381 current character position and the name of the buffer. | |
1382 | |
1383 @example | |
1384 @group | |
1385 (point-marker) | |
1386 @result{} #<marker at 10779 in objects.texi> | |
1387 @end group | |
1388 @end example | |
1389 | |
1390 @xref{Markers}, for information on how to test, create, copy, and move | |
1391 markers. | |
1392 | |
1393 @node Window Type | |
1394 @subsection Window Type | |
1395 | |
1396 A @dfn{window} describes the portion of the terminal screen that Emacs | |
1397 uses to display a buffer. Every window has one associated buffer, whose | |
1398 contents appear in the window. By contrast, a given buffer may appear | |
1399 in one window, no window, or several windows. | |
1400 | |
1401 Though many windows may exist simultaneously, at any time one window | |
1402 is designated the @dfn{selected window}. This is the window where the | |
1403 cursor is (usually) displayed when Emacs is ready for a command. The | |
1404 selected window usually displays the current buffer, but this is not | |
1405 necessarily the case. | |
1406 | |
1407 Windows are grouped on the screen into frames; each window belongs to | |
1408 one and only one frame. @xref{Frame Type}. | |
1409 | |
1410 Windows have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1411 window number and the name of the buffer being displayed. The window | |
1412 numbers exist to identify windows uniquely, since the buffer displayed | |
1413 in any given window can change frequently. | |
1414 | |
1415 @example | |
1416 @group | |
1417 (selected-window) | |
1418 @result{} #<window 1 on objects.texi> | |
1419 @end group | |
1420 @end example | |
1421 | |
1422 @xref{Windows}, for a description of the functions that work on windows. | |
1423 | |
1424 @node Frame Type | |
1425 @subsection Frame Type | |
1426 | |
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1427 A @dfn{frame} is a rectangle on the screen that contains one or more |
6447 | 1428 Emacs windows. A frame initially contains a single main window (plus |
1429 perhaps a minibuffer window) which you can subdivide vertically or | |
1430 horizontally into smaller windows. | |
1431 | |
1432 Frames have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1433 frame's title, plus its address in core (useful to identify the frame | |
1434 uniquely). | |
1435 | |
1436 @example | |
1437 @group | |
1438 (selected-frame) | |
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1439 @result{} #<frame emacs@@psilocin.gnu.org 0xdac80> |
6447 | 1440 @end group |
1441 @end example | |
1442 | |
1443 @xref{Frames}, for a description of the functions that work on frames. | |
1444 | |
1445 @node Window Configuration Type | |
1446 @subsection Window Configuration Type | |
1447 @cindex screen layout | |
1448 | |
1449 A @dfn{window configuration} stores information about the positions, | |
1450 sizes, and contents of the windows in a frame, so you can recreate the | |
1451 same arrangement of windows later. | |
1452 | |
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1453 Window configurations do not have a read syntax; their print syntax |
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1454 looks like @samp{#<window-configuration>}. @xref{Window |
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1455 Configurations}, for a description of several functions related to |
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1456 window configurations. |
6447 | 1457 |
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1458 @node Frame Configuration Type |
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1459 @subsection Frame Configuration Type |
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1460 @cindex screen layout |
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1461 |
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1462 A @dfn{frame configuration} stores information about the positions, |
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1463 sizes, and contents of the windows in all frames. It is actually |
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1464 a list whose @sc{car} is @code{frame-configuration} and whose |
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1465 @sc{cdr} is an alist. Each alist element describes one frame, |
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1466 which appears as the @sc{car} of that element. |
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1467 |
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1468 @xref{Frame Configurations}, for a description of several functions |
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1469 related to frame configurations. |
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1470 |
6447 | 1471 @node Process Type |
1472 @subsection Process Type | |
1473 | |
1474 The word @dfn{process} usually means a running program. Emacs itself | |
1475 runs in a process of this sort. However, in Emacs Lisp, a process is a | |
1476 Lisp object that designates a subprocess created by the Emacs process. | |
1477 Programs such as shells, GDB, ftp, and compilers, running in | |
1478 subprocesses of Emacs, extend the capabilities of Emacs. | |
1479 | |
1480 An Emacs subprocess takes textual input from Emacs and returns textual | |
1481 output to Emacs for further manipulation. Emacs can also send signals | |
1482 to the subprocess. | |
1483 | |
1484 Process objects have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, | |
1485 giving the name of the process: | |
1486 | |
1487 @example | |
1488 @group | |
1489 (process-list) | |
1490 @result{} (#<process shell>) | |
1491 @end group | |
1492 @end example | |
1493 | |
1494 @xref{Processes}, for information about functions that create, delete, | |
1495 return information about, send input or signals to, and receive output | |
1496 from processes. | |
1497 | |
1498 @node Stream Type | |
1499 @subsection Stream Type | |
1500 | |
1501 A @dfn{stream} is an object that can be used as a source or sink for | |
1502 characters---either to supply characters for input or to accept them as | |
1503 output. Many different types can be used this way: markers, buffers, | |
1504 strings, and functions. Most often, input streams (character sources) | |
1505 obtain characters from the keyboard, a buffer, or a file, and output | |
1506 streams (character sinks) send characters to a buffer, such as a | |
1507 @file{*Help*} buffer, or to the echo area. | |
1508 | |
1509 The object @code{nil}, in addition to its other meanings, may be used | |
1510 as a stream. It stands for the value of the variable | |
1511 @code{standard-input} or @code{standard-output}. Also, the object | |
1512 @code{t} as a stream specifies input using the minibuffer | |
1513 (@pxref{Minibuffers}) or output in the echo area (@pxref{The Echo | |
1514 Area}). | |
1515 | |
1516 Streams have no special printed representation or read syntax, and | |
1517 print as whatever primitive type they are. | |
1518 | |
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1519 @xref{Read and Print}, for a description of functions |
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1520 related to streams, including parsing and printing functions. |
6447 | 1521 |
1522 @node Keymap Type | |
1523 @subsection Keymap Type | |
1524 | |
1525 A @dfn{keymap} maps keys typed by the user to commands. This mapping | |
1526 controls how the user's command input is executed. A keymap is actually | |
1527 a list whose @sc{car} is the symbol @code{keymap}. | |
1528 | |
1529 @xref{Keymaps}, for information about creating keymaps, handling prefix | |
1530 keys, local as well as global keymaps, and changing key bindings. | |
1531 | |
1532 @node Overlay Type | |
1533 @subsection Overlay Type | |
1534 | |
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1535 An @dfn{overlay} specifies properties that apply to a part of a |
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1536 buffer. Each overlay applies to a specified range of the buffer, and |
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1537 contains a property list (a list whose elements are alternating property |
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1538 names and values). Overlay properties are used to present parts of the |
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1539 buffer temporarily in a different display style. Overlays have no read |
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1540 syntax, and print in hash notation, giving the buffer name and range of |
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1541 positions. |
6447 | 1542 |
12098 | 1543 @xref{Overlays}, for how to create and use overlays. |
6447 | 1544 |
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1545 @node Circular Objects |
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1546 @section Read Syntax for Circular Objects |
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1547 @cindex circular structure, read syntax |
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1548 @cindex shared structure, read syntax |
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1549 @cindex @samp{#@var{n}=} read syntax |
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1550 @cindex @samp{#@var{n}#} read syntax |
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1551 |
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1552 To represent shared or circular structures within a complex of Lisp |
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1553 objects, you can use the reader constructs @samp{#@var{n}=} and |
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1554 @samp{#@var{n}#}. |
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1555 |
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1556 Use @code{#@var{n}=} before an object to label it for later reference; |
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1557 subsequently, you can use @code{#@var{n}#} to refer the same object in |
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1558 another place. Here, @var{n} is some integer. For example, here is how |
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1559 to make a list in which the first element recurs as the third element: |
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1560 |
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1561 @example |
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1562 (#1=(a) b #1#) |
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1563 @end example |
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1564 |
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1565 @noindent |
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1566 This differs from ordinary syntax such as this |
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1567 |
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1568 @example |
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1569 ((a) b (a)) |
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1570 @end example |
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1571 |
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1572 @noindent |
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1573 which would result in a list whose first and third elements |
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1574 look alike but are not the same Lisp object. This shows the difference: |
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1575 |
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1576 @example |
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1577 (prog1 nil |
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1578 (setq x '(#1=(a) b #1#))) |
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1579 (eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x)) |
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1580 @result{} t |
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1581 (setq x '((a) b (a))) |
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1582 (eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x)) |
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1583 @result{} nil |
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1584 @end example |
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1585 |
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1586 You can also use the same syntax to make a circular structure, which |
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1587 appears as an ``element'' within itself. Here is an example: |
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1588 |
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1589 @example |
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1590 #1=(a #1#) |
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1591 @end example |
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1592 |
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1593 @noindent |
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1594 This makes a list whose second element is the list itself. |
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1595 Here's how you can see that it really works: |
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1596 |
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1597 @example |
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1598 (prog1 nil |
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1599 (setq x '#1=(a #1#))) |
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1600 (eq x (cadr x)) |
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1601 @result{} t |
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1602 @end example |
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1603 |
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1604 The Lisp printer can produce this syntax to record circular and shared |
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1605 structure in a Lisp object, if you bind the variable @code{print-circle} |
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1606 to a non-@code{nil} value. @xref{Output Variables}. |
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1607 |
6447 | 1608 @node Type Predicates |
1609 @section Type Predicates | |
1610 @cindex predicates | |
1611 @cindex type checking | |
1612 @kindex wrong-type-argument | |
1613 | |
1614 The Emacs Lisp interpreter itself does not perform type checking on | |
1615 the actual arguments passed to functions when they are called. It could | |
1616 not do so, since function arguments in Lisp do not have declared data | |
1617 types, as they do in other programming languages. It is therefore up to | |
1618 the individual function to test whether each actual argument belongs to | |
1619 a type that the function can use. | |
1620 | |
1621 All built-in functions do check the types of their actual arguments | |
1622 when appropriate, and signal a @code{wrong-type-argument} error if an | |
1623 argument is of the wrong type. For example, here is what happens if you | |
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1624 pass an argument to @code{+} that it cannot handle: |
6447 | 1625 |
1626 @example | |
1627 @group | |
1628 (+ 2 'a) | |
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1629 @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, a |
6447 | 1630 @end group |
1631 @end example | |
1632 | |
1633 @cindex type predicates | |
1634 @cindex testing types | |
12067 | 1635 If you want your program to handle different types differently, you |
1636 must do explicit type checking. The most common way to check the type | |
1637 of an object is to call a @dfn{type predicate} function. Emacs has a | |
1638 type predicate for each type, as well as some predicates for | |
1639 combinations of types. | |
1640 | |
1641 A type predicate function takes one argument; it returns @code{t} if | |
1642 the argument belongs to the appropriate type, and @code{nil} otherwise. | |
1643 Following a general Lisp convention for predicate functions, most type | |
1644 predicates' names end with @samp{p}. | |
1645 | |
1646 Here is an example which uses the predicates @code{listp} to check for | |
1647 a list and @code{symbolp} to check for a symbol. | |
6447 | 1648 |
12067 | 1649 @example |
1650 (defun add-on (x) | |
1651 (cond ((symbolp x) | |
1652 ;; If X is a symbol, put it on LIST. | |
1653 (setq list (cons x list))) | |
1654 ((listp x) | |
1655 ;; If X is a list, add its elements to LIST. | |
1656 (setq list (append x list))) | |
1657 (t | |
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1658 ;; We handle only symbols and lists. |
12067 | 1659 (error "Invalid argument %s in add-on" x)))) |
1660 @end example | |
1661 | |
1662 Here is a table of predefined type predicates, in alphabetical order, | |
6447 | 1663 with references to further information. |
1664 | |
1665 @table @code | |
1666 @item atom | |
1667 @xref{List-related Predicates, atom}. | |
1668 | |
1669 @item arrayp | |
1670 @xref{Array Functions, arrayp}. | |
1671 | |
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1672 @item bool-vector-p |
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1673 @xref{Bool-Vectors, bool-vector-p}. |
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1674 |
6447 | 1675 @item bufferp |
1676 @xref{Buffer Basics, bufferp}. | |
1677 | |
1678 @item byte-code-function-p | |
1679 @xref{Byte-Code Type, byte-code-function-p}. | |
1680 | |
1681 @item case-table-p | |
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1682 @xref{Case Tables, case-table-p}. |
6447 | 1683 |
1684 @item char-or-string-p | |
1685 @xref{Predicates for Strings, char-or-string-p}. | |
1686 | |
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1687 @item char-table-p |
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1688 @xref{Char-Tables, char-table-p}. |
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1689 |
6447 | 1690 @item commandp |
1691 @xref{Interactive Call, commandp}. | |
1692 | |
1693 @item consp | |
1694 @xref{List-related Predicates, consp}. | |
1695 | |
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1696 @item display-table-p |
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1697 @xref{Display Tables, display-table-p}. |
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1698 |
6447 | 1699 @item floatp |
1700 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, floatp}. | |
1701 | |
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1702 @item frame-configuration-p |
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1703 @xref{Frame Configurations, frame-configuration-p}. |
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1704 |
6447 | 1705 @item frame-live-p |
1706 @xref{Deleting Frames, frame-live-p}. | |
1707 | |
1708 @item framep | |
1709 @xref{Frames, framep}. | |
1710 | |
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1711 @item functionp |
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1712 @xref{Functions, functionp}. |
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1713 |
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1714 @item hash-table-p |
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1715 @xref{Other Hash, hash-table-p}. |
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1716 |
6447 | 1717 @item integer-or-marker-p |
1718 @xref{Predicates on Markers, integer-or-marker-p}. | |
1719 | |
1720 @item integerp | |
1721 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, integerp}. | |
1722 | |
1723 @item keymapp | |
1724 @xref{Creating Keymaps, keymapp}. | |
1725 | |
27528 | 1726 @item keywordp |
1727 @xref{Constant Variables}. | |
1728 | |
6447 | 1729 @item listp |
1730 @xref{List-related Predicates, listp}. | |
1731 | |
1732 @item markerp | |
1733 @xref{Predicates on Markers, markerp}. | |
1734 | |
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1735 @item wholenump |
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1736 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, wholenump}. |
6447 | 1737 |
1738 @item nlistp | |
1739 @xref{List-related Predicates, nlistp}. | |
1740 | |
1741 @item numberp | |
1742 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, numberp}. | |
1743 | |
1744 @item number-or-marker-p | |
1745 @xref{Predicates on Markers, number-or-marker-p}. | |
1746 | |
1747 @item overlayp | |
1748 @xref{Overlays, overlayp}. | |
1749 | |
1750 @item processp | |
1751 @xref{Processes, processp}. | |
1752 | |
1753 @item sequencep | |
1754 @xref{Sequence Functions, sequencep}. | |
1755 | |
1756 @item stringp | |
1757 @xref{Predicates for Strings, stringp}. | |
1758 | |
1759 @item subrp | |
1760 @xref{Function Cells, subrp}. | |
1761 | |
1762 @item symbolp | |
1763 @xref{Symbols, symbolp}. | |
1764 | |
1765 @item syntax-table-p | |
1766 @xref{Syntax Tables, syntax-table-p}. | |
1767 | |
1768 @item user-variable-p | |
1769 @xref{Defining Variables, user-variable-p}. | |
1770 | |
1771 @item vectorp | |
1772 @xref{Vectors, vectorp}. | |
1773 | |
1774 @item window-configuration-p | |
1775 @xref{Window Configurations, window-configuration-p}. | |
1776 | |
1777 @item window-live-p | |
1778 @xref{Deleting Windows, window-live-p}. | |
1779 | |
1780 @item windowp | |
1781 @xref{Basic Windows, windowp}. | |
1782 @end table | |
1783 | |
12067 | 1784 The most general way to check the type of an object is to call the |
1785 function @code{type-of}. Recall that each object belongs to one and | |
1786 only one primitive type; @code{type-of} tells you which one (@pxref{Lisp | |
1787 Data Types}). But @code{type-of} knows nothing about non-primitive | |
1788 types. In most cases, it is more convenient to use type predicates than | |
1789 @code{type-of}. | |
1790 | |
1791 @defun type-of object | |
1792 This function returns a symbol naming the primitive type of | |
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1793 @var{object}. The value is one of the symbols @code{symbol}, |
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1794 @code{integer}, @code{float}, @code{string}, @code{cons}, @code{vector}, |
26188 | 1795 @code{char-table}, @code{bool-vector}, @code{hash-table}, @code{subr}, |
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1796 @code{compiled-function}, @code{marker}, @code{overlay}, @code{window}, |
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1797 @code{buffer}, @code{frame}, @code{process}, or |
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1798 @code{window-configuration}. |
12067 | 1799 |
1800 @example | |
1801 (type-of 1) | |
1802 @result{} integer | |
1803 (type-of 'nil) | |
1804 @result{} symbol | |
1805 (type-of '()) ; @r{@code{()} is @code{nil}.} | |
1806 @result{} symbol | |
1807 (type-of '(x)) | |
1808 @result{} cons | |
1809 @end example | |
1810 @end defun | |
1811 | |
6447 | 1812 @node Equality Predicates |
1813 @section Equality Predicates | |
1814 @cindex equality | |
1815 | |
1816 Here we describe two functions that test for equality between any two | |
1817 objects. Other functions test equality between objects of specific | |
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1818 types, e.g., strings. For these predicates, see the appropriate chapter |
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1819 describing the data type. |
6447 | 1820 |
1821 @defun eq object1 object2 | |
1822 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are | |
1823 the same object, @code{nil} otherwise. The ``same object'' means that a | |
1824 change in one will be reflected by the same change in the other. | |
1825 | |
1826 @code{eq} returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are | |
1827 integers with the same value. Also, since symbol names are normally | |
1828 unique, if the arguments are symbols with the same name, they are | |
1829 @code{eq}. For other types (e.g., lists, vectors, strings), two | |
1830 arguments with the same contents or elements are not necessarily | |
1831 @code{eq} to each other: they are @code{eq} only if they are the same | |
1832 object. | |
1833 | |
1834 @example | |
1835 @group | |
1836 (eq 'foo 'foo) | |
1837 @result{} t | |
1838 @end group | |
1839 | |
1840 @group | |
1841 (eq 456 456) | |
1842 @result{} t | |
1843 @end group | |
1844 | |
1845 @group | |
1846 (eq "asdf" "asdf") | |
1847 @result{} nil | |
1848 @end group | |
1849 | |
1850 @group | |
1851 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1852 @result{} nil | |
1853 @end group | |
1854 | |
1855 @group | |
1856 (setq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1857 @result{} (1 (2 (3))) | |
1858 (eq foo foo) | |
1859 @result{} t | |
1860 (eq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1861 @result{} nil | |
1862 @end group | |
1863 | |
1864 @group | |
1865 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1866 @result{} nil | |
1867 @end group | |
1868 | |
1869 @group | |
1870 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1871 @result{} nil | |
1872 @end group | |
1873 @end example | |
1874 | |
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1875 The @code{make-symbol} function returns an uninterned symbol, distinct |
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1876 from the symbol that is used if you write the name in a Lisp expression. |
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1877 Distinct symbols with the same name are not @code{eq}. @xref{Creating |
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1878 Symbols}. |
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1879 |
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1880 @example |
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1881 @group |
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1882 (eq (make-symbol "foo") 'foo) |
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1883 @result{} nil |
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1884 @end group |
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1885 @end example |
6447 | 1886 @end defun |
1887 | |
1888 @defun equal object1 object2 | |
1889 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} have | |
1890 equal components, @code{nil} otherwise. Whereas @code{eq} tests if its | |
1891 arguments are the same object, @code{equal} looks inside nonidentical | |
26188 | 1892 arguments to see if their elements or contents are the same. So, if two |
1893 objects are @code{eq}, they are @code{equal}, but the converse is not | |
1894 always true. | |
6447 | 1895 |
1896 @example | |
1897 @group | |
1898 (equal 'foo 'foo) | |
1899 @result{} t | |
1900 @end group | |
1901 | |
1902 @group | |
1903 (equal 456 456) | |
1904 @result{} t | |
1905 @end group | |
1906 | |
1907 @group | |
1908 (equal "asdf" "asdf") | |
1909 @result{} t | |
1910 @end group | |
1911 @group | |
1912 (eq "asdf" "asdf") | |
1913 @result{} nil | |
1914 @end group | |
1915 | |
1916 @group | |
1917 (equal '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1918 @result{} t | |
1919 @end group | |
1920 @group | |
1921 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1922 @result{} nil | |
1923 @end group | |
1924 | |
1925 @group | |
1926 (equal [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1927 @result{} t | |
1928 @end group | |
1929 @group | |
1930 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1931 @result{} nil | |
1932 @end group | |
1933 | |
1934 @group | |
1935 (equal (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1936 @result{} t | |
1937 @end group | |
1938 | |
1939 @group | |
1940 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1941 @result{} nil | |
1942 @end group | |
1943 @end example | |
1944 | |
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1945 Comparison of strings is case-sensitive, but does not take account of |
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1946 text properties---it compares only the characters in the strings. For |
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1947 technical reasons, a unibyte string and a multibyte string are |
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1948 @code{equal} if and only if they contain the same sequence of |
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1949 character codes and all these codes are either in the range 0 through |
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1950 127 (@acronym{ASCII}) or 160 through 255 (@code{eight-bit-graphic}). |
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1951 (@pxref{Text Representations}). |
6447 | 1952 |
1953 @example | |
1954 @group | |
1955 (equal "asdf" "ASDF") | |
1956 @result{} nil | |
1957 @end group | |
1958 @end example | |
12098 | 1959 |
26188 | 1960 However, two distinct buffers are never considered @code{equal}, even if |
1961 their textual contents are the same. | |
6447 | 1962 @end defun |
1963 | |
26188 | 1964 The test for equality is implemented recursively; for example, given |
1965 two cons cells @var{x} and @var{y}, @code{(equal @var{x} @var{y})} | |
1966 returns @code{t} if and only if both the expressions below return | |
1967 @code{t}: | |
1968 | |
1969 @example | |
1970 (equal (car @var{x}) (car @var{y})) | |
1971 (equal (cdr @var{x}) (cdr @var{y})) | |
1972 @end example | |
1973 | |
1974 Because of this recursive method, circular lists may therefore cause | |
1975 infinite recursion (leading to an error). | |
52401 | 1976 |
1977 @ignore | |
1978 arch-tag: 9711a66e-4749-4265-9e8c-972d55b67096 | |
1979 @end ignore |