annotate lispref/intro.texi @ 89135:46f96c79f150

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author Kenichi Handa <handa@m17n.org>
date Tue, 01 Oct 2002 01:32:05 +0000
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 2002
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4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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6 @setfilename ../info/intro
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7
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8 @c Versino of the manual.
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9 @set VERSION 2.9
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10
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11 @node Introduction, Lisp Data Types, Top, Top
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12 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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13 @chapter Introduction
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14
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15 Most of the GNU Emacs text editor is written in the programming
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16 language called Emacs Lisp. You can write new code in Emacs Lisp and
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17 install it as an extension to the editor. However, Emacs Lisp is more
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18 than a mere ``extension language''; it is a full computer programming
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19 language in its own right. You can use it as you would any other
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20 programming language.
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21
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22 Because Emacs Lisp is designed for use in an editor, it has special
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23 features for scanning and parsing text as well as features for handling
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24 files, buffers, displays, subprocesses, and so on. Emacs Lisp is
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25 closely integrated with the editing facilities; thus, editing commands
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26 are functions that can also conveniently be called from Lisp programs,
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27 and parameters for customization are ordinary Lisp variables.
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28
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29 This manual attempts to be a full description of Emacs Lisp. For a
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30 beginner's introduction to Emacs Lisp, see @cite{An Introduction to
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31 Emacs Lisp Programming}, by Bob Chassell, also published by the Free
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32 Software Foundation. This manual presumes considerable familiarity with
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33 the use of Emacs for editing; see @cite{The GNU Emacs Manual} for this
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34 basic information.
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35
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36 Generally speaking, the earlier chapters describe features of Emacs
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37 Lisp that have counterparts in many programming languages, and later
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38 chapters describe features that are peculiar to Emacs Lisp or relate
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39 specifically to editing.
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40
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41 This is edition @value{VERSION}.
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42
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43 @menu
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44 * Caveats:: Flaws and a request for help.
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45 * Lisp History:: Emacs Lisp is descended from Maclisp.
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46 * Conventions:: How the manual is formatted.
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47 * Version Info:: Which Emacs version is running?
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48 * Acknowledgements:: The authors, editors, and sponsors of this manual.
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49 @end menu
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50
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51 @node Caveats
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52 @section Caveats
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53 @cindex bugs in this manual
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54
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55 This manual has gone through numerous drafts. It is nearly complete
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56 but not flawless. There are a few topics that are not covered, either
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57 because we consider them secondary (such as most of the individual
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58 modes) or because they are yet to be written. Because we are not able
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59 to deal with them completely, we have left out several parts
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60 intentionally. This includes most information about usage on VMS.
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61
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62 The manual should be fully correct in what it does cover, and it is
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63 therefore open to criticism on anything it says---from specific examples
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64 and descriptive text, to the ordering of chapters and sections. If
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65 something is confusing, or you find that you have to look at the sources
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66 or experiment to learn something not covered in the manual, then perhaps
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67 the manual should be fixed. Please let us know.
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68
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69 @iftex
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70 As you use this manual, we ask that you mark pages with corrections so
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71 you can later look them up and send them to us. If you think of a simple,
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72 real-life example for a function or group of functions, please make an
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73 effort to write it up and send it in. Please reference any comments to
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74 the chapter name, section name, and function name, as appropriate, since
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75 page numbers and chapter and section numbers will change and we may have
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76 trouble finding the text you are talking about. Also state the number
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77 of the edition you are criticizing.
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78 @end iftex
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79 @ifnottex
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80
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81 As you use this manual, we ask that you send corrections as soon as you
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82 find them. If you think of a simple, real life example for a function
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83 or group of functions, please make an effort to write it up and send it
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84 in. Please reference any comments to the node name and function or
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85 variable name, as appropriate. Also state the number of the edition
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86 you are criticizing.
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87 @end ifnottex
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88
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89 Please mail comments and corrections to
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90
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91 @example
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92 bug-lisp-manual@@gnu.org
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93 @end example
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94
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95 @noindent
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96 We let mail to this list accumulate unread until someone decides to
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97 apply the corrections. Months, and sometimes years, go by between
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98 updates. So please attach no significance to the lack of a reply---your
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99 mail @emph{will} be acted on in due time. If you want to contact the
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100 Emacs maintainers more quickly, send mail to
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101 @code{bug-gnu-emacs@@gnu.org}.
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102
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103 @node Lisp History
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104 @section Lisp History
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105 @cindex Lisp history
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106
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107 Lisp (LISt Processing language) was first developed in the late 1950s
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108 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for research in artificial
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109 intelligence. The great power of the Lisp language makes it ideal
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110 for other purposes as well, such as writing editing commands.
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111
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112 @cindex Maclisp
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113 @cindex Common Lisp
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114 Dozens of Lisp implementations have been built over the years, each
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115 with its own idiosyncrasies. Many of them were inspired by Maclisp,
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116 which was written in the 1960s at MIT's Project MAC. Eventually the
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117 implementors of the descendants of Maclisp came together and developed a
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118 standard for Lisp systems, called Common Lisp. In the meantime, Gerry
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119 Sussman and Guy Steele at MIT developed a simplified but very powerful
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120 dialect of Lisp, called Scheme.
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121
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122 GNU Emacs Lisp is largely inspired by Maclisp, and a little by Common
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123 Lisp. If you know Common Lisp, you will notice many similarities.
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124 However, many features of Common Lisp have been omitted or
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125 simplified in order to reduce the memory requirements of GNU Emacs.
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126 Sometimes the simplifications are so drastic that a Common Lisp user
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127 might be very confused. We will occasionally point out how GNU Emacs
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128 Lisp differs from Common Lisp. If you don't know Common Lisp, don't
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129 worry about it; this manual is self-contained.
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130
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131 @pindex cl
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132 A certain amount of Common Lisp emulation is available via the
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133 @file{cl} library. @xref{Top,, Common Lisp Extension, cl, Common Lisp
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134 Extensions}.
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135
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136 Emacs Lisp is not at all influenced by Scheme; but the GNU project has
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137 an implementation of Scheme, called Guile. We use Guile in all new GNU
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138 software that calls for extensibility.
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139
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140 @node Conventions
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141 @section Conventions
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142
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143 This section explains the notational conventions that are used in this
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144 manual. You may want to skip this section and refer back to it later.
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145
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146 @menu
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147 * Some Terms:: Explanation of terms we use in this manual.
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148 * nil and t:: How the symbols @code{nil} and @code{t} are used.
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149 * Evaluation Notation:: The format we use for examples of evaluation.
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150 * Printing Notation:: The format we use when examples print text.
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151 * Error Messages:: The format we use for examples of errors.
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152 * Buffer Text Notation:: The format we use for buffer contents in examples.
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153 * Format of Descriptions:: Notation for describing functions, variables, etc.
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154 @end menu
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155
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156 @node Some Terms
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157 @subsection Some Terms
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158
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159 Throughout this manual, the phrases ``the Lisp reader'' and ``the Lisp
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160 printer'' refer to those routines in Lisp that convert textual
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161 representations of Lisp objects into actual Lisp objects, and vice
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162 versa. @xref{Printed Representation}, for more details. You, the
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163 person reading this manual, are thought of as ``the programmer'' and are
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164 addressed as ``you''. ``The user'' is the person who uses Lisp
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165 programs, including those you write.
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166
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167 @cindex fonts
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168 Examples of Lisp code are formatted like this: @code{(list 1 2 3)}.
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169 Names that represent metasyntactic variables, or arguments to a function
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170 being described, are formatted like this: @var{first-number}.
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171
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172 @node nil and t
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173 @subsection @code{nil} and @code{t}
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174 @cindex @code{nil}, uses of
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175 @cindex truth value
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176 @cindex boolean
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177 @cindex false
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178
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179 In Lisp, the symbol @code{nil} has three separate meanings: it
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180 is a symbol with the name @samp{nil}; it is the logical truth value
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181 @var{false}; and it is the empty list---the list of zero elements.
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182 When used as a variable, @code{nil} always has the value @code{nil}.
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183
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184 As far as the Lisp reader is concerned, @samp{()} and @samp{nil} are
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185 identical: they stand for the same object, the symbol @code{nil}. The
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186 different ways of writing the symbol are intended entirely for human
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187 readers. After the Lisp reader has read either @samp{()} or @samp{nil},
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188 there is no way to determine which representation was actually written
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189 by the programmer.
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190
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191 In this manual, we use @code{()} when we wish to emphasize that it
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192 means the empty list, and we use @code{nil} when we wish to emphasize
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193 that it means the truth value @var{false}. That is a good convention to use
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194 in Lisp programs also.
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195
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196 @example
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197 (cons 'foo ()) ; @r{Emphasize the empty list}
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198 (not nil) ; @r{Emphasize the truth value @var{false}}
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199 @end example
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200
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201 @cindex @code{t} and truth
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202 @cindex true
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203 In contexts where a truth value is expected, any non-@code{nil} value
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204 is considered to be @var{true}. However, @code{t} is the preferred way
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205 to represent the truth value @var{true}. When you need to choose a
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206 value which represents @var{true}, and there is no other basis for
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207 choosing, use @code{t}. The symbol @code{t} always has the value
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208 @code{t}.
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209
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210 In Emacs Lisp, @code{nil} and @code{t} are special symbols that always
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211 evaluate to themselves. This is so that you do not need to quote them
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212 to use them as constants in a program. An attempt to change their
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213 values results in a @code{setting-constant} error. The same is true of
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214 any symbol whose name starts with a colon (@samp{:}). @xref{Constant
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215 Variables}.
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216
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217 @node Evaluation Notation
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218 @subsection Evaluation Notation
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219 @cindex evaluation notation
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220 @cindex documentation notation
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221
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222 A Lisp expression that you can evaluate is called a @dfn{form}.
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223 Evaluating a form always produces a result, which is a Lisp object. In
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224 the examples in this manual, this is indicated with @samp{@result{}}:
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225
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226 @example
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227 (car '(1 2))
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228 @result{} 1
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229 @end example
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230
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231 @noindent
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232 You can read this as ``@code{(car '(1 2))} evaluates to 1''.
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233
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234 When a form is a macro call, it expands into a new form for Lisp to
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235 evaluate. We show the result of the expansion with
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236 @samp{@expansion{}}. We may or may not show the result of the
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237 evaluation of the expanded form.
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238
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239 @example
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240 (third '(a b c))
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241 @expansion{} (car (cdr (cdr '(a b c))))
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242 @result{} c
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243 @end example
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244
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245 Sometimes to help describe one form we show another form that
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246 produces identical results. The exact equivalence of two forms is
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247 indicated with @samp{@equiv{}}.
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248
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249 @example
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250 (make-sparse-keymap) @equiv{} (list 'keymap)
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251 @end example
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252
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253 @node Printing Notation
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254 @subsection Printing Notation
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255 @cindex printing notation
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256
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257 Many of the examples in this manual print text when they are
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258 evaluated. If you execute example code in a Lisp Interaction buffer
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259 (such as the buffer @samp{*scratch*}), the printed text is inserted into
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260 the buffer. If you execute the example by other means (such as by
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261 evaluating the function @code{eval-region}), the printed text is
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262 displayed in the echo area.
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263
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264 Examples in this manual indicate printed text with @samp{@print{}},
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265 irrespective of where that text goes. The value returned by evaluating
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266 the form (here @code{bar}) follows on a separate line.
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267
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268 @example
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269 @group
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270 (progn (print 'foo) (print 'bar))
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271 @print{} foo
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272 @print{} bar
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273 @result{} bar
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274 @end group
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275 @end example
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276
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277 @node Error Messages
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278 @subsection Error Messages
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279 @cindex error message notation
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280
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281 Some examples signal errors. This normally displays an error message
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282 in the echo area. We show the error message on a line starting with
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283 @samp{@error{}}. Note that @samp{@error{}} itself does not appear in
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284 the echo area.
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285
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286 @example
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287 (+ 23 'x)
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288 @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, x
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289 @end example
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290
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291 @node Buffer Text Notation
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292 @subsection Buffer Text Notation
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293 @cindex buffer text notation
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294
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295 Some examples describe modifications to the contents of a buffer, by
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296 showing the ``before'' and ``after'' versions of the text. These
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297 examples show the contents of the buffer in question between two lines
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298 of dashes containing the buffer name. In addition, @samp{@point{}}
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299 indicates the location of point. (The symbol for point, of course, is
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300 not part of the text in the buffer; it indicates the place
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301 @emph{between} two characters where point is currently located.)
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302
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303 @example
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304 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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305 This is the @point{}contents of foo.
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306 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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307
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308 (insert "changed ")
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309 @result{} nil
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310 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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311 This is the changed @point{}contents of foo.
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312 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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313 @end example
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314
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315 @node Format of Descriptions
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316 @subsection Format of Descriptions
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317 @cindex description format
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318
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319 Functions, variables, macros, commands, user options, and special
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320 forms are described in this manual in a uniform format. The first
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321 line of a description contains the name of the item followed by its
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322 arguments, if any.
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323 @ifnottex
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324 The category---function, variable, or whatever---appears at the
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325 beginning of the line.
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326 @end ifnottex
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327 @iftex
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328 The category---function, variable, or whatever---is printed next to the
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329 right margin.
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330 @end iftex
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331 The description follows on succeeding lines, sometimes with examples.
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332
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333 @menu
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334 * A Sample Function Description:: A description of an imaginary
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335 function, @code{foo}.
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336 * A Sample Variable Description:: A description of an imaginary
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337 variable,
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338 @code{electric-future-map}.
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339 @end menu
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340
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341 @node A Sample Function Description
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342 @subsubsection A Sample Function Description
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343 @cindex function descriptions
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344 @cindex command descriptions
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345 @cindex macro descriptions
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346 @cindex special form descriptions
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347
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348 In a function description, the name of the function being described
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349 appears first. It is followed on the same line by a list of argument
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350 names. These names are also used in the body of the description, to
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351 stand for the values of the arguments.
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352
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353 The appearance of the keyword @code{&optional} in the argument list
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354 indicates that the subsequent arguments may be omitted (omitted
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355 arguments default to @code{nil}). Do not write @code{&optional} when
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356 you call the function.
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357
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358 The keyword @code{&rest} (which must be followed by a single argument
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359 name) indicates that any number of arguments can follow. The single
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360 following argument name will have a value, as a variable, which is a
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361 list of all these remaining arguments. Do not write @code{&rest} when
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362 you call the function.
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363
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364 Here is a description of an imaginary function @code{foo}:
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365
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366 @defun foo integer1 &optional integer2 &rest integers
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367 The function @code{foo} subtracts @var{integer1} from @var{integer2},
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368 then adds all the rest of the arguments to the result. If @var{integer2}
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369 is not supplied, then the number 19 is used by default.
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370
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371 @example
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372 (foo 1 5 3 9)
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373 @result{} 16
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374 (foo 5)
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375 @result{} 14
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376 @end example
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377
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378 @need 1500
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379 More generally,
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380
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381 @example
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382 (foo @var{w} @var{x} @var{y}@dots{})
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383 @equiv{}
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384 (+ (- @var{x} @var{w}) @var{y}@dots{})
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385 @end example
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386 @end defun
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387
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388 Any argument whose name contains the name of a type (e.g.,
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389 @var{integer}, @var{integer1} or @var{buffer}) is expected to be of that
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390 type. A plural of a type (such as @var{buffers}) often means a list of
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391 objects of that type. Arguments named @var{object} may be of any type.
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392 (@xref{Lisp Data Types}, for a list of Emacs object types.) Arguments
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393 with other sorts of names (e.g., @var{new-file}) are discussed
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394 specifically in the description of the function. In some sections,
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395 features common to the arguments of several functions are described at
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396 the beginning.
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397
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398 @xref{Lambda Expressions}, for a more complete description of optional
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399 and rest arguments.
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400
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401 Command, macro, and special form descriptions have the same format,
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402 but the word `Function' is replaced by `Command', `Macro', or `Special
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403 Form', respectively. Commands are simply functions that may be called
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404 interactively; macros process their arguments differently from functions
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405 (the arguments are not evaluated), but are presented the same way.
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406
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407 Special form descriptions use a more complex notation to specify
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408 optional and repeated arguments because they can break the argument
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409 list down into separate arguments in more complicated ways.
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410 @samp{@r{[}@var{optional-arg}@r{]}} means that @var{optional-arg} is
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411 optional and @samp{@var{repeated-args}@dots{}} stands for zero or more
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412 arguments. Parentheses are used when several arguments are grouped into
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413 additional levels of list structure. Here is an example:
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414
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415 @defspec count-loop (@var{var} [@var{from} @var{to} [@var{inc}]]) @var{body}@dots{}
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416 This imaginary special form implements a loop that executes the
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417 @var{body} forms and then increments the variable @var{var} on each
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418 iteration. On the first iteration, the variable has the value
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419 @var{from}; on subsequent iterations, it is incremented by one (or by
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420 @var{inc} if that is given). The loop exits before executing @var{body}
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421 if @var{var} equals @var{to}. Here is an example:
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422
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423 @example
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424 (count-loop (i 0 10)
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425 (prin1 i) (princ " ")
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426 (prin1 (aref vector i))
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427 (terpri))
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428 @end example
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429
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430 If @var{from} and @var{to} are omitted, @var{var} is bound to
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431 @code{nil} before the loop begins, and the loop exits if @var{var} is
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432 non-@code{nil} at the beginning of an iteration. Here is an example:
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433
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434 @example
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435 (count-loop (done)
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436 (if (pending)
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437 (fixit)
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438 (setq done t)))
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439 @end example
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440
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441 In this special form, the arguments @var{from} and @var{to} are
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442 optional, but must both be present or both absent. If they are present,
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443 @var{inc} may optionally be specified as well. These arguments are
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444 grouped with the argument @var{var} into a list, to distinguish them
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445 from @var{body}, which includes all remaining elements of the form.
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446 @end defspec
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447
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448 @node A Sample Variable Description
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449 @subsubsection A Sample Variable Description
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450 @cindex variable descriptions
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451 @cindex option descriptions
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452
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453 A @dfn{variable} is a name that can hold a value. Although any
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454 variable can be set by the user, certain variables that exist
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455 specifically so that users can change them are called @dfn{user
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456 options}. Ordinary variables and user options are described using a
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457 format like that for functions except that there are no arguments.
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458
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459 Here is a description of the imaginary @code{electric-future-map}
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460 variable.@refill
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461
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462 @defvar electric-future-map
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463 The value of this variable is a full keymap used by Electric Command
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464 Future mode. The functions in this map allow you to edit commands you
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465 have not yet thought about executing.
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466 @end defvar
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467
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468 User option descriptions have the same format, but `Variable' is
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469 replaced by `User Option'.
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470
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471 @node Version Info
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472 @section Version Information
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473
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474 These facilities provide information about which version of Emacs is
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475 in use.
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476
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477 @deffn Command emacs-version
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478 This function returns a string describing the version of Emacs that is
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479 running. It is useful to include this string in bug reports.
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480
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481 @smallexample
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482 @group
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483 (emacs-version)
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484 @result{} "GNU Emacs 20.3.5 (i486-pc-linux-gnulibc1, X toolkit)
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485 of Sat Feb 14 1998 on psilocin.gnu.org"
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486 @end group
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487 @end smallexample
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488
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489 Called interactively, the function prints the same information in the
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490 echo area.
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491 @end deffn
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492
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493 @defvar emacs-build-time
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494 The value of this variable indicates the time at which Emacs was built
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495 at the local site. It is a list of three integers, like the value
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496 of @code{current-time} (@pxref{Time of Day}).
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497
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498 @example
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499 @group
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500 emacs-build-time
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501 @result{} (13623 62065 344633)
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502 @end group
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503 @end example
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504 @end defvar
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505
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506 @defvar emacs-version
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507 The value of this variable is the version of Emacs being run. It is a
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508 string such as @code{"20.3.1"}. The last number in this string is not
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509 really part of the Emacs release version number; it is incremented each
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510 time you build Emacs in any given directory. A value with four numeric
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511 components, such as @code{"20.3.9.1"}, indicates an unreleased test
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512 version.
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513 @end defvar
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514
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515 The following two variables have existed since Emacs version 19.23:
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516
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517 @defvar emacs-major-version
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518 The major version number of Emacs, as an integer. For Emacs version
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519 20.3, the value is 20.
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520 @end defvar
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521
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522 @defvar emacs-minor-version
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523 The minor version number of Emacs, as an integer. For Emacs version
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524 20.3, the value is 3.
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525 @end defvar
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526
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527 @node Acknowledgements
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528 @section Acknowledgements
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529
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530 This manual was written by Robert Krawitz, Bil Lewis, Dan LaLiberte,
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531 Richard M. Stallman and Chris Welty, the volunteers of the GNU manual
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532 group, in an effort extending over several years. Robert J. Chassell
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533 helped to review and edit the manual, with the support of the Defense
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534 Advanced Research Projects Agency, ARPA Order 6082, arranged by Warren
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535 A. Hunt, Jr.@: of Computational Logic, Inc.
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536
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537 Corrections were supplied by Karl Berry, Jim Blandy, Bard Bloom,
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538 Stephane Boucher, David Boyes, Alan Carroll, Richard Davis, Lawrence
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539 R. Dodd, Peter Doornbosch, David A. Duff, Chris Eich, Beverly
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540 Erlebacher, David Eckelkamp, Ralf Fassel, Eirik Fuller, Stephen Gildea,
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541 Bob Glickstein, Eric Hanchrow, George Hartzell, Nathan Hess, Masayuki
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542 Ida, Dan Jacobson, Jak Kirman, Bob Knighten, Frederick M. Korz, Joe
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543 Lammens, Glenn M. Lewis, K. Richard Magill, Brian Marick, Roland
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544 McGrath, Skip Montanaro, John Gardiner Myers, Thomas A. Peterson,
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545 Francesco Potorti, Friedrich Pukelsheim, Arnold D. Robbins, Raul
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546 Rockwell, Per Starb@"ack, Shinichirou Sugou, Kimmo Suominen, Edward Tharp,
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547 Bill Trost, Rickard Westman, Jean White, Matthew Wilding, Carl Witty,
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548 Dale Worley, Rusty Wright, and David D. Zuhn.