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author | Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org> |
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date | Thu, 23 Apr 1998 21:18:18 +0000 |
parents | 90da2489c498 |
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6510 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6510 | 4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
5 @setfilename ../info/variables | |
6 @node Variables, Functions, Control Structures, Top | |
7 @chapter Variables | |
8 @cindex variable | |
9 | |
10 A @dfn{variable} is a name used in a program to stand for a value. | |
11 Nearly all programming languages have variables of some sort. In the | |
12 text of a Lisp program, variables are written using the syntax for | |
13 symbols. | |
14 | |
15 In Lisp, unlike most programming languages, programs are represented | |
16 primarily as Lisp objects and only secondarily as text. The Lisp | |
17 objects used for variables are symbols: the symbol name is the variable | |
18 name, and the variable's value is stored in the value cell of the | |
19 symbol. The use of a symbol as a variable is independent of its use as | |
20 a function name. @xref{Symbol Components}. | |
21 | |
22 The Lisp objects that constitute a Lisp program determine the textual | |
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23 form of the program---it is simply the read syntax for those Lisp |
6510 | 24 objects. This is why, for example, a variable in a textual Lisp program |
25 is written using the read syntax for the symbol that represents the | |
26 variable. | |
27 | |
28 @menu | |
29 * Global Variables:: Variable values that exist permanently, everywhere. | |
30 * Constant Variables:: Certain "variables" have values that never change. | |
31 * Local Variables:: Variable values that exist only temporarily. | |
32 * Void Variables:: Symbols that lack values. | |
33 * Defining Variables:: A definition says a symbol is used as a variable. | |
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34 * Tips for Defining:: How to avoid bad results from quitting |
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35 within the code to initialize a variable. |
6510 | 36 * Accessing Variables:: Examining values of variables whose names |
37 are known only at run time. | |
38 * Setting Variables:: Storing new values in variables. | |
39 * Variable Scoping:: How Lisp chooses among local and global values. | |
40 * Buffer-Local Variables:: Variable values in effect only in one buffer. | |
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41 * Frame-Local Variables:: Variable values in effect only in one frame. |
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42 * Future Local Variables:: New kinds of local values we might add some day. |
6510 | 43 @end menu |
44 | |
45 @node Global Variables | |
46 @section Global Variables | |
47 @cindex global variable | |
48 | |
49 The simplest way to use a variable is @dfn{globally}. This means that | |
50 the variable has just one value at a time, and this value is in effect | |
51 (at least for the moment) throughout the Lisp system. The value remains | |
52 in effect until you specify a new one. When a new value replaces the | |
53 old one, no trace of the old value remains in the variable. | |
54 | |
55 You specify a value for a symbol with @code{setq}. For example, | |
56 | |
57 @example | |
58 (setq x '(a b)) | |
59 @end example | |
60 | |
61 @noindent | |
62 gives the variable @code{x} the value @code{(a b)}. Note that | |
63 @code{setq} does not evaluate its first argument, the name of the | |
64 variable, but it does evaluate the second argument, the new value. | |
65 | |
66 Once the variable has a value, you can refer to it by using the symbol | |
67 by itself as an expression. Thus, | |
68 | |
69 @example | |
70 @group | |
71 x @result{} (a b) | |
72 @end group | |
73 @end example | |
74 | |
75 @noindent | |
76 assuming the @code{setq} form shown above has already been executed. | |
77 | |
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78 If you do set the same variable again, the new value replaces the old |
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79 one: |
6510 | 80 |
81 @example | |
82 @group | |
83 x | |
84 @result{} (a b) | |
85 @end group | |
86 @group | |
87 (setq x 4) | |
88 @result{} 4 | |
89 @end group | |
90 @group | |
91 x | |
92 @result{} 4 | |
93 @end group | |
94 @end example | |
95 | |
96 @node Constant Variables | |
97 @section Variables That Never Change | |
98 @vindex nil | |
99 @vindex t | |
100 @kindex setting-constant | |
101 | |
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102 In Emacs Lisp, certain symbols normally evaluate to themselves. These |
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103 include @code{nil} and @code{t}, as well as any symbol whose name starts |
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104 with @samp{:}. These symbols cannot be rebound, nor can their values be |
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105 changed. Any attempt to set or bind @code{nil} or @code{t} signals a |
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106 @code{setting-constant} error. The same is true for a symbol whose name |
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107 starts with @samp{:}, except that you are allowed to set such symbol to |
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108 itself. |
6510 | 109 |
110 @example | |
111 @group | |
112 nil @equiv{} 'nil | |
113 @result{} nil | |
114 @end group | |
115 @group | |
116 (setq nil 500) | |
117 @error{} Attempt to set constant symbol: nil | |
118 @end group | |
119 @end example | |
120 | |
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121 @tindex keyword-symbols-constant-flag |
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122 @defvar keyword-symbols-constant-flag |
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123 If this variable is @code{nil}, you are allowed to set and bind symbols |
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124 whose names start with @samp{:} as you wish. This is to make it |
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125 possible to run old Lisp programs which do that. |
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126 @end defvar |
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127 |
6510 | 128 @node Local Variables |
129 @section Local Variables | |
130 @cindex binding local variables | |
131 @cindex local variables | |
132 @cindex local binding | |
133 @cindex global binding | |
134 | |
135 Global variables have values that last until explicitly superseded | |
136 with new values. Sometimes it is useful to create variable values that | |
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137 exist temporarily---only until a certain part of the program finishes. |
6510 | 138 These values are called @dfn{local}, and the variables so used are |
139 called @dfn{local variables}. | |
140 | |
141 For example, when a function is called, its argument variables receive | |
142 new local values that last until the function exits. The @code{let} | |
143 special form explicitly establishes new local values for specified | |
144 variables; these last until exit from the @code{let} form. | |
145 | |
146 @cindex shadowing of variables | |
147 Establishing a local value saves away the previous value (or lack of | |
148 one) of the variable. When the life span of the local value is over, | |
149 the previous value is restored. In the mean time, we say that the | |
150 previous value is @dfn{shadowed} and @dfn{not visible}. Both global and | |
151 local values may be shadowed (@pxref{Scope}). | |
152 | |
153 If you set a variable (such as with @code{setq}) while it is local, | |
154 this replaces the local value; it does not alter the global value, or | |
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155 previous local values, that are shadowed. To model this behavior, we |
6510 | 156 speak of a @dfn{local binding} of the variable as well as a local value. |
157 | |
158 The local binding is a conceptual place that holds a local value. | |
159 Entry to a function, or a special form such as @code{let}, creates the | |
160 local binding; exit from the function or from the @code{let} removes the | |
161 local binding. As long as the local binding lasts, the variable's value | |
162 is stored within it. Use of @code{setq} or @code{set} while there is a | |
163 local binding stores a different value into the local binding; it does | |
164 not create a new binding. | |
165 | |
166 We also speak of the @dfn{global binding}, which is where | |
167 (conceptually) the global value is kept. | |
168 | |
169 @cindex current binding | |
170 A variable can have more than one local binding at a time (for | |
171 example, if there are nested @code{let} forms that bind it). In such a | |
172 case, the most recently created local binding that still exists is the | |
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173 @dfn{current binding} of the variable. (This rule is called |
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174 @dfn{dynamic scoping}; see @ref{Variable Scoping}.) If there are no |
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175 local bindings, the variable's global binding is its current binding. |
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176 We sometimes call the current binding the @dfn{most-local existing |
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177 binding}, for emphasis. Ordinary evaluation of a symbol always returns |
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178 the value of its current binding. |
6510 | 179 |
180 The special forms @code{let} and @code{let*} exist to create | |
181 local bindings. | |
182 | |
183 @defspec let (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} | |
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184 This special form binds variables according to @var{bindings} and then |
6510 | 185 evaluates all of the @var{forms} in textual order. The @code{let}-form |
186 returns the value of the last form in @var{forms}. | |
187 | |
188 Each of the @var{bindings} is either @w{(i) a} symbol, in which case | |
189 that symbol is bound to @code{nil}; or @w{(ii) a} list of the form | |
190 @code{(@var{symbol} @var{value-form})}, in which case @var{symbol} is | |
191 bound to the result of evaluating @var{value-form}. If @var{value-form} | |
192 is omitted, @code{nil} is used. | |
193 | |
194 All of the @var{value-form}s in @var{bindings} are evaluated in the | |
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195 order they appear and @emph{before} binding any of the symbols to them. |
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196 Here is an example of this: @code{Z} is bound to the old value of |
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197 @code{Y}, which is 2, not the new value of @code{Y}, which is 1. |
6510 | 198 |
199 @example | |
200 @group | |
201 (setq Y 2) | |
202 @result{} 2 | |
203 @end group | |
204 @group | |
205 (let ((Y 1) | |
206 (Z Y)) | |
207 (list Y Z)) | |
208 @result{} (1 2) | |
209 @end group | |
210 @end example | |
211 @end defspec | |
212 | |
213 @defspec let* (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} | |
214 This special form is like @code{let}, but it binds each variable right | |
215 after computing its local value, before computing the local value for | |
216 the next variable. Therefore, an expression in @var{bindings} can | |
217 reasonably refer to the preceding symbols bound in this @code{let*} | |
218 form. Compare the following example with the example above for | |
219 @code{let}. | |
220 | |
221 @example | |
222 @group | |
223 (setq Y 2) | |
224 @result{} 2 | |
225 @end group | |
226 @group | |
227 (let* ((Y 1) | |
228 (Z Y)) ; @r{Use the just-established value of @code{Y}.} | |
229 (list Y Z)) | |
230 @result{} (1 1) | |
231 @end group | |
232 @end example | |
233 @end defspec | |
234 | |
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235 Here is a complete list of the other facilities that create local |
6510 | 236 bindings: |
237 | |
238 @itemize @bullet | |
239 @item | |
240 Function calls (@pxref{Functions}). | |
241 | |
242 @item | |
243 Macro calls (@pxref{Macros}). | |
244 | |
245 @item | |
246 @code{condition-case} (@pxref{Errors}). | |
247 @end itemize | |
248 | |
12098 | 249 Variables can also have buffer-local bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local |
250 Variables}); a few variables have terminal-local bindings | |
251 (@pxref{Multiple Displays}). These kinds of bindings work somewhat like | |
252 ordinary local bindings, but they are localized depending on ``where'' | |
253 you are in Emacs, rather than localized in time. | |
254 | |
6510 | 255 @defvar max-specpdl-size |
256 @cindex variable limit error | |
257 @cindex evaluation error | |
258 @cindex infinite recursion | |
259 This variable defines the limit on the total number of local variable | |
260 bindings and @code{unwind-protect} cleanups (@pxref{Nonlocal Exits}) | |
261 that are allowed before signaling an error (with data @code{"Variable | |
262 binding depth exceeds max-specpdl-size"}). | |
263 | |
264 This limit, with the associated error when it is exceeded, is one way | |
265 that Lisp avoids infinite recursion on an ill-defined function. | |
266 | |
267 The default value is 600. | |
268 | |
269 @code{max-lisp-eval-depth} provides another limit on depth of nesting. | |
270 @xref{Eval}. | |
271 @end defvar | |
272 | |
273 @node Void Variables | |
274 @section When a Variable is ``Void'' | |
275 @kindex void-variable | |
276 @cindex void variable | |
277 | |
278 If you have never given a symbol any value as a global variable, we | |
279 say that that symbol's global value is @dfn{void}. In other words, the | |
280 symbol's value cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to | |
281 evaluate the symbol, you get a @code{void-variable} error rather than | |
282 a value. | |
283 | |
284 Note that a value of @code{nil} is not the same as void. The symbol | |
285 @code{nil} is a Lisp object and can be the value of a variable just as any | |
286 other object can be; but it is @emph{a value}. A void variable does not | |
287 have any value. | |
288 | |
289 After you have given a variable a value, you can make it void once more | |
290 using @code{makunbound}. | |
291 | |
292 @defun makunbound symbol | |
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293 This function makes the current variable binding of @var{symbol} void. |
6510 | 294 Subsequent attempts to use this symbol's value as a variable will signal |
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295 the error @code{void-variable}, unless and until you set it again. |
6510 | 296 |
297 @code{makunbound} returns @var{symbol}. | |
298 | |
299 @example | |
300 @group | |
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301 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Make the global value of @code{x} void.} |
6510 | 302 @result{} x |
303 @end group | |
304 @group | |
305 x | |
306 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x | |
307 @end group | |
308 @end example | |
309 | |
310 If @var{symbol} is locally bound, @code{makunbound} affects the most | |
311 local existing binding. This is the only way a symbol can have a void | |
312 local binding, since all the constructs that create local bindings | |
313 create them with values. In this case, the voidness lasts at most as | |
314 long as the binding does; when the binding is removed due to exit from | |
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315 the construct that made it, the previous local or global binding is |
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316 reexposed as usual, and the variable is no longer void unless the newly |
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317 reexposed binding was void all along. |
6510 | 318 |
319 @smallexample | |
320 @group | |
321 (setq x 1) ; @r{Put a value in the global binding.} | |
322 @result{} 1 | |
323 (let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} | |
324 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the local binding.} | |
325 x) | |
326 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x | |
327 @end group | |
328 @group | |
329 x ; @r{The global binding is unchanged.} | |
330 @result{} 1 | |
331 | |
332 (let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} | |
333 (let ((x 3)) ; @r{And again.} | |
334 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the innermost-local binding.} | |
335 x)) ; @r{And refer: it's void.} | |
336 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x | |
337 @end group | |
338 | |
339 @group | |
340 (let ((x 2)) | |
341 (let ((x 3)) | |
342 (makunbound 'x)) ; @r{Void inner binding, then remove it.} | |
343 x) ; @r{Now outer @code{let} binding is visible.} | |
344 @result{} 2 | |
345 @end group | |
346 @end smallexample | |
347 @end defun | |
348 | |
349 A variable that has been made void with @code{makunbound} is | |
350 indistinguishable from one that has never received a value and has | |
351 always been void. | |
352 | |
353 You can use the function @code{boundp} to test whether a variable is | |
354 currently void. | |
355 | |
356 @defun boundp variable | |
357 @code{boundp} returns @code{t} if @var{variable} (a symbol) is not void; | |
358 more precisely, if its current binding is not void. It returns | |
359 @code{nil} otherwise. | |
360 | |
361 @smallexample | |
362 @group | |
363 (boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Starts out void.} | |
364 @result{} nil | |
365 @end group | |
366 @group | |
367 (let ((abracadabra 5)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} | |
368 (boundp 'abracadabra)) | |
369 @result{} t | |
370 @end group | |
371 @group | |
372 (boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Still globally void.} | |
373 @result{} nil | |
374 @end group | |
375 @group | |
376 (setq abracadabra 5) ; @r{Make it globally nonvoid.} | |
377 @result{} 5 | |
378 @end group | |
379 @group | |
380 (boundp 'abracadabra) | |
381 @result{} t | |
382 @end group | |
383 @end smallexample | |
384 @end defun | |
385 | |
386 @node Defining Variables | |
387 @section Defining Global Variables | |
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388 @cindex variable definition |
6510 | 389 |
390 You may announce your intention to use a symbol as a global variable | |
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391 with a @dfn{variable definition}: a special form, either @code{defconst} |
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392 or @code{defvar}. |
6510 | 393 |
394 In Emacs Lisp, definitions serve three purposes. First, they inform | |
395 people who read the code that certain symbols are @emph{intended} to be | |
396 used a certain way (as variables). Second, they inform the Lisp system | |
397 of these things, supplying a value and documentation. Third, they | |
398 provide information to utilities such as @code{etags} and | |
399 @code{make-docfile}, which create data bases of the functions and | |
400 variables in a program. | |
401 | |
402 The difference between @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} is primarily | |
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403 a matter of intent, serving to inform human readers of whether the value |
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404 should ever change. Emacs Lisp does not restrict the ways in which a |
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405 variable can be used based on @code{defconst} or @code{defvar} |
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406 declarations. However, it does make a difference for initialization: |
6510 | 407 @code{defconst} unconditionally initializes the variable, while |
408 @code{defvar} initializes it only if it is void. | |
409 | |
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410 @ignore |
6510 | 411 One would expect user option variables to be defined with |
412 @code{defconst}, since programs do not change them. Unfortunately, this | |
413 has bad results if the definition is in a library that is not preloaded: | |
414 @code{defconst} would override any prior value when the library is | |
415 loaded. Users would like to be able to set user options in their init | |
416 files, and override the default values given in the definitions. For | |
417 this reason, user options must be defined with @code{defvar}. | |
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418 @end ignore |
6510 | 419 |
420 @defspec defvar symbol [value [doc-string]] | |
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421 This special form defines @var{symbol} as a variable and can also |
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422 initialize and document it. The definition informs a person reading |
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423 your code that @var{symbol} is used as a variable that might be set or |
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424 changed. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the symbol to be |
6510 | 425 defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defvar}. |
426 | |
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427 If @var{symbol} is void and @var{value} is specified, @code{defvar} |
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428 evaluates it and sets @var{symbol} to the result. But if @var{symbol} |
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429 already has a value (i.e., it is not void), @var{value} is not even |
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430 evaluated, and @var{symbol}'s value remains unchanged. If @var{value} |
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431 is omitted, the value of @var{symbol} is not changed in any case. |
6510 | 432 |
12098 | 433 When you evaluate a top-level @code{defvar} form with @kbd{C-M-x} in |
434 Emacs Lisp mode (@code{eval-defun}), a special feature of | |
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435 @code{eval-defun} arranges to set the variable unconditionally even if |
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436 the variable already has a value. |
12098 | 437 |
6510 | 438 If @var{symbol} has a buffer-local binding in the current buffer, |
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439 @code{defvar} sets the default (buffer-independent) value, not the |
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440 buffer-local value. @xref{Buffer-Local Variables}. |
6510 | 441 |
442 If the @var{doc-string} argument appears, it specifies the documentation | |
443 for the variable. (This opportunity to specify documentation is one of | |
444 the main benefits of defining the variable.) The documentation is | |
445 stored in the symbol's @code{variable-documentation} property. The | |
446 Emacs help functions (@pxref{Documentation}) look for this property. | |
447 | |
448 If the first character of @var{doc-string} is @samp{*}, it means that | |
449 this variable is considered a user option. This lets users set the | |
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450 variable conveniently using the commands @code{set-variable} and |
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451 @code{edit-options}. However, it is better to use @code{defcustom} |
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452 instead of @code{defvar} for user option variables, so you can specify |
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453 customization information. @xref{Customization}. |
6510 | 454 |
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455 Here are some examples. This form defines @code{foo} but does not |
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456 initialize it: |
6510 | 457 |
458 @example | |
459 @group | |
460 (defvar foo) | |
461 @result{} foo | |
462 @end group | |
463 @end example | |
464 | |
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465 This example initializes the value of @code{bar} to @code{23}, and gives |
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466 it a documentation string: |
6510 | 467 |
468 @example | |
469 @group | |
470 (defvar bar 23 | |
471 "The normal weight of a bar.") | |
472 @result{} bar | |
473 @end group | |
474 @end example | |
475 | |
476 The following form changes the documentation string for @code{bar}, | |
477 making it a user option, but does not change the value, since @code{bar} | |
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478 already has a value. (The addition @code{(1+ nil)} would get an error |
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479 if it were evaluated, but since it is not evaluated, there is no error.) |
6510 | 480 |
481 @example | |
482 @group | |
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483 (defvar bar (1+ nil) |
6510 | 484 "*The normal weight of a bar.") |
485 @result{} bar | |
486 @end group | |
487 @group | |
488 bar | |
489 @result{} 23 | |
490 @end group | |
491 @end example | |
492 | |
493 Here is an equivalent expression for the @code{defvar} special form: | |
494 | |
495 @example | |
496 @group | |
497 (defvar @var{symbol} @var{value} @var{doc-string}) | |
498 @equiv{} | |
499 (progn | |
500 (if (not (boundp '@var{symbol})) | |
501 (setq @var{symbol} @var{value})) | |
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502 (if '@var{doc-string} |
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503 (put '@var{symbol} 'variable-documentation '@var{doc-string})) |
6510 | 504 '@var{symbol}) |
505 @end group | |
506 @end example | |
507 | |
508 The @code{defvar} form returns @var{symbol}, but it is normally used | |
509 at top level in a file where its value does not matter. | |
510 @end defspec | |
511 | |
512 @defspec defconst symbol [value [doc-string]] | |
513 This special form defines @var{symbol} as a value and initializes it. | |
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514 It informs a person reading your code that @var{symbol} has a standard |
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515 global value, established here, that should not be changed by the user |
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516 or by other programs. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the |
6510 | 517 symbol to be defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defconst}. |
518 | |
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519 @code{defconst} always evaluates @var{value}, and sets the value of |
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520 @var{symbol} to the result if @var{value} is given. If @var{symbol} |
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521 does has a buffer-local binding in the current buffer, @code{defconst} |
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522 sets the default value, not the buffer-local value. But you should not |
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523 be making the symbol buffer-local if it is defined with @code{defconst}. |
6510 | 524 |
525 Here, @code{pi} is a constant that presumably ought not to be changed | |
526 by anyone (attempts by the Indiana State Legislature notwithstanding). | |
527 As the second form illustrates, however, this is only advisory. | |
528 | |
529 @example | |
530 @group | |
531 (defconst pi 3.1415 "Pi to five places.") | |
532 @result{} pi | |
533 @end group | |
534 @group | |
535 (setq pi 3) | |
536 @result{} pi | |
537 @end group | |
538 @group | |
539 pi | |
540 @result{} 3 | |
541 @end group | |
542 @end example | |
543 @end defspec | |
544 | |
545 @defun user-variable-p variable | |
546 @cindex user option | |
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547 This function returns @code{t} if @var{variable} is a user option---a |
6510 | 548 variable intended to be set by the user for customization---and |
549 @code{nil} otherwise. (Variables other than user options exist for the | |
550 internal purposes of Lisp programs, and users need not know about them.) | |
551 | |
552 User option variables are distinguished from other variables by the | |
553 first character of the @code{variable-documentation} property. If the | |
554 property exists and is a string, and its first character is @samp{*}, | |
555 then the variable is a user option. | |
556 @end defun | |
557 | |
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558 @kindex variable-interactive |
6510 | 559 If a user option variable has a @code{variable-interactive} property, |
12098 | 560 the @code{set-variable} command uses that value to control reading the |
561 new value for the variable. The property's value is used as if it were | |
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562 to @code{interactive} (@pxref{Using Interactive}). However, this feature |
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563 is largely obsoleted by the @code{defcustom} (@pxref{Customization}). |
6510 | 564 |
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565 @strong{Warning:} If the @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} special |
6510 | 566 forms are used while the variable has a local binding, they set the |
567 local binding's value; the global binding is not changed. This is not | |
568 what we really want. To prevent it, use these special forms at top | |
569 level in a file, where normally no local binding is in effect, and make | |
570 sure to load the file before making a local binding for the variable. | |
571 | |
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572 @node Tips for Defining |
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573 @section Tips for Defining Variables Robustly |
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574 |
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575 When defining and initializing a variable that holds a complicated |
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576 value (such as a keymap with bindings in it), it's best to put the |
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577 entire computation of the value into the @code{defvar}, like this: |
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578 |
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579 @example |
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580 (defvar my-mode-map |
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581 (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap))) |
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582 (define-key map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) |
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583 @dots{} |
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584 map) |
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585 @var{docstring}) |
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586 @end example |
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587 |
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588 @noindent |
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589 This method has several benefits. First, if the user quits while |
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590 loading the file, the variable is either still uninitialized or |
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591 initialized properly, never in-between. If it is still uninitialized, |
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592 reloading the file will initialize it properly. Second, reloading the |
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593 file once the variable is initialized will not alter it; that is |
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594 important if the user has run hooks to alter part of the contents (such |
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595 as, to rebind keys). Third, evaluating the @code{defvar} form with |
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596 @kbd{C-M-x} @emph{will} reinitialize the map completely. |
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597 |
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598 Putting so much code in the @code{defvar} form has one disadvantage: |
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599 it puts the documentation string far away from the line which names the |
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600 variable. Here's a safe way to avoid that: |
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601 |
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602 @example |
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603 (defvar my-mode-map nil |
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604 @var{docstring}) |
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605 (if my-mode-map |
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606 nil |
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607 (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap))) |
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608 (define-key my-mode-map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) |
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609 @dots{} |
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610 (setq my-mode-map map))) |
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611 @end example |
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612 |
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613 @noindent |
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614 This has all the same advantages as putting the initialization inside |
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615 the @code{defvar}, except that you must type @kbd{C-M-x} twice, once on |
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616 each form, if you do want to reinitialize the variable. |
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617 |
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618 But be careful not to write the code like this: |
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619 |
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620 @example |
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621 (defvar my-mode-map nil |
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622 @var{docstring}) |
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623 (if my-mode-map |
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624 nil |
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625 (setq my-mode-map (make-sparse-keymap)) |
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626 (define-key my-mode-map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) |
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627 @dots{}) |
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628 @end example |
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629 |
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630 @noindent |
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631 This code sets the variable, then alters it, but it does so in more than |
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632 one step. If the user quits just after the @code{setq}, that leaves the |
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633 variable neither correctly initialized nor void nor @code{nil}. Once |
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634 that happens, reloading the file will not initialize the variable; it |
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635 will remain incomplete. |
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636 |
6510 | 637 @node Accessing Variables |
638 @section Accessing Variable Values | |
639 | |
640 The usual way to reference a variable is to write the symbol which | |
641 names it (@pxref{Symbol Forms}). This requires you to specify the | |
642 variable name when you write the program. Usually that is exactly what | |
643 you want to do. Occasionally you need to choose at run time which | |
644 variable to reference; then you can use @code{symbol-value}. | |
645 | |
646 @defun symbol-value symbol | |
647 This function returns the value of @var{symbol}. This is the value in | |
648 the innermost local binding of the symbol, or its global value if it | |
649 has no local bindings. | |
650 | |
651 @example | |
652 @group | |
653 (setq abracadabra 5) | |
654 @result{} 5 | |
655 @end group | |
656 @group | |
657 (setq foo 9) | |
658 @result{} 9 | |
659 @end group | |
660 | |
661 @group | |
662 ;; @r{Here the symbol @code{abracadabra}} | |
663 ;; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.} | |
664 (let ((abracadabra 'foo)) | |
665 (symbol-value 'abracadabra)) | |
666 @result{} foo | |
667 @end group | |
668 | |
669 @group | |
670 ;; @r{Here the value of @code{abracadabra},} | |
671 ;; @r{which is @code{foo},} | |
672 ;; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.} | |
673 (let ((abracadabra 'foo)) | |
674 (symbol-value abracadabra)) | |
675 @result{} 9 | |
676 @end group | |
677 | |
678 @group | |
679 (symbol-value 'abracadabra) | |
680 @result{} 5 | |
681 @end group | |
682 @end example | |
683 | |
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684 A @code{void-variable} error is signaled if the current binding of |
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685 @var{symbol} is void. |
6510 | 686 @end defun |
687 | |
688 @node Setting Variables | |
689 @section How to Alter a Variable Value | |
690 | |
691 The usual way to change the value of a variable is with the special | |
692 form @code{setq}. When you need to compute the choice of variable at | |
693 run time, use the function @code{set}. | |
694 | |
695 @defspec setq [symbol form]@dots{} | |
696 This special form is the most common method of changing a variable's | |
697 value. Each @var{symbol} is given a new value, which is the result of | |
698 evaluating the corresponding @var{form}. The most-local existing | |
699 binding of the symbol is changed. | |
700 | |
701 @code{setq} does not evaluate @var{symbol}; it sets the symbol that you | |
702 write. We say that this argument is @dfn{automatically quoted}. The | |
703 @samp{q} in @code{setq} stands for ``quoted.'' | |
704 | |
705 The value of the @code{setq} form is the value of the last @var{form}. | |
706 | |
707 @example | |
708 @group | |
709 (setq x (1+ 2)) | |
710 @result{} 3 | |
711 @end group | |
712 x ; @r{@code{x} now has a global value.} | |
713 @result{} 3 | |
714 @group | |
715 (let ((x 5)) | |
716 (setq x 6) ; @r{The local binding of @code{x} is set.} | |
717 x) | |
718 @result{} 6 | |
719 @end group | |
720 x ; @r{The global value is unchanged.} | |
721 @result{} 3 | |
722 @end example | |
723 | |
724 Note that the first @var{form} is evaluated, then the first | |
725 @var{symbol} is set, then the second @var{form} is evaluated, then the | |
726 second @var{symbol} is set, and so on: | |
727 | |
728 @example | |
729 @group | |
730 (setq x 10 ; @r{Notice that @code{x} is set before} | |
731 y (1+ x)) ; @r{the value of @code{y} is computed.} | |
732 @result{} 11 | |
733 @end group | |
734 @end example | |
735 @end defspec | |
736 | |
737 @defun set symbol value | |
738 This function sets @var{symbol}'s value to @var{value}, then returns | |
739 @var{value}. Since @code{set} is a function, the expression written for | |
740 @var{symbol} is evaluated to obtain the symbol to set. | |
741 | |
742 The most-local existing binding of the variable is the binding that is | |
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743 set; shadowed bindings are not affected. |
6510 | 744 |
745 @example | |
746 @group | |
747 (set one 1) | |
748 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: one | |
749 @end group | |
750 @group | |
751 (set 'one 1) | |
752 @result{} 1 | |
753 @end group | |
754 @group | |
755 (set 'two 'one) | |
756 @result{} one | |
757 @end group | |
758 @group | |
759 (set two 2) ; @r{@code{two} evaluates to symbol @code{one}.} | |
760 @result{} 2 | |
761 @end group | |
762 @group | |
763 one ; @r{So it is @code{one} that was set.} | |
764 @result{} 2 | |
765 (let ((one 1)) ; @r{This binding of @code{one} is set,} | |
766 (set 'one 3) ; @r{not the global value.} | |
767 one) | |
768 @result{} 3 | |
769 @end group | |
770 @group | |
771 one | |
772 @result{} 2 | |
773 @end group | |
774 @end example | |
775 | |
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776 If @var{symbol} is not actually a symbol, a @code{wrong-type-argument} |
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777 error is signaled. |
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778 |
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779 @example |
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780 (set '(x y) 'z) |
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781 @error{} Wrong type argument: symbolp, (x y) |
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782 @end example |
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783 |
6510 | 784 Logically speaking, @code{set} is a more fundamental primitive than |
785 @code{setq}. Any use of @code{setq} can be trivially rewritten to use | |
786 @code{set}; @code{setq} could even be defined as a macro, given the | |
787 availability of @code{set}. However, @code{set} itself is rarely used; | |
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788 beginners hardly need to know about it. It is useful only for choosing |
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789 at run time which variable to set. For example, the command |
6510 | 790 @code{set-variable}, which reads a variable name from the user and then |
791 sets the variable, needs to use @code{set}. | |
792 | |
793 @cindex CL note---@code{set} local | |
794 @quotation | |
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795 @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, @code{set} always changes the |
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796 symbol's ``special'' or dynamic value, ignoring any lexical bindings. |
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797 In Emacs Lisp, all variables and all bindings are dynamic, so @code{set} |
6510 | 798 always affects the most local existing binding. |
799 @end quotation | |
800 @end defun | |
801 | |
12067 | 802 One other function for setting a variable is designed to add |
803 an element to a list if it is not already present in the list. | |
804 | |
805 @defun add-to-list symbol element | |
806 This function sets the variable @var{symbol} by consing @var{element} | |
807 onto the old value, if @var{element} is not already a member of that | |
12098 | 808 value. It returns the resulting list, whether updated or not. The |
809 value of @var{symbol} had better be a list already before the call. | |
810 | |
811 The argument @var{symbol} is not implicitly quoted; @code{add-to-list} | |
812 is an ordinary function, like @code{set} and unlike @code{setq}. Quote | |
813 the argument yourself if that is what you want. | |
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814 @end defun |
12067 | 815 |
816 Here's a scenario showing how to use @code{add-to-list}: | |
817 | |
818 @example | |
819 (setq foo '(a b)) | |
820 @result{} (a b) | |
821 | |
822 (add-to-list 'foo 'c) ;; @r{Add @code{c}.} | |
823 @result{} (c a b) | |
824 | |
825 (add-to-list 'foo 'b) ;; @r{No effect.} | |
826 @result{} (c a b) | |
827 | |
828 foo ;; @r{@code{foo} was changed.} | |
829 @result{} (c a b) | |
830 @end example | |
831 | |
832 An equivalent expression for @code{(add-to-list '@var{var} | |
833 @var{value})} is this: | |
834 | |
835 @example | |
836 (or (member @var{value} @var{var}) | |
837 (setq @var{var} (cons @var{value} @var{var}))) | |
838 @end example | |
839 | |
6510 | 840 @node Variable Scoping |
841 @section Scoping Rules for Variable Bindings | |
842 | |
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843 A given symbol @code{foo} can have several local variable bindings, |
6510 | 844 established at different places in the Lisp program, as well as a global |
845 binding. The most recently established binding takes precedence over | |
846 the others. | |
847 | |
848 @cindex scope | |
849 @cindex extent | |
850 @cindex dynamic scoping | |
851 Local bindings in Emacs Lisp have @dfn{indefinite scope} and | |
852 @dfn{dynamic extent}. @dfn{Scope} refers to @emph{where} textually in | |
853 the source code the binding can be accessed. Indefinite scope means | |
854 that any part of the program can potentially access the variable | |
855 binding. @dfn{Extent} refers to @emph{when}, as the program is | |
856 executing, the binding exists. Dynamic extent means that the binding | |
857 lasts as long as the activation of the construct that established it. | |
858 | |
859 The combination of dynamic extent and indefinite scope is called | |
860 @dfn{dynamic scoping}. By contrast, most programming languages use | |
861 @dfn{lexical scoping}, in which references to a local variable must be | |
862 located textually within the function or block that binds the variable. | |
863 | |
864 @cindex CL note---special variables | |
865 @quotation | |
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866 @b{Common Lisp note:} Variables declared ``special'' in Common Lisp are |
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867 dynamically scoped, like all variables in Emacs Lisp. |
6510 | 868 @end quotation |
869 | |
870 @menu | |
871 * Scope:: Scope means where in the program a value is visible. | |
872 Comparison with other languages. | |
873 * Extent:: Extent means how long in time a value exists. | |
874 * Impl of Scope:: Two ways to implement dynamic scoping. | |
875 * Using Scoping:: How to use dynamic scoping carefully and avoid problems. | |
876 @end menu | |
877 | |
878 @node Scope | |
879 @subsection Scope | |
880 | |
881 Emacs Lisp uses @dfn{indefinite scope} for local variable bindings. | |
882 This means that any function anywhere in the program text might access a | |
883 given binding of a variable. Consider the following function | |
884 definitions: | |
885 | |
886 @example | |
887 @group | |
888 (defun binder (x) ; @r{@code{x} is bound in @code{binder}.} | |
889 (foo 5)) ; @r{@code{foo} is some other function.} | |
890 @end group | |
891 | |
892 @group | |
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893 (defun user () ; @r{@code{x} is used ``free'' in @code{user}.} |
6510 | 894 (list x)) |
895 @end group | |
896 @end example | |
897 | |
898 In a lexically scoped language, the binding of @code{x} in | |
899 @code{binder} would never be accessible in @code{user}, because | |
900 @code{user} is not textually contained within the function | |
901 @code{binder}. However, in dynamically scoped Emacs Lisp, @code{user} | |
902 may or may not refer to the binding of @code{x} established in | |
903 @code{binder}, depending on circumstances: | |
904 | |
905 @itemize @bullet | |
906 @item | |
907 If we call @code{user} directly without calling @code{binder} at all, | |
908 then whatever binding of @code{x} is found, it cannot come from | |
909 @code{binder}. | |
910 | |
911 @item | |
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912 If we define @code{foo} as follows and then call @code{binder}, then the |
6510 | 913 binding made in @code{binder} will be seen in @code{user}: |
914 | |
915 @example | |
916 @group | |
917 (defun foo (lose) | |
918 (user)) | |
919 @end group | |
920 @end example | |
921 | |
922 @item | |
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923 However, if we define @code{foo} as follows and then call @code{binder}, |
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924 then the binding made in @code{binder} @emph{will not} be seen in |
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925 @code{user}: |
6510 | 926 |
927 @example | |
928 (defun foo (x) | |
929 (user)) | |
930 @end example | |
931 | |
932 @noindent | |
933 Here, when @code{foo} is called by @code{binder}, it binds @code{x}. | |
934 (The binding in @code{foo} is said to @dfn{shadow} the one made in | |
935 @code{binder}.) Therefore, @code{user} will access the @code{x} bound | |
936 by @code{foo} instead of the one bound by @code{binder}. | |
937 @end itemize | |
938 | |
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939 Emacs Lisp uses dynamic scoping because simple implementations of |
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940 lexical scoping are slow. In addition, every Lisp system needs to offer |
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941 dynamic scoping at least as an option; if lexical scoping is the norm, |
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942 there must be a way to specify dynamic scoping instead for a particular |
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943 variable. It might not be a bad thing for Emacs to offer both, but |
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944 implementing it with dynamic scoping only was much easier. |
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945 |
6510 | 946 @node Extent |
947 @subsection Extent | |
948 | |
949 @dfn{Extent} refers to the time during program execution that a | |
950 variable name is valid. In Emacs Lisp, a variable is valid only while | |
951 the form that bound it is executing. This is called @dfn{dynamic | |
952 extent}. ``Local'' or ``automatic'' variables in most languages, | |
953 including C and Pascal, have dynamic extent. | |
954 | |
955 One alternative to dynamic extent is @dfn{indefinite extent}. This | |
956 means that a variable binding can live on past the exit from the form | |
957 that made the binding. Common Lisp and Scheme, for example, support | |
958 this, but Emacs Lisp does not. | |
959 | |
960 To illustrate this, the function below, @code{make-add}, returns a | |
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961 function that purports to add @var{n} to its own argument @var{m}. This |
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962 would work in Common Lisp, but it does not do the job in Emacs Lisp, |
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963 because after the call to @code{make-add} exits, the variable @code{n} |
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964 is no longer bound to the actual argument 2. |
6510 | 965 |
966 @example | |
967 (defun make-add (n) | |
968 (function (lambda (m) (+ n m)))) ; @r{Return a function.} | |
969 @result{} make-add | |
970 (fset 'add2 (make-add 2)) ; @r{Define function @code{add2}} | |
971 ; @r{with @code{(make-add 2)}.} | |
972 @result{} (lambda (m) (+ n m)) | |
973 (add2 4) ; @r{Try to add 2 to 4.} | |
974 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: n | |
975 @end example | |
976 | |
977 @cindex closures not available | |
978 Some Lisp dialects have ``closures'', objects that are like functions | |
979 but record additional variable bindings. Emacs Lisp does not have | |
980 closures. | |
981 | |
982 @node Impl of Scope | |
983 @subsection Implementation of Dynamic Scoping | |
984 @cindex deep binding | |
985 | |
986 A simple sample implementation (which is not how Emacs Lisp actually | |
987 works) may help you understand dynamic binding. This technique is | |
988 called @dfn{deep binding} and was used in early Lisp systems. | |
989 | |
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990 Suppose there is a stack of bindings, which are variable-value pairs. |
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991 At entry to a function or to a @code{let} form, we can push bindings |
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992 onto the stack for the arguments or local variables created there. We |
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993 can pop those bindings from the stack at exit from the binding |
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994 construct. |
6510 | 995 |
996 We can find the value of a variable by searching the stack from top to | |
997 bottom for a binding for that variable; the value from that binding is | |
998 the value of the variable. To set the variable, we search for the | |
999 current binding, then store the new value into that binding. | |
1000 | |
1001 As you can see, a function's bindings remain in effect as long as it | |
1002 continues execution, even during its calls to other functions. That is | |
1003 why we say the extent of the binding is dynamic. And any other function | |
1004 can refer to the bindings, if it uses the same variables while the | |
1005 bindings are in effect. That is why we say the scope is indefinite. | |
1006 | |
1007 @cindex shallow binding | |
1008 The actual implementation of variable scoping in GNU Emacs Lisp uses a | |
1009 technique called @dfn{shallow binding}. Each variable has a standard | |
1010 place in which its current value is always found---the value cell of the | |
1011 symbol. | |
1012 | |
1013 In shallow binding, setting the variable works by storing a value in | |
1014 the value cell. Creating a new binding works by pushing the old value | |
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1015 (belonging to a previous binding) onto a stack, and storing the new |
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1016 local value in the value cell. Eliminating a binding works by popping |
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1017 the old value off the stack, into the value cell. |
6510 | 1018 |
1019 We use shallow binding because it has the same results as deep | |
1020 binding, but runs faster, since there is never a need to search for a | |
1021 binding. | |
1022 | |
1023 @node Using Scoping | |
1024 @subsection Proper Use of Dynamic Scoping | |
1025 | |
1026 Binding a variable in one function and using it in another is a | |
1027 powerful technique, but if used without restraint, it can make programs | |
1028 hard to understand. There are two clean ways to use this technique: | |
1029 | |
1030 @itemize @bullet | |
1031 @item | |
1032 Use or bind the variable only in a few related functions, written close | |
1033 together in one file. Such a variable is used for communication within | |
1034 one program. | |
1035 | |
1036 You should write comments to inform other programmers that they can see | |
1037 all uses of the variable before them, and to advise them not to add uses | |
1038 elsewhere. | |
1039 | |
1040 @item | |
1041 Give the variable a well-defined, documented meaning, and make all | |
1042 appropriate functions refer to it (but not bind it or set it) wherever | |
1043 that meaning is relevant. For example, the variable | |
1044 @code{case-fold-search} is defined as ``non-@code{nil} means ignore case | |
1045 when searching''; various search and replace functions refer to it | |
1046 directly or through their subroutines, but do not bind or set it. | |
1047 | |
1048 Then you can bind the variable in other programs, knowing reliably what | |
1049 the effect will be. | |
1050 @end itemize | |
1051 | |
12098 | 1052 In either case, you should define the variable with @code{defvar}. |
1053 This helps other people understand your program by telling them to look | |
1054 for inter-function usage. It also avoids a warning from the byte | |
1055 compiler. Choose the variable's name to avoid name conflicts---don't | |
1056 use short names like @code{x}. | |
1057 | |
6510 | 1058 @node Buffer-Local Variables |
1059 @section Buffer-Local Variables | |
1060 @cindex variables, buffer-local | |
1061 @cindex buffer-local variables | |
1062 | |
1063 Global and local variable bindings are found in most programming | |
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1064 languages in one form or another. Emacs also supports additional, |
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1065 unusual kinds of variable binding: @dfn{buffer-local} bindings, which |
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1066 apply only in one buffer, and frame-local bindings, which apply only in |
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1067 one frame. Having different values for a variable in different buffers |
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1068 and/or frames is an important customization method. |
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1069 |
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1070 This section describes buffer-local bindings; for frame-local |
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1071 bindings, see the following section, @ref{Frame-Local Variables}. (A few |
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1072 variables have bindings that are local to a X terminal; see |
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1073 @ref{Multiple Displays}.) |
6510 | 1074 |
1075 @menu | |
1076 * Intro to Buffer-Local:: Introduction and concepts. | |
1077 * Creating Buffer-Local:: Creating and destroying buffer-local bindings. | |
1078 * Default Value:: The default value is seen in buffers | |
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1079 that don't have their own buffer-local values. |
6510 | 1080 @end menu |
1081 | |
1082 @node Intro to Buffer-Local | |
1083 @subsection Introduction to Buffer-Local Variables | |
1084 | |
1085 A buffer-local variable has a buffer-local binding associated with a | |
1086 particular buffer. The binding is in effect when that buffer is | |
1087 current; otherwise, it is not in effect. If you set the variable while | |
1088 a buffer-local binding is in effect, the new value goes in that binding, | |
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1089 so its other bindings are unchanged. This means that the change is |
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1090 visible only in the buffer where you made it. |
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1091 |
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1092 The variable's ordinary binding, which is not associated with any |
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1093 specific buffer, is called the @dfn{default binding}. In most cases, |
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1094 this is the global binding. |
6510 | 1095 |
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1096 A variable can have buffer-local bindings in some buffers but not in |
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1097 other buffers. The default binding is shared by all the buffers that |
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1098 don't have their own bindings for the variable. (This includes all |
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1099 newly created buffers.) If you set the variable in a buffer that does |
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1100 not have a buffer-local binding for it, this sets the default binding |
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1101 (assuming there are no frame-local bindings to complicate the matter), |
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1102 so the new value is visible in all the buffers that see the default |
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1103 binding. |
6510 | 1104 |
1105 The most common use of buffer-local bindings is for major modes to change | |
1106 variables that control the behavior of commands. For example, C mode and | |
1107 Lisp mode both set the variable @code{paragraph-start} to specify that only | |
1108 blank lines separate paragraphs. They do this by making the variable | |
1109 buffer-local in the buffer that is being put into C mode or Lisp mode, and | |
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1110 then setting it to the new value for that mode. @xref{Major Modes}. |
6510 | 1111 |
1112 The usual way to make a buffer-local binding is with | |
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1113 @code{make-local-variable}, which is what major mode commands typically |
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1114 use. This affects just the current buffer; all other buffers (including |
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1115 those yet to be created) will continue to share the default value unless |
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1116 they are explicitly given their own buffer-local bindings. |
6510 | 1117 |
1118 @cindex automatically buffer-local | |
1119 A more powerful operation is to mark the variable as | |
1120 @dfn{automatically buffer-local} by calling | |
1121 @code{make-variable-buffer-local}. You can think of this as making the | |
1122 variable local in all buffers, even those yet to be created. More | |
1123 precisely, the effect is that setting the variable automatically makes | |
1124 the variable local to the current buffer if it is not already so. All | |
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1125 buffers start out by sharing the default value of the variable as usual, |
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1126 but setting the variable creates a buffer-local binding for the current |
6510 | 1127 buffer. The new value is stored in the buffer-local binding, leaving |
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1128 the default binding untouched. This means that the default value cannot |
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1129 be changed with @code{setq} in any buffer; the only way to change it is |
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1130 with @code{setq-default}. |
6510 | 1131 |
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1132 @strong{Warning:} When a variable has buffer-local values in one or |
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1133 more buffers, you can get Emacs very confused by binding the variable |
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1134 with @code{let}, changing to a different current buffer in which a |
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1135 different binding is in effect, and then exiting the @code{let}. This |
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1136 can scramble the values of the buffer-local and default bindings. |
6510 | 1137 |
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1138 To preserve your sanity, avoid using a variable in that way. If you |
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1139 use @code{save-excursion} around each piece of code that changes to a |
6510 | 1140 different current buffer, you will not have this problem. Here is an |
1141 example of what to avoid: | |
1142 | |
1143 @example | |
1144 @group | |
1145 (setq foo 'b) | |
1146 (set-buffer "a") | |
1147 (make-local-variable 'foo) | |
1148 @end group | |
1149 (setq foo 'a) | |
1150 (let ((foo 'temp)) | |
1151 (set-buffer "b") | |
12098 | 1152 @var{body}@dots{}) |
6510 | 1153 @group |
1154 foo @result{} 'a ; @r{The old buffer-local value from buffer @samp{a}} | |
1155 ; @r{is now the default value.} | |
1156 @end group | |
1157 @group | |
1158 (set-buffer "a") | |
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1159 foo @result{} 'temp ; @r{The local @code{let} value that should be gone} |
6510 | 1160 ; @r{is now the buffer-local value in buffer @samp{a}.} |
1161 @end group | |
1162 @end example | |
1163 | |
1164 @noindent | |
1165 But @code{save-excursion} as shown here avoids the problem: | |
1166 | |
1167 @example | |
1168 @group | |
1169 (let ((foo 'temp)) | |
1170 (save-excursion | |
1171 (set-buffer "b") | |
1172 @var{body}@dots{})) | |
1173 @end group | |
1174 @end example | |
1175 | |
1176 Note that references to @code{foo} in @var{body} access the | |
1177 buffer-local binding of buffer @samp{b}. | |
1178 | |
1179 When a file specifies local variable values, these become buffer-local | |
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1180 values when you visit the file. @xref{File Variables,,, emacs, The |
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1181 GNU Emacs Manual}. |
6510 | 1182 |
1183 @node Creating Buffer-Local | |
1184 @subsection Creating and Deleting Buffer-Local Bindings | |
1185 | |
1186 @deffn Command make-local-variable variable | |
1187 This function creates a buffer-local binding in the current buffer for | |
1188 @var{variable} (a symbol). Other buffers are not affected. The value | |
1189 returned is @var{variable}. | |
1190 | |
1191 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
1192 The buffer-local value of @var{variable} starts out as the same value | |
1193 @var{variable} previously had. If @var{variable} was void, it remains | |
1194 void. | |
1195 | |
1196 @example | |
1197 @group | |
1198 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{b1}:} | |
1199 (setq foo 5) ; @r{Affects all buffers.} | |
1200 @result{} 5 | |
1201 @end group | |
1202 @group | |
1203 (make-local-variable 'foo) ; @r{Now it is local in @samp{b1}.} | |
1204 @result{} foo | |
1205 @end group | |
1206 @group | |
1207 foo ; @r{That did not change} | |
1208 @result{} 5 ; @r{the value.} | |
1209 @end group | |
1210 @group | |
1211 (setq foo 6) ; @r{Change the value} | |
1212 @result{} 6 ; @r{in @samp{b1}.} | |
1213 @end group | |
1214 @group | |
1215 foo | |
1216 @result{} 6 | |
1217 @end group | |
1218 | |
1219 @group | |
1220 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{b2}, the value hasn't changed.} | |
1221 (save-excursion | |
1222 (set-buffer "b2") | |
1223 foo) | |
1224 @result{} 5 | |
1225 @end group | |
1226 @end example | |
8214 | 1227 |
1228 Making a variable buffer-local within a @code{let}-binding for that | |
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1229 variable does not work reliably, unless the buffer in which you do this |
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1230 is not current either on entry to or exit from the @code{let}. This is |
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1231 because @code{let} does not distinguish between different kinds of |
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1232 bindings; it knows only which variable the binding was made for. |
12067 | 1233 |
12098 | 1234 If the variable is terminal-local, this function signals an error. Such |
1235 variables cannot have buffer-local bindings as well. @xref{Multiple | |
1236 Displays}. | |
1237 | |
12067 | 1238 @strong{Note:} do not use @code{make-local-variable} for a hook |
1239 variable. Instead, use @code{make-local-hook}. @xref{Hooks}. | |
6510 | 1240 @end deffn |
1241 | |
1242 @deffn Command make-variable-buffer-local variable | |
1243 This function marks @var{variable} (a symbol) automatically | |
1244 buffer-local, so that any subsequent attempt to set it will make it | |
1245 local to the current buffer at the time. | |
1246 | |
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1247 A peculiar wrinkle of this feature is that binding the variable (with |
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1248 @code{let} or other binding constructs) does not create a buffer-local |
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1249 binding for it. Only setting the variable (with @code{set} or |
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1250 @code{setq}) does so. |
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1251 |
6510 | 1252 The value returned is @var{variable}. |
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1253 |
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1254 @strong{Warning:} Don't assume that you should use |
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1255 @code{make-variable-buffer-local} for user-option variables, simply |
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1256 because users @emph{might} want to customize them differently in |
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1257 different buffers. Users can make any variable local, when they wish |
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1258 to. It is better to leave the choice to them. |
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1259 |
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1260 The time to use @code{make-variable-buffer-local} is when it is crucial |
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1261 that no two buffers ever share the same binding. For example, when a |
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1262 variable is used for internal purposes in a Lisp program which depends |
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1263 on having separate values in separate buffers, then using |
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1264 @code{make-variable-buffer-local} can be the best solution. |
6510 | 1265 @end deffn |
1266 | |
12098 | 1267 @defun local-variable-p variable &optional buffer |
1268 This returns @code{t} if @var{variable} is buffer-local in buffer | |
1269 @var{buffer} (which defaults to the current buffer); otherwise, | |
1270 @code{nil}. | |
1271 @end defun | |
1272 | |
6510 | 1273 @defun buffer-local-variables &optional buffer |
1274 This function returns a list describing the buffer-local variables in | |
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1275 buffer @var{buffer}. (If @var{buffer} is omitted, the current buffer is |
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1276 used.) It returns an association list (@pxref{Association Lists}) in |
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1277 which each element contains one buffer-local variable and its value. |
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1278 However, when a variable's buffer-local binding in @var{buffer} is void, |
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1279 then the variable appears directly in the resulting list. |
6510 | 1280 |
1281 @example | |
1282 @group | |
1283 (make-local-variable 'foobar) | |
1284 (makunbound 'foobar) | |
1285 (make-local-variable 'bind-me) | |
1286 (setq bind-me 69) | |
1287 @end group | |
1288 (setq lcl (buffer-local-variables)) | |
1289 ;; @r{First, built-in variables local in all buffers:} | |
1290 @result{} ((mark-active . nil) | |
1291 (buffer-undo-list nil) | |
1292 (mode-name . "Fundamental") | |
1293 @dots{} | |
1294 @group | |
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1295 ;; @r{Next, non-built-in buffer-local variables.} |
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1296 ;; @r{This one is buffer-local and void:} |
6510 | 1297 foobar |
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1298 ;; @r{This one is buffer-local and nonvoid:} |
6510 | 1299 (bind-me . 69)) |
1300 @end group | |
1301 @end example | |
1302 | |
1303 Note that storing new values into the @sc{cdr}s of cons cells in this | |
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1304 list does @emph{not} change the buffer-local values of the variables. |
6510 | 1305 @end defun |
1306 | |
1307 @deffn Command kill-local-variable variable | |
1308 This function deletes the buffer-local binding (if any) for | |
1309 @var{variable} (a symbol) in the current buffer. As a result, the | |
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1310 default binding of @var{variable} becomes visible in this buffer. This |
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1311 typically results in a change in the value of @var{variable}, since the |
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1312 default value is usually different from the buffer-local value just |
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1313 eliminated. |
6510 | 1314 |
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1315 If you kill the buffer-local binding of a variable that automatically |
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1316 becomes buffer-local when set, this makes the default value visible in |
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1317 the current buffer. However, if you set the variable again, that will |
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1318 once again create a buffer-local binding for it. |
6510 | 1319 |
1320 @code{kill-local-variable} returns @var{variable}. | |
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1321 |
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1322 This function is a command because it is sometimes useful to kill one |
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1323 buffer-local variable interactively, just as it is useful to create |
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1324 buffer-local variables interactively. |
6510 | 1325 @end deffn |
1326 | |
1327 @defun kill-all-local-variables | |
1328 This function eliminates all the buffer-local variable bindings of the | |
1329 current buffer except for variables marked as ``permanent''. As a | |
1330 result, the buffer will see the default values of most variables. | |
1331 | |
1332 This function also resets certain other information pertaining to the | |
1333 buffer: it sets the local keymap to @code{nil}, the syntax table to the | |
1334 value of @code{standard-syntax-table}, and the abbrev table to the value | |
1335 of @code{fundamental-mode-abbrev-table}. | |
1336 | |
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1337 The very first thing this function does is run the normal hook |
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1338 @code{change-major-mode-hook} (see below). |
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1339 |
6510 | 1340 Every major mode command begins by calling this function, which has the |
1341 effect of switching to Fundamental mode and erasing most of the effects | |
1342 of the previous major mode. To ensure that this does its job, the | |
1343 variables that major modes set should not be marked permanent. | |
1344 | |
1345 @code{kill-all-local-variables} returns @code{nil}. | |
1346 @end defun | |
1347 | |
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1348 @defvar change-major-mode-hook |
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1349 The function @code{kill-all-local-variables} runs this normal hook |
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1350 before it does anything else. This gives major modes a way to arrange |
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1351 for something special to be done if the user switches to a different |
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1352 major mode. For best results, make this variable buffer-local, so that |
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1353 it will disappear after doing its job and will not interfere with the |
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1354 subsequent major mode. @xref{Hooks}. |
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1355 @end defvar |
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1356 |
6510 | 1357 @c Emacs 19 feature |
1358 @cindex permanent local variable | |
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1359 A buffer-local variable is @dfn{permanent} if the variable name (a |
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1360 symbol) has a @code{permanent-local} property that is non-@code{nil}. |
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1361 Permanent locals are appropriate for data pertaining to where the file |
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1362 came from or how to save it, rather than with how to edit the contents. |
6510 | 1363 |
1364 @node Default Value | |
1365 @subsection The Default Value of a Buffer-Local Variable | |
1366 @cindex default value | |
1367 | |
1368 The global value of a variable with buffer-local bindings is also | |
1369 called the @dfn{default} value, because it is the value that is in | |
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1370 effect whenever neither the current buffer nor the selected frame has |
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1371 its own binding for the variable. |
6510 | 1372 |
1373 The functions @code{default-value} and @code{setq-default} access and | |
1374 change a variable's default value regardless of whether the current | |
1375 buffer has a buffer-local binding. For example, you could use | |
1376 @code{setq-default} to change the default setting of | |
1377 @code{paragraph-start} for most buffers; and this would work even when | |
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1378 you are in a C or Lisp mode buffer that has a buffer-local value for |
6510 | 1379 this variable. |
1380 | |
1381 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
1382 The special forms @code{defvar} and @code{defconst} also set the | |
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1383 default value (if they set the variable at all), rather than any |
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1384 buffer-local or frame-local value. |
6510 | 1385 |
1386 @defun default-value symbol | |
1387 This function returns @var{symbol}'s default value. This is the value | |
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1388 that is seen in buffers and frames that do not have their own values for |
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1389 this variable. If @var{symbol} is not buffer-local, this is equivalent |
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1390 to @code{symbol-value} (@pxref{Accessing Variables}). |
6510 | 1391 @end defun |
1392 | |
1393 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
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1394 @defun default-boundp symbol |
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1395 The function @code{default-boundp} tells you whether @var{symbol}'s |
6510 | 1396 default value is nonvoid. If @code{(default-boundp 'foo)} returns |
1397 @code{nil}, then @code{(default-value 'foo)} would get an error. | |
1398 | |
1399 @code{default-boundp} is to @code{default-value} as @code{boundp} is to | |
1400 @code{symbol-value}. | |
1401 @end defun | |
1402 | |
1403 @defspec setq-default symbol value | |
1404 This sets the default value of @var{symbol} to @var{value}. It does not | |
1405 evaluate @var{symbol}, but does evaluate @var{value}. The value of the | |
1406 @code{setq-default} form is @var{value}. | |
1407 | |
1408 If a @var{symbol} is not buffer-local for the current buffer, and is not | |
1409 marked automatically buffer-local, @code{setq-default} has the same | |
1410 effect as @code{setq}. If @var{symbol} is buffer-local for the current | |
1411 buffer, then this changes the value that other buffers will see (as long | |
1412 as they don't have a buffer-local value), but not the value that the | |
1413 current buffer sees. | |
1414 | |
1415 @example | |
1416 @group | |
1417 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{foo}:} | |
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1418 (make-local-variable 'buffer-local) |
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1419 @result{} buffer-local |
6510 | 1420 @end group |
1421 @group | |
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1422 (setq buffer-local 'value-in-foo) |
6510 | 1423 @result{} value-in-foo |
1424 @end group | |
1425 @group | |
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1426 (setq-default buffer-local 'new-default) |
6510 | 1427 @result{} new-default |
1428 @end group | |
1429 @group | |
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1430 buffer-local |
6510 | 1431 @result{} value-in-foo |
1432 @end group | |
1433 @group | |
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1434 (default-value 'buffer-local) |
6510 | 1435 @result{} new-default |
1436 @end group | |
1437 | |
1438 @group | |
1439 ;; @r{In (the new) buffer @samp{bar}:} | |
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1440 buffer-local |
6510 | 1441 @result{} new-default |
1442 @end group | |
1443 @group | |
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1444 (default-value 'buffer-local) |
6510 | 1445 @result{} new-default |
1446 @end group | |
1447 @group | |
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1448 (setq buffer-local 'another-default) |
6510 | 1449 @result{} another-default |
1450 @end group | |
1451 @group | |
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1452 (default-value 'buffer-local) |
6510 | 1453 @result{} another-default |
1454 @end group | |
1455 | |
1456 @group | |
1457 ;; @r{Back in buffer @samp{foo}:} | |
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1458 buffer-local |
6510 | 1459 @result{} value-in-foo |
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1460 (default-value 'buffer-local) |
6510 | 1461 @result{} another-default |
1462 @end group | |
1463 @end example | |
1464 @end defspec | |
1465 | |
1466 @defun set-default symbol value | |
1467 This function is like @code{setq-default}, except that @var{symbol} is | |
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1468 an ordinary evaluated argument. |
6510 | 1469 |
1470 @example | |
1471 @group | |
1472 (set-default (car '(a b c)) 23) | |
1473 @result{} 23 | |
1474 @end group | |
1475 @group | |
1476 (default-value 'a) | |
1477 @result{} 23 | |
1478 @end group | |
1479 @end example | |
1480 @end defun | |
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1481 |
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1482 @node Frame-Local Variables |
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1483 @section Frame-Local Variables |
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1484 |
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1485 Just as variables can have buffer-local bindings, they can also have |
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1486 frame-local bindings. These bindings belong to one frame, and are in |
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1487 effect when that frame is selected. Frame-local bindings are actually |
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1488 frame parameters: you create a frame-local binding in a specific frame |
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1489 by calling @code{modify-frame-parameters} and specifying the variable |
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1490 name as the parameter name. |
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1491 |
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1492 To enable frame-local bindings for a certain variable, call the function |
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1493 @code{make-variable-frame-local}. |
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1494 |
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1495 @defun make-variable-frame-local variable |
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1496 Enable the use of frame-local bindings for @var{variable}. This does |
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1497 not in itself create any frame-local bindings for the variable; however, |
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1498 if some frame already has a value for @var{variable} as a frame |
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1499 parameter, that value automatically becomes a frame-local binding. |
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1500 |
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1501 If the variable is terminal-local, this function signals an error. Such |
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1502 variables cannot have buffer-local bindings as well. @xref{Multiple |
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1503 Displays}. A few variables that are implemented specially in Emacs |
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1504 can be (and usually are) buffer-local, but can never be frame-local. |
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1505 @end defun |
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1506 |
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1507 Buffer-local bindings take precedence over frame-local bindings. Thus, |
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1508 consider a variable @code{foo}: if the current buffer has a buffer-local |
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1509 binding for @code{foo}, that binding is active; otherwise, if the |
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1510 selected frame has a frame-local binding for @code{foo}, that binding is |
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1511 active; otherwise, the default binding of @code{foo} is active. |
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1512 |
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1513 Here is an example. First we prepare a few bindings for @code{foo}: |
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1514 |
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1515 @example |
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1516 (setq f1 (selected-frame)) |
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1517 (make-variable-frame-local 'foo) |
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1518 |
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1519 ;; @r{Make a buffer-local binding for @code{foo} in @samp{b1}.} |
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1520 (set-buffer (get-buffer-create "b1")) |
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1521 (make-local-variable 'foo) |
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1522 (setq foo '(b 1)) |
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1523 |
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1524 ;; @r{Make a frame-local binding for @code{foo} in a new frame.} |
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1525 ;; @r{Store that frame in @code{f2}.} |
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1526 (setq f2 (make-frame)) |
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1527 (modify-frame-parameters f2 '((foo . (f 2)))) |
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1528 @end example |
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1529 |
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1530 Now we examine @code{foo} in various contexts. Whenever the |
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1531 buffer @samp{b1} is current, its buffer-local binding is in effect, |
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1532 regardless of the selected frame: |
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1533 |
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1534 @example |
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1535 (select-frame f1) |
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1536 (set-buffer (get-buffer-create "b1")) |
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1537 foo |
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1538 @result{} (b 1) |
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1539 |
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1540 (select-frame f2) |
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1541 (set-buffer (get-buffer-create "b1")) |
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1542 foo |
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1543 @result{} (b 1) |
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1544 @end example |
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1545 |
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1546 @noindent |
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1547 Otherwise, the frame gets a chance to provide the binding; when frame |
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1548 @code{f2} is selected, its frame-local binding is in effect: |
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1549 |
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1550 @example |
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1551 (select-frame f2) |
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1552 (set-buffer (get-buffer "*scratch*")) |
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1553 foo |
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1554 @result{} (f 2) |
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1555 @end example |
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1556 |
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1557 @noindent |
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1558 When neither the current buffer nor the selected frame provides |
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1559 a binding, the default binding is used: |
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1560 |
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1561 @example |
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1562 (select-frame f1) |
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1563 (set-buffer (get-buffer "*scratch*")) |
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1564 foo |
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1565 @result{} nil |
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1566 @end example |
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1567 |
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1568 @noindent |
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1569 When the active binding of a variable is a frame-local binding, setting |
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1570 the variable changes that binding. You can observe the result with |
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1571 @code{frame-parameters}: |
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1572 |
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1573 @example |
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1574 (select-frame f2) |
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1575 (set-buffer (get-buffer "*scratch*")) |
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1576 (setq foo 'nobody) |
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1577 (assq 'foo (frame-parameters f2)) |
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1578 @result{} (foo . nobody) |
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1579 @end example |
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1580 |
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1581 @node Future Local Variables |
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1582 @section Possible Future Local Variables |
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1583 |
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1584 We have considered the idea of bindings that are local to a category |
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1585 of frames---for example, all color frames, or all frames with dark |
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1586 backgrounds. We have not implemented them because it is not clear that |
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1587 this feature is really useful. You can get more or less the same |
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1588 results by adding a function to @code{after-make-frame-hook}, set up to |
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1589 define a particular frame parameter according to the appropriate |
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1590 conditions for each frame. |
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1591 |
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1592 It would also be possible to implement window-local bindings. We |
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1593 don't know of many situations where they would be useful, and it seems |
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1594 that indirect buffers (@pxref{Indirect Buffers}) with buffer-local |
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1595 bindings offer a way to handle these situations more robustly. |
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1596 |
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1597 If sufficient application is found for either of these two kinds of |
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1598 local bindings, we will provide it in a subsequent Emacs version. |
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1599 |
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1600 |