annotate lispref/functions.texi @ 9426:4dd2d351ea53

(sys_subshell): Use NILP macro directly, not its expansion. Previous code was leftover from when NULL was a bad word.
author Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
date Tue, 11 Oct 1994 01:47:06 +0000
parents 03103053974d
children a6eb5f12b0f3
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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5 @setfilename ../info/functions
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6 @node Functions, Macros, Variables, Top
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7 @chapter Functions
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8
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9 A Lisp program is composed mainly of Lisp functions. This chapter
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10 explains what functions are, how they accept arguments, and how to
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11 define them.
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12
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13 @menu
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14 * What Is a Function:: Lisp functions vs. primitives; terminology.
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15 * Lambda Expressions:: How functions are expressed as Lisp objects.
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16 * Function Names:: A symbol can serve as the name of a function.
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17 * Defining Functions:: Lisp expressions for defining functions.
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18 * Calling Functions:: How to use an existing function.
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19 * Mapping Functions:: Applying a function to each element of a list, etc.
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20 * Anonymous Functions:: Lambda expressions are functions with no names.
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21 * Function Cells:: Accessing or setting the function definition
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22 of a symbol.
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23 * Inline Functions:: Defining functions that the compiler will open code.
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24 * Related Topics:: Cross-references to specific Lisp primitives
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25 that have a special bearing on how functions work.
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26 @end menu
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27
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28 @node What Is a Function
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29 @section What Is a Function?
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30
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31 In a general sense, a function is a rule for carrying on a computation
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32 given several values called @dfn{arguments}. The result of the
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33 computation is called the value of the function. The computation can
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34 also have side effects: lasting changes in the values of variables or
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35 the contents of data structures.
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36
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37 Here are important terms for functions in Emacs Lisp and for other
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38 function-like objects.
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39
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40 @table @dfn
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41 @item function
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42 @cindex function
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43 In Emacs Lisp, a @dfn{function} is anything that can be applied to
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44 arguments in a Lisp program. In some cases, we use it more
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45 specifically to mean a function written in Lisp. Special forms and
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46 macros are not functions.
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47
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48 @item primitive
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49 @cindex primitive
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50 @cindex subr
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51 @cindex built-in function
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52 A @dfn{primitive} is a function callable from Lisp that is written in C,
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53 such as @code{car} or @code{append}. These functions are also called
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54 @dfn{built-in} functions or @dfn{subrs}. (Special forms are also
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55 considered primitives.)
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56
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57 Usually the reason that a function is a primitives is because it is
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58 fundamental, because it provides a low-level interface to operating
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59 system services, or because it needs to run fast. Primitives can be
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60 modified or added only by changing the C sources and recompiling the
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61 editor. See @ref{Writing Emacs Primitives}.
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62
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63 @item lambda expression
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64 A @dfn{lambda expression} is a function written in Lisp.
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65 These are described in the following section.
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66 @ifinfo
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67 @xref{Lambda Expressions}.
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68 @end ifinfo
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69
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70 @item special form
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71 A @dfn{special form} is a primitive that is like a function but does not
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72 evaluate all of its arguments in the usual way. It may evaluate only
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73 some of the arguments, or may evaluate them in an unusual order, or
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74 several times. Many special forms are described in @ref{Control
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75 Structures}.
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76
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77 @item macro
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78 @cindex macro
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79 A @dfn{macro} is a construct defined in Lisp by the programmer. It
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80 differs from a function in that it translates a Lisp expression that you
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81 write into an equivalent expression to be evaluated instead of the
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82 original expression. @xref{Macros}, for how to define and use macros.
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83
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84 @item command
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85 @cindex command
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86 A @dfn{command} is an object that @code{command-execute} can invoke; it
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87 is a possible definition for a key sequence. Some functions are
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88 commands; a function written in Lisp is a command if it contains an
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89 interactive declaration (@pxref{Defining Commands}). Such a function
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90 can be called from Lisp expressions like other functions; in this case,
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91 the fact that the function is a command makes no difference.
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92
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93 Keyboard macros (strings and vectors) are commands also, even though
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94 they are not functions. A symbol is a command if its function
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95 definition is a command; such symbols can be invoked with @kbd{M-x}.
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96 The symbol is a function as well if the definition is a function.
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97 @xref{Command Overview}.
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98
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99 @item keystroke command
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100 @cindex keystroke command
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101 A @dfn{keystroke command} is a command that is bound to a key sequence
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102 (typically one to three keystrokes). The distinction is made here
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103 merely to avoid confusion with the meaning of ``command'' in non-Emacs
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104 editors; for Lisp programs, the distinction is normally unimportant.
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105
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106 @item byte-code function
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107 A @dfn{byte-code function} is a function that has been compiled by the
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108 byte compiler. @xref{Byte-Code Type}.
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109 @end table
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110
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111 @defun subrp object
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112 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a built-in function
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113 (i.e., a Lisp primitive).
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114
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115 @example
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116 @group
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117 (subrp 'message) ; @r{@code{message} is a symbol,}
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118 @result{} nil ; @r{not a subr object.}
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119 @end group
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120 @group
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121 (subrp (symbol-function 'message))
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122 @result{} t
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123 @end group
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124 @end example
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125 @end defun
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126
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127 @defun byte-code-function-p object
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128 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a byte-code
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129 function. For example:
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130
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131 @example
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132 @group
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133 (byte-code-function-p (symbol-function 'next-line))
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134 @result{} t
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135 @end group
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136 @end example
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137 @end defun
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138
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139 @node Lambda Expressions
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140 @section Lambda Expressions
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141 @cindex lambda expression
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142
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143 A function written in Lisp is a list that looks like this:
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144
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145 @example
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146 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{})
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147 @r{[}@var{documentation-string}@r{]}
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148 @r{[}@var{interactive-declaration}@r{]}
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149 @var{body-forms}@dots{})
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150 @end example
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151
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152 @noindent
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153 (Such a list is called a @dfn{lambda expression} for historical reasons,
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154 even though it is not really an expression at all---it is not a form
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155 that can be evaluated meaningfully.)
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156
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157 @menu
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158 * Lambda Components:: The parts of a lambda expression.
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159 * Simple Lambda:: A simple example.
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160 * Argument List:: Details and special features of argument lists.
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161 * Function Documentation:: How to put documentation in a function.
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162 @end menu
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163
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164 @node Lambda Components
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165 @subsection Components of a Lambda Expression
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166
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167 @ifinfo
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168
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169 A function written in Lisp (a ``lambda expression'') is a list that
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170 looks like this:
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171
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172 @example
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173 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{})
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174 [@var{documentation-string}]
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175 [@var{interactive-declaration}]
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176 @var{body-forms}@dots{})
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177 @end example
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178 @end ifinfo
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179
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180 @cindex lambda list
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181 The first element of a lambda expression is always the symbol
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182 @code{lambda}. This indicates that the list represents a function. The
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183 reason functions are defined to start with @code{lambda} is so that
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184 other lists, intended for other uses, will not accidentally be valid as
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185 functions.
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186
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187 The second element is a list of symbols--the argument variable names.
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188 This is called the @dfn{lambda list}. When a Lisp function is called,
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189 the argument values are matched up against the variables in the lambda
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190 list, which are given local bindings with the values provided.
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191 @xref{Local Variables}.
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192
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193 The documentation string is a Lisp string object placed within the
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194 function definition to describe the function for the Emacs help
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195 facilities. @xref{Function Documentation}.
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196
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197 The interactive declaration is a list of the form @code{(interactive
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198 @var{code-string})}. This declares how to provide arguments if the
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199 function is used interactively. Functions with this declaration are called
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200 @dfn{commands}; they can be called using @kbd{M-x} or bound to a key.
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201 Functions not intended to be called in this way should not have interactive
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202 declarations. @xref{Defining Commands}, for how to write an interactive
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203 declaration.
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204
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205 @cindex body of function
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206 The rest of the elements are the @dfn{body} of the function: the Lisp
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207 code to do the work of the function (or, as a Lisp programmer would say,
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208 ``a list of Lisp forms to evaluate''). The value returned by the
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209 function is the value returned by the last element of the body.
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210
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211 @node Simple Lambda
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212 @subsection A Simple Lambda-Expression Example
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213
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214 Consider for example the following function:
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215
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216 @example
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217 (lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))
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218 @end example
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219
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220 @noindent
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221 We can call this function by writing it as the @sc{car} of an
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222 expression, like this:
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223
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224 @example
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225 @group
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226 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))
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227 1 2 3)
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228 @end group
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229 @end example
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230
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231 @noindent
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232 This call evaluates the body of the lambda expression with the variable
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233 @code{a} bound to 1, @code{b} bound to 2, and @code{c} bound to 3.
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234 Evaluation of the body adds these three numbers, producing the result 6;
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235 therefore, this call to the function returns the value 6.
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236
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237 Note that the arguments can be the results of other function calls, as in
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238 this example:
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239
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240 @example
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241 @group
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242 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))
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243 1 (* 2 3) (- 5 4))
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244 @end group
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245 @end example
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246
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247 @noindent
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248 This evaluates the arguments @code{1}, @code{(* 2 3)}, and @code{(- 5
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249 4)} from left to right. Then it applies the lambda expression to the
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250 argument values 1, 6 and 1 to produce the value 8.
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251
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252 It is not often useful to write a lambda expression as the @sc{car} of
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253 a form in this way. You can get the same result, of making local
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254 variables and giving them values, using the special form @code{let}
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255 (@pxref{Local Variables}). And @code{let} is clearer and easier to use.
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256 In practice, lambda expressions are either stored as the function
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257 definitions of symbols, to produce named functions, or passed as
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258 arguments to other functions (@pxref{Anonymous Functions}).
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259
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260 However, calls to explicit lambda expressions were very useful in the
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261 old days of Lisp, before the special form @code{let} was invented. At
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262 that time, they were the only way to bind and initialize local
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263 variables.
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264
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265 @node Argument List
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266 @subsection Advanced Features of Argument Lists
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267 @kindex wrong-number-of-arguments
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268 @cindex argument binding
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269 @cindex binding arguments
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270
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271 Our simple sample function, @code{(lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))},
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272 specifies three argument variables, so it must be called with three
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273 arguments: if you try to call it with only two arguments or four
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274 arguments, you get a @code{wrong-number-of-arguments} error.
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275
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276 It is often convenient to write a function that allows certain
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277 arguments to be omitted. For example, the function @code{substring}
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278 accepts three arguments---a string, the start index and the end
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279 index---but the third argument defaults to the @var{length} of the
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280 string if you omit it. It is also convenient for certain functions to
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281 accept an indefinite number of arguments, as the functions @code{list}
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282 and @code{+} do.
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283
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284 @cindex optional arguments
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285 @cindex rest arguments
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286 @kindex &optional
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287 @kindex &rest
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288 To specify optional arguments that may be omitted when a function
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289 is called, simply include the keyword @code{&optional} before the optional
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290 arguments. To specify a list of zero or more extra arguments, include the
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291 keyword @code{&rest} before one final argument.
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292
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293 Thus, the complete syntax for an argument list is as follows:
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294
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295 @example
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296 @group
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297 (@var{required-vars}@dots{}
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298 @r{[}&optional @var{optional-vars}@dots{}@r{]}
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299 @r{[}&rest @var{rest-var}@r{]})
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300 @end group
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301 @end example
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302
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303 @noindent
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304 The square brackets indicate that the @code{&optional} and @code{&rest}
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305 clauses, and the variables that follow them, are optional.
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306
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307 A call to the function requires one actual argument for each of the
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308 @var{required-vars}. There may be actual arguments for zero or more of
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309 the @var{optional-vars}, and there cannot be any actual arguments beyond
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310 that unless the lambda list uses @code{&rest}. In that case, there may
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311 be any number of extra actual arguments.
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312
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313 If actual arguments for the optional and rest variables are omitted,
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314 then they always default to @code{nil}. There is no way for the
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315 function to distinguish between an explicit argument of @code{nil} and
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316 an omitted argument. However, the body of the function is free to
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317 consider @code{nil} an abbreviation for some other meaningful value.
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318 This is what @code{substring} does; @code{nil} as the third argument to
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319 @code{substring} means to use the length of the string supplied.
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320
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321 @cindex CL note---default optional arg
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322 @quotation
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323 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp allows the function to specify what
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324 default value to use when an optional argument is omitted; Emacs Lisp
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325 always uses @code{nil}.
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326 @end quotation
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327
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328 For example, an argument list that looks like this:
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329
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330 @example
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331 (a b &optional c d &rest e)
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332 @end example
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333
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334 @noindent
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335 binds @code{a} and @code{b} to the first two actual arguments, which are
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336 required. If one or two more arguments are provided, @code{c} and
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337 @code{d} are bound to them respectively; any arguments after the first
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338 four are collected into a list and @code{e} is bound to that list. If
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339 there are only two arguments, @code{c} is @code{nil}; if two or three
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340 arguments, @code{d} is @code{nil}; if four arguments or fewer, @code{e}
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341 is @code{nil}.
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342
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343 There is no way to have required arguments following optional
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344 ones---it would not make sense. To see why this must be so, suppose
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345 that @code{c} in the example were optional and @code{d} were required.
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346 Suppose three actual arguments are given; which variable would the third
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347 argument be for? Similarly, it makes no sense to have any more
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348 arguments (either required or optional) after a @code{&rest} argument.
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349
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350 Here are some examples of argument lists and proper calls:
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351
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352 @smallexample
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353 ((lambda (n) (1+ n)) ; @r{One required:}
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354 1) ; @r{requires exactly one argument.}
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355 @result{} 2
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356 ((lambda (n &optional n1) ; @r{One required and one optional:}
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357 (if n1 (+ n n1) (1+ n))) ; @r{1 or 2 arguments.}
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358 1 2)
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359 @result{} 3
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360 ((lambda (n &rest ns) ; @r{One required and one rest:}
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361 (+ n (apply '+ ns))) ; @r{1 or more arguments.}
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362 1 2 3 4 5)
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363 @result{} 15
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364 @end smallexample
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365
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366 @node Function Documentation
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367 @subsection Documentation Strings of Functions
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368 @cindex documentation of function
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369
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370 A lambda expression may optionally have a @dfn{documentation string} just
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371 after the lambda list. This string does not affect execution of the
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372 function; it is a kind of comment, but a systematized comment which
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373 actually appears inside the Lisp world and can be used by the Emacs help
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374 facilities. @xref{Documentation}, for how the @var{documentation-string} is
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375 accessed.
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376
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377 It is a good idea to provide documentation strings for all commands,
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378 and for all other functions in your program that users of your program
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379 should know about; internal functions might as well have only comments,
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380 since comments don't take up any room when your program is loaded.
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381
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382 The first line of the documentation string should stand on its own,
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383 because @code{apropos} displays just this first line. It should consist
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384 of one or two complete sentences that summarize the function's purpose.
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385
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386 The start of the documentation string is usually indented, but since
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387 these spaces come before the starting double-quote, they are not part of
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388 the string. Some people make a practice of indenting any additional
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389 lines of the string so that the text lines up in the program source.
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390 @emph{This is a mistake.} The indentation of the following lines is
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391 inside the string; what looks nice in the source code will look ugly
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392 when displayed by the help commands.
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393
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394 You may wonder how the documentation string could be optional, since
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395 there are required components of the function that follow it (the body).
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396 Since evaluation of a string returns that string, without any side effects,
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397 it has no effect if it is not the last form in the body. Thus, in
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398 practice, there is no confusion between the first form of the body and the
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399 documentation string; if the only body form is a string then it serves both
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400 as the return value and as the documentation.
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401
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402 @node Function Names
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403 @section Naming a Function
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404 @cindex function definition
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405 @cindex named function
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406 @cindex function name
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407
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408 In most computer languages, every function has a name; the idea of a
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409 function without a name is nonsensical. In Lisp, a function in the
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410 strictest sense has no name. It is simply a list whose first element is
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411 @code{lambda}, or a primitive subr-object.
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412
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413 However, a symbol can serve as the name of a function. This happens
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414 when you put the function in the symbol's @dfn{function cell}
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415 (@pxref{Symbol Components}). Then the symbol itself becomes a valid,
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416 callable function, equivalent to the list or subr-object that its
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417 function cell refers to. The contents of the function cell are also
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418 called the symbol's @dfn{function definition}. The procedure of using a
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419 symbol's function definition in place of the symbol is called
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420 @dfn{symbol function indirection}; see @ref{Function Indirection}.
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421
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422 In practice, nearly all functions are given names in this way and
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423 referred to through their names. For example, the symbol @code{car} works
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424 as a function and does what it does because the primitive subr-object
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425 @code{#<subr car>} is stored in its function cell.
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426
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427 We give functions names because it is convenient to refer to them by
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428 their names in Lisp expressions. For primitive subr-objects such as
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429 @code{#<subr car>}, names are the only way you can refer to them: there
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430 is no read syntax for such objects. For functions written in Lisp, the
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431 name is more convenient to use in a call than an explicit lambda
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432 expression. Also, a function with a name can refer to itself---it can
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433 be recursive. Writing the function's name in its own definition is much
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434 more convenient than making the function definition point to itself
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435 (something that is not impossible but that has various disadvantages in
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436 practice).
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437
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438 We often identify functions with the symbols used to name them. For
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439 example, we often speak of ``the function @code{car}'', not
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440 distinguishing between the symbol @code{car} and the primitive
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441 subr-object that is its function definition. For most purposes, there
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442 is no need to distinguish.
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443
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444 Even so, keep in mind that a function need not have a unique name. While
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445 a given function object @emph{usually} appears in the function cell of only
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446 one symbol, this is just a matter of convenience. It is easy to store
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447 it in several symbols using @code{fset}; then each of the symbols is
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448 equally well a name for the same function.
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449
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450 A symbol used as a function name may also be used as a variable;
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451 these two uses of a symbol are independent and do not conflict.
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452
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453 @node Defining Functions
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454 @section Defining Functions
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455 @cindex defining a function
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456
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457 We usually give a name to a function when it is first created. This
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458 is called @dfn{defining a function}, and it is done with the
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459 @code{defun} special form.
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460
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461 @defspec defun name argument-list body-forms
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462 @code{defun} is the usual way to define new Lisp functions. It
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463 defines the symbol @var{name} as a function that looks like this:
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464
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465 @example
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466 (lambda @var{argument-list} . @var{body-forms})
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467 @end example
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468
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469 @code{defun} stores this lambda expression in the function cell of
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470 @var{name}. It returns the value @var{name}, but usually we ignore this
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471 value.
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472
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473 As described previously (@pxref{Lambda Expressions}),
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474 @var{argument-list} is a list of argument names and may include the
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475 keywords @code{&optional} and @code{&rest}. Also, the first two forms
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476 in @var{body-forms} may be a documentation string and an interactive
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477 declaration.
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478
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479 There is no conflict if the same symbol @var{name} is also used as a
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480 variable, since the symbol's value cell is independent of the function
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481 cell. @xref{Symbol Components}.
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482
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483 Here are some examples:
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484
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485 @example
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486 @group
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487 (defun foo () 5)
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488 @result{} foo
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489 @end group
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490 @group
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491 (foo)
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492 @result{} 5
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493 @end group
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494
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495 @group
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496 (defun bar (a &optional b &rest c)
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497 (list a b c))
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498 @result{} bar
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499 @end group
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500 @group
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501 (bar 1 2 3 4 5)
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502 @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5))
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503 @end group
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504 @group
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505 (bar 1)
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506 @result{} (1 nil nil)
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507 @end group
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508 @group
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509 (bar)
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510 @error{} Wrong number of arguments.
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511 @end group
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512
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513 @group
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514 (defun capitalize-backwards ()
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515 "Upcase the last letter of a word."
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516 (interactive)
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517 (backward-word 1)
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518 (forward-word 1)
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519 (backward-char 1)
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520 (capitalize-word 1))
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521 @result{} capitalize-backwards
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522 @end group
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523 @end example
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524
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525 Be careful not to redefine existing functions unintentionally.
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526 @code{defun} redefines even primitive functions such as @code{car}
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527 without any hesitation or notification. Redefining a function already
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528 defined is often done deliberately, and there is no way to distinguish
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529 deliberate redefinition from unintentional redefinition.
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530 @end defspec
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531
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532 @defun defalias name definition
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533 This special form defines the symbol @var{name} as a function, with
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534 definition @var{definition} (which can be any valid Lisp function).
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535 It's best to use this rather than @code{fset} when defining a function
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536 in a file, because @code{defalias} records which file defined the
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537 function (@pxref{Unloading}), while @code{fset} does not.
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538 @end defun
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539
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540 @node Calling Functions
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541 @section Calling Functions
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542 @cindex function invocation
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543 @cindex calling a function
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544
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545 Defining functions is only half the battle. Functions don't do
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546 anything until you @dfn{call} them, i.e., tell them to run. Calling a
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547 function is also known as @dfn{invocation}.
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548
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549 The most common way of invoking a function is by evaluating a list.
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550 For example, evaluating the list @code{(concat "a" "b")} calls the
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551 function @code{concat} with arguments @code{"a"} and @code{"b"}.
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552 @xref{Evaluation}, for a description of evaluation.
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553
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554 When you write a list as an expression in your program, the function
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555 name is part of the program. This means that you choose which function
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556 to call, and how many arguments to give it, when you write the program.
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557 Usually that's just what you want. Occasionally you need to decide at
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558 run time which function to call. To do that, use the functions
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559 @code{funcall} and @code{apply}.
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560
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561 @defun funcall function &rest arguments
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562 @code{funcall} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, and returns
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563 whatever @var{function} returns.
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564
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565 Since @code{funcall} is a function, all of its arguments, including
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566 @var{function}, are evaluated before @code{funcall} is called. This
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567 means that you can use any expression to obtain the function to be
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568 called. It also means that @code{funcall} does not see the expressions
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569 you write for the @var{arguments}, only their values. These values are
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570 @emph{not} evaluated a second time in the act of calling @var{function};
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571 @code{funcall} enters the normal procedure for calling a function at the
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572 place where the arguments have already been evaluated.
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573
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574 The argument @var{function} must be either a Lisp function or a
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575 primitive function. Special forms and macros are not allowed, because
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576 they make sense only when given the ``unevaluated'' argument
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577 expressions. @code{funcall} cannot provide these because, as we saw
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578 above, it never knows them in the first place.
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579
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580 @example
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581 @group
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582 (setq f 'list)
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583 @result{} list
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584 @end group
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585 @group
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586 (funcall f 'x 'y 'z)
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587 @result{} (x y z)
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588 @end group
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589 @group
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590 (funcall f 'x 'y '(z))
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591 @result{} (x y (z))
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592 @end group
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593 @group
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594 (funcall 'and t nil)
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595 @error{} Invalid function: #<subr and>
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596 @end group
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597 @end example
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598
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599 Compare these example with the examples of @code{apply}.
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600 @end defun
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601
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602 @defun apply function &rest arguments
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603 @code{apply} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, just like
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604 @code{funcall} but with one difference: the last of @var{arguments} is a
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605 list of arguments to give to @var{function}, rather than a single
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606 argument. We also say that @code{apply} @dfn{spreads} this list so that
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607 each individual element becomes an argument.
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608
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609 @code{apply} returns the result of calling @var{function}. As with
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610 @code{funcall}, @var{function} must either be a Lisp function or a
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611 primitive function; special forms and macros do not make sense in
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612 @code{apply}.
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613
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614 @example
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615 @group
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616 (setq f 'list)
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617 @result{} list
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618 @end group
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619 @group
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620 (apply f 'x 'y 'z)
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621 @error{} Wrong type argument: listp, z
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622 @end group
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623 @group
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624 (apply '+ 1 2 '(3 4))
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625 @result{} 10
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626 @end group
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627 @group
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628 (apply '+ '(1 2 3 4))
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629 @result{} 10
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630 @end group
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631
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632 @group
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633 (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil))
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634 @result{} (a b c x y z)
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635 @end group
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636 @end example
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637
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638 For an interesting example of using @code{apply}, see the description of
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639 @code{mapcar}, in @ref{Mapping Functions}.
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640 @end defun
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641
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642 @cindex functionals
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643 It is common for Lisp functions to accept functions as arguments or
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644 find them in data structures (especially in hook variables and property
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645 lists) and call them using @code{funcall} or @code{apply}. Functions
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646 that accept function arguments are often called @dfn{functionals}.
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647
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648 Sometimes, when you call such a function, it is useful to supply a
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649 no-op function as the argument. Here are two different kinds of no-op
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650 function:
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651
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652 @defun identity arg
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653 This function returns @var{arg} and has no side effects.
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654 @end defun
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655
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656 @defun ignore &rest args
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657 This function ignores any arguments and returns @code{nil}.
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658 @end defun
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659
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660 @node Mapping Functions
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661 @section Mapping Functions
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662 @cindex mapping functions
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663
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664 A @dfn{mapping function} applies a given function to each element of a
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665 list or other collection. Emacs Lisp has three such functions;
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666 @code{mapcar} and @code{mapconcat}, which scan a list, are described
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667 here. For the third mapping function, @code{mapatoms}, see
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668 @ref{Creating Symbols}.
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669
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670 @defun mapcar function sequence
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671 @code{mapcar} applies @var{function} to each element of @var{sequence}
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672 in turn, and returns a list of the results.
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673
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674 The argument @var{sequence} may be a list, a vector, or a string. The
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675 result is always a list. The length of the result is the same as the
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676 length of @var{sequence}.
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677
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678 @smallexample
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679 @group
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680 @exdent @r{For example:}
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681
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682 (mapcar 'car '((a b) (c d) (e f)))
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683 @result{} (a c e)
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684 (mapcar '1+ [1 2 3])
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685 @result{} (2 3 4)
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686 (mapcar 'char-to-string "abc")
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687 @result{} ("a" "b" "c")
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688 @end group
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689
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690 @group
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691 ;; @r{Call each function in @code{my-hooks}.}
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692 (mapcar 'funcall my-hooks)
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693 @end group
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694
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695 @group
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696 (defun mapcar* (f &rest args)
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697 "Apply FUNCTION to successive cars of all ARGS.
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698 Return the list of results."
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699 ;; @r{If no list is exhausted,}
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700 (if (not (memq 'nil args))
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701 ;; @r{apply function to @sc{CAR}s.}
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702 (cons (apply f (mapcar 'car args))
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703 (apply 'mapcar* f
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704 ;; @r{Recurse for rest of elements.}
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705 (mapcar 'cdr args)))))
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706 @end group
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707
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708 @group
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709 (mapcar* 'cons '(a b c) '(1 2 3 4))
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710 @result{} ((a . 1) (b . 2) (c . 3))
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711 @end group
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712 @end smallexample
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713 @end defun
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714
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715 @defun mapconcat function sequence separator
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716 @code{mapconcat} applies @var{function} to each element of
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717 @var{sequence}: the results, which must be strings, are concatenated.
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718 Between each pair of result strings, @code{mapconcat} inserts the string
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719 @var{separator}. Usually @var{separator} contains a space or comma or
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720 other suitable punctuation.
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721
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722 The argument @var{function} must be a function that can take one
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723 argument and return a string.
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724
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725 @smallexample
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diff changeset
726 @group
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diff changeset
727 (mapconcat 'symbol-name
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diff changeset
728 '(The cat in the hat)
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diff changeset
729 " ")
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730 @result{} "The cat in the hat"
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731 @end group
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732
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733 @group
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734 (mapconcat (function (lambda (x) (format "%c" (1+ x))))
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735 "HAL-8000"
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diff changeset
736 "")
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737 @result{} "IBM.9111"
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738 @end group
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739 @end smallexample
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740 @end defun
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741
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742 @node Anonymous Functions
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743 @section Anonymous Functions
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744 @cindex anonymous function
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745
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746 In Lisp, a function is a list that starts with @code{lambda}, a
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747 byte-code function compiled from such a list, or alternatively a
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748 primitive subr-object; names are ``extra''. Although usually functions
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749 are defined with @code{defun} and given names at the same time, it is
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750 occasionally more concise to use an explicit lambda expression---an
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751 anonymous function. Such a list is valid wherever a function name is.
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752
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753 Any method of creating such a list makes a valid function. Even this:
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754
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755 @smallexample
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756 @group
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757 (setq silly (append '(lambda (x)) (list (list '+ (* 3 4) 'x))))
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758 @result{} (lambda (x) (+ 12 x))
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759 @end group
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760 @end smallexample
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761
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762 @noindent
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763 This computes a list that looks like @code{(lambda (x) (+ 12 x))} and
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764 makes it the value (@emph{not} the function definition!) of
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765 @code{silly}.
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766
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767 Here is how we might call this function:
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768
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769 @example
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770 @group
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771 (funcall silly 1)
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772 @result{} 13
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773 @end group
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774 @end example
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775
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776 @noindent
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777 (It does @emph{not} work to write @code{(silly 1)}, because this function
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778 is not the @emph{function definition} of @code{silly}. We have not given
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779 @code{silly} any function definition, just a value as a variable.)
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780
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781 Most of the time, anonymous functions are constants that appear in
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782 your program. For example, you might want to pass one as an argument
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783 to the function @code{mapcar}, which applies any given function to each
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784 element of a list. Here we pass an anonymous function that multiplies
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785 a number by two:
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786
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787 @example
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788 @group
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789 (defun double-each (list)
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790 (mapcar '(lambda (x) (* 2 x)) list))
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791 @result{} double-each
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792 @end group
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793 @group
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794 (double-each '(2 11))
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795 @result{} (4 22)
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796 @end group
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797 @end example
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798
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799 @noindent
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800 In such cases, we usually use the special form @code{function} instead
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801 of simple quotation to quote the anonymous function.
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802
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803 @defspec function function-object
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804 @cindex function quoting
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805 This special form returns @var{function-object} without evaluating it.
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806 In this, it is equivalent to @code{quote}. However, it serves as a
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807 note to the Emacs Lisp compiler that @var{function-object} is intended
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808 to be used only as a function, and therefore can safely be compiled.
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809 Contrast this with @code{quote}, in @ref{Quoting}.
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810 @end defspec
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811
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812 Using @code{function} instead of @code{quote} makes a difference
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diff changeset
813 inside a function or macro that you are going to compile. For example:
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814
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diff changeset
815 @example
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816 @group
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817 (defun double-each (list)
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818 (mapcar (function (lambda (x) (* 2 x))) list))
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819 @result{} double-each
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820 @end group
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821 @group
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diff changeset
822 (double-each '(2 11))
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823 @result{} (4 22)
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824 @end group
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825 @end example
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826
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827 @noindent
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828 If this definition of @code{double-each} is compiled, the anonymous
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829 function is compiled as well. By contrast, in the previous definition
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830 where ordinary @code{quote} is used, the argument passed to
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diff changeset
831 @code{mapcar} is the precise list shown:
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diff changeset
832
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833 @example
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834 (lambda (x) (* x 2))
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835 @end example
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836
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837 @noindent
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diff changeset
838 The Lisp compiler cannot assume this list is a function, even though it
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839 looks like one, since it does not know what @code{mapcar} does with the
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diff changeset
840 list. Perhaps @code{mapcar} will check that the @sc{car} of the third
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841 element is the symbol @code{*}! The advantage of @code{function} is
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842 that it tells the compiler to go ahead and compile the constant
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843 function.
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diff changeset
844
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diff changeset
845 We sometimes write @code{function} instead of @code{quote} when
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diff changeset
846 quoting the name of a function, but this usage is just a sort of
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diff changeset
847 comment.
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diff changeset
848
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diff changeset
849 @example
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850 (function @var{symbol}) @equiv{} (quote @var{symbol}) @equiv{} '@var{symbol}
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851 @end example
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852
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853 See @code{documentation} in @ref{Accessing Documentation}, for a
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854 realistic example using @code{function} and an anonymous function.
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855
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856 @node Function Cells
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diff changeset
857 @section Accessing Function Cell Contents
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diff changeset
858
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859 The @dfn{function definition} of a symbol is the object stored in the
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diff changeset
860 function cell of the symbol. The functions described here access, test,
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861 and set the function cell of symbols.
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862
7193
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863 See also the function @code{indirect-function} in @ref{Function
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diff changeset
864 Indirection}.
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865
6455
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866 @defun symbol-function symbol
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diff changeset
867 @kindex void-function
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868 This returns the object in the function cell of @var{symbol}. If the
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869 symbol's function cell is void, a @code{void-function} error is
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870 signaled.
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871
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872 This function does not check that the returned object is a legitimate
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873 function.
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874
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875 @example
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876 @group
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877 (defun bar (n) (+ n 2))
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878 @result{} bar
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879 @end group
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880 @group
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881 (symbol-function 'bar)
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882 @result{} (lambda (n) (+ n 2))
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883 @end group
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884 @group
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885 (fset 'baz 'bar)
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886 @result{} bar
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887 @end group
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888 @group
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889 (symbol-function 'baz)
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890 @result{} bar
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891 @end group
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892 @end example
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893 @end defun
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894
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diff changeset
895 @cindex void function cell
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diff changeset
896 If you have never given a symbol any function definition, we say that
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diff changeset
897 that symbol's function cell is @dfn{void}. In other words, the function
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diff changeset
898 cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to call such a symbol
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diff changeset
899 as a function, it signals a @code{void-function} error.
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diff changeset
900
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901 Note that void is not the same as @code{nil} or the symbol
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diff changeset
902 @code{void}. The symbols @code{nil} and @code{void} are Lisp objects,
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903 and can be stored into a function cell just as any other object can be
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904 (and they can be valid functions if you define them in turn with
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905 @code{defun}). A void function cell contains no object whatsoever.
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906
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diff changeset
907 You can test the voidness of a symbol's function definition with
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diff changeset
908 @code{fboundp}. After you have given a symbol a function definition, you
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parents:
diff changeset
909 can make it void once more using @code{fmakunbound}.
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diff changeset
910
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diff changeset
911 @defun fboundp symbol
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912 This function returns @code{t} if the symbol has an object in its
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diff changeset
913 function cell, @code{nil} otherwise. It does not check that the object
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diff changeset
914 is a legitimate function.
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915 @end defun
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916
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917 @defun fmakunbound symbol
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diff changeset
918 This function makes @var{symbol}'s function cell void, so that a
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diff changeset
919 subsequent attempt to access this cell will cause a @code{void-function}
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diff changeset
920 error. (See also @code{makunbound}, in @ref{Local Variables}.)
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921
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922 @example
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diff changeset
923 @group
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diff changeset
924 (defun foo (x) x)
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diff changeset
925 @result{} x
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926 @end group
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diff changeset
927 @group
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928 (foo 1)
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929 @result{}1
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930 @end group
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931 @group
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932 (fmakunbound 'foo)
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933 @result{} x
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934 @end group
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935 @group
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936 (foo 1)
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937 @error{} Symbol's function definition is void: foo
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938 @end group
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939 @end example
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940 @end defun
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941
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942 @defun fset symbol object
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943 This function stores @var{object} in the function cell of @var{symbol}.
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944 The result is @var{object}. Normally @var{object} should be a function
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945 or the name of a function, but this is not checked.
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946
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947 There are three normal uses of this function:
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948
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949 @itemize @bullet
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950 @item
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951 Copying one symbol's function definition to another. (In other words,
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952 making an alternate name for a function.)
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953
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954 @item
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955 Giving a symbol a function definition that is not a list and therefore
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956 cannot be made with @code{defun}. For example, you can use @code{fset}
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957 to give a symbol @code{s1} a function definition which is another symbol
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958 @code{s2}; then @code{s1} serves as an alias for whatever definition
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959 @code{s2} presently has.
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960
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diff changeset
961 @item
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962 In constructs for defining or altering functions. If @code{defun}
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963 were not a primitive, it could be written in Lisp (as a macro) using
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964 @code{fset}.
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965 @end itemize
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966
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967 Here are examples of the first two uses:
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968
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969 @example
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970 @group
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971 ;; @r{Give @code{first} the same definition @code{car} has.}
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972 (fset 'first (symbol-function 'car))
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973 @result{} #<subr car>
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974 @end group
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975 @group
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976 (first '(1 2 3))
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977 @result{} 1
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978 @end group
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979
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980 @group
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981 ;; @r{Make the symbol @code{car} the function definition of @code{xfirst}.}
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982 (fset 'xfirst 'car)
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983 @result{} car
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984 @end group
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985 @group
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986 (xfirst '(1 2 3))
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987 @result{} 1
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988 @end group
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989 @group
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diff changeset
990 (symbol-function 'xfirst)
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991 @result{} car
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diff changeset
992 @end group
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993 @group
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diff changeset
994 (symbol-function (symbol-function 'xfirst))
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diff changeset
995 @result{} #<subr car>
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996 @end group
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997
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diff changeset
998 @group
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diff changeset
999 ;; @r{Define a named keyboard macro.}
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1000 (fset 'kill-two-lines "\^u2\^k")
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diff changeset
1001 @result{} "\^u2\^k"
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1002 @end group
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1003 @end example
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1004
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diff changeset
1005 See also the related function @code{defalias}, in @ref{Defining
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1006 Functions}.
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diff changeset
1007 @end defun
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diff changeset
1008
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diff changeset
1009 When writing a function that extends a previously defined function,
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diff changeset
1010 the following idiom is often used:
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diff changeset
1011
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1012 @example
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diff changeset
1013 (fset 'old-foo (symbol-function 'foo))
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diff changeset
1014 (defun foo ()
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diff changeset
1015 "Just like old-foo, except more so."
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diff changeset
1016 @group
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diff changeset
1017 (old-foo)
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diff changeset
1018 (more-so))
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diff changeset
1019 @end group
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1020 @end example
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1021
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diff changeset
1022 @noindent
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diff changeset
1023 This does not work properly if @code{foo} has been defined to autoload.
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diff changeset
1024 In such a case, when @code{foo} calls @code{old-foo}, Lisp attempts
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diff changeset
1025 to define @code{old-foo} by loading a file. Since this presumably
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diff changeset
1026 defines @code{foo} rather than @code{old-foo}, it does not produce the
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diff changeset
1027 proper results. The only way to avoid this problem is to make sure the
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diff changeset
1028 file is loaded before moving aside the old definition of @code{foo}.
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diff changeset
1029
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diff changeset
1030 @node Inline Functions
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diff changeset
1031 @section Inline Functions
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diff changeset
1032 @cindex inline functions
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diff changeset
1033
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diff changeset
1034 @findex defsubst
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diff changeset
1035 You can define an @dfn{inline function} by using @code{defsubst} instead
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diff changeset
1036 of @code{defun}. An inline function works just like an ordinary
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diff changeset
1037 function except for one thing: when you compile a call to the function,
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diff changeset
1038 the function's definition is open-coded into the caller.
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diff changeset
1039
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diff changeset
1040 Making a function inline makes explicit calls run faster. But it also
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diff changeset
1041 has disadvantages. For one thing, it reduces flexibility; if you change
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diff changeset
1042 the definition of the function, calls already inlined still use the old
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diff changeset
1043 definition until you recompile them. Since the flexibility of
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diff changeset
1044 redefining functions is an important feature of Emacs, you should not
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diff changeset
1045 make a function inline unless its speed is really crucial.
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diff changeset
1046
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diff changeset
1047 Another disadvantage is that making a large function inline can increase
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diff changeset
1048 the size of compiled code both in files and in memory. Since the speed
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diff changeset
1049 advantage of inline functions is greatest for small functions, you
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diff changeset
1050 generally should not make large functions inline.
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diff changeset
1051
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diff changeset
1052 It's possible to define a macro to expand into the same code that an
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diff changeset
1053 inline function would execute. But the macro would have a limitation:
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diff changeset
1054 you can use it only explicitly---a macro cannot be called with
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diff changeset
1055 @code{apply}, @code{mapcar} and so on. Also, it takes some work to
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diff changeset
1056 convert an ordinary function into a macro. (@xref{Macros}.) To convert
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diff changeset
1057 it into an inline function is very easy; simply replace @code{defun}
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diff changeset
1058 with @code{defsubst}. Since each argument of an inline function is
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diff changeset
1059 evaluated exactly once, you needn't worry about how many times the
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diff changeset
1060 body uses the arguments, as you do for macros. (@xref{Argument
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diff changeset
1061 Evaluation}.)
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diff changeset
1062
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1063 Inline functions can be used and open-coded later on in the same file,
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diff changeset
1064 following the definition, just like macros.
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diff changeset
1065
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diff changeset
1066 Emacs versions prior to 19 did not have inline functions.
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diff changeset
1067
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diff changeset
1068 @node Related Topics
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diff changeset
1069 @section Other Topics Related to Functions
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diff changeset
1070
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diff changeset
1071 Here is a table of several functions that do things related to
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diff changeset
1072 function calling and function definitions. They are documented
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diff changeset
1073 elsewhere, but we provide cross references here.
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diff changeset
1074
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diff changeset
1075 @table @code
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diff changeset
1076 @item apply
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diff changeset
1077 See @ref{Calling Functions}.
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diff changeset
1078
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diff changeset
1079 @item autoload
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diff changeset
1080 See @ref{Autoload}.
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diff changeset
1081
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diff changeset
1082 @item call-interactively
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diff changeset
1083 See @ref{Interactive Call}.
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diff changeset
1084
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diff changeset
1085 @item commandp
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diff changeset
1086 See @ref{Interactive Call}.
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diff changeset
1087
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diff changeset
1088 @item documentation
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diff changeset
1089 See @ref{Accessing Documentation}.
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1090
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1091 @item eval
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1092 See @ref{Eval}.
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1093
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1094 @item funcall
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1095 See @ref{Calling Functions}.
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1096
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1097 @item ignore
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1098 See @ref{Calling Functions}.
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1099
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1100 @item indirect-function
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1101 See @ref{Function Indirection}.
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1102
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1103 @item interactive
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1104 See @ref{Using Interactive}.
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1105
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1106 @item interactive-p
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1107 See @ref{Interactive Call}.
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1108
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1109 @item mapatoms
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1110 See @ref{Creating Symbols}.
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1111
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1112 @item mapcar
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1113 See @ref{Mapping Functions}.
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1114
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1115 @item mapconcat
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1116 See @ref{Mapping Functions}.
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1117
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1118 @item undefined
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1119 See @ref{Key Lookup}.
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1120 @end table
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1121