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annotate doc/lispref/objects.texi @ 102802:4f534a4fed53
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author | Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com> |
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date | Tue, 31 Mar 2009 00:19:56 +0000 |
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84092 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2001, | |
100974 | 4 @c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
84092 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
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6 @setfilename ../../info/objects |
84092 | 7 @node Lisp Data Types, Numbers, Introduction, Top |
8 @chapter Lisp Data Types | |
9 @cindex object | |
10 @cindex Lisp object | |
11 @cindex type | |
12 @cindex data type | |
13 | |
14 A Lisp @dfn{object} is a piece of data used and manipulated by Lisp | |
15 programs. For our purposes, a @dfn{type} or @dfn{data type} is a set of | |
16 possible objects. | |
17 | |
18 Every object belongs to at least one type. Objects of the same type | |
19 have similar structures and may usually be used in the same contexts. | |
20 Types can overlap, and objects can belong to two or more types. | |
21 Consequently, we can ask whether an object belongs to a particular type, | |
22 but not for ``the'' type of an object. | |
23 | |
24 @cindex primitive type | |
25 A few fundamental object types are built into Emacs. These, from | |
26 which all other types are constructed, are called @dfn{primitive types}. | |
27 Each object belongs to one and only one primitive type. These types | |
28 include @dfn{integer}, @dfn{float}, @dfn{cons}, @dfn{symbol}, | |
29 @dfn{string}, @dfn{vector}, @dfn{hash-table}, @dfn{subr}, and | |
30 @dfn{byte-code function}, plus several special types, such as | |
31 @dfn{buffer}, that are related to editing. (@xref{Editing Types}.) | |
32 | |
33 Each primitive type has a corresponding Lisp function that checks | |
34 whether an object is a member of that type. | |
35 | |
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36 Lisp is unlike many other languages in that its objects are |
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37 @dfn{self-typing}: the primitive type of each object is implicit in |
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38 the object itself. For example, if an object is a vector, nothing can |
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39 treat it as a number; Lisp knows it is a vector, not a number. |
84092 | 40 |
41 In most languages, the programmer must declare the data type of each | |
42 variable, and the type is known by the compiler but not represented in | |
43 the data. Such type declarations do not exist in Emacs Lisp. A Lisp | |
44 variable can have any type of value, and it remembers whatever value | |
45 you store in it, type and all. (Actually, a small number of Emacs | |
46 Lisp variables can only take on values of a certain type. | |
47 @xref{Variables with Restricted Values}.) | |
48 | |
49 This chapter describes the purpose, printed representation, and read | |
50 syntax of each of the standard types in GNU Emacs Lisp. Details on how | |
51 to use these types can be found in later chapters. | |
52 | |
53 @menu | |
54 * Printed Representation:: How Lisp objects are represented as text. | |
55 * Comments:: Comments and their formatting conventions. | |
56 * Programming Types:: Types found in all Lisp systems. | |
57 * Editing Types:: Types specific to Emacs. | |
58 * Circular Objects:: Read syntax for circular structure. | |
59 * Type Predicates:: Tests related to types. | |
60 * Equality Predicates:: Tests of equality between any two objects. | |
61 @end menu | |
62 | |
63 @node Printed Representation | |
64 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
65 @section Printed Representation and Read Syntax | |
66 @cindex printed representation | |
67 @cindex read syntax | |
68 | |
69 The @dfn{printed representation} of an object is the format of the | |
70 output generated by the Lisp printer (the function @code{prin1}) for | |
71 that object. Every data type has a unique printed representation. | |
72 The @dfn{read syntax} of an object is the format of the input accepted | |
73 by the Lisp reader (the function @code{read}) for that object. This | |
74 is not necessarily unique; many kinds of object have more than one | |
75 syntax. @xref{Read and Print}. | |
76 | |
77 @cindex hash notation | |
78 In most cases, an object's printed representation is also a read | |
79 syntax for the object. However, some types have no read syntax, since | |
80 it does not make sense to enter objects of these types as constants in | |
81 a Lisp program. These objects are printed in @dfn{hash notation}, | |
82 which consists of the characters @samp{#<}, a descriptive string | |
83 (typically the type name followed by the name of the object), and a | |
84 closing @samp{>}. For example: | |
85 | |
86 @example | |
87 (current-buffer) | |
88 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> | |
89 @end example | |
90 | |
91 @noindent | |
92 Hash notation cannot be read at all, so the Lisp reader signals the | |
93 error @code{invalid-read-syntax} whenever it encounters @samp{#<}. | |
94 @kindex invalid-read-syntax | |
95 | |
96 In other languages, an expression is text; it has no other form. In | |
97 Lisp, an expression is primarily a Lisp object and only secondarily the | |
98 text that is the object's read syntax. Often there is no need to | |
99 emphasize this distinction, but you must keep it in the back of your | |
100 mind, or you will occasionally be very confused. | |
101 | |
102 When you evaluate an expression interactively, the Lisp interpreter | |
103 first reads the textual representation of it, producing a Lisp object, | |
104 and then evaluates that object (@pxref{Evaluation}). However, | |
105 evaluation and reading are separate activities. Reading returns the | |
106 Lisp object represented by the text that is read; the object may or may | |
107 not be evaluated later. @xref{Input Functions}, for a description of | |
108 @code{read}, the basic function for reading objects. | |
109 | |
110 @node Comments | |
111 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
112 @section Comments | |
113 @cindex comments | |
114 @cindex @samp{;} in comment | |
115 | |
116 A @dfn{comment} is text that is written in a program only for the sake | |
117 of humans that read the program, and that has no effect on the meaning | |
118 of the program. In Lisp, a semicolon (@samp{;}) starts a comment if it | |
119 is not within a string or character constant. The comment continues to | |
120 the end of line. The Lisp reader discards comments; they do not become | |
121 part of the Lisp objects which represent the program within the Lisp | |
122 system. | |
123 | |
124 The @samp{#@@@var{count}} construct, which skips the next @var{count} | |
125 characters, is useful for program-generated comments containing binary | |
126 data. The Emacs Lisp byte compiler uses this in its output files | |
127 (@pxref{Byte Compilation}). It isn't meant for source files, however. | |
128 | |
129 @xref{Comment Tips}, for conventions for formatting comments. | |
130 | |
131 @node Programming Types | |
132 @section Programming Types | |
133 @cindex programming types | |
134 | |
135 There are two general categories of types in Emacs Lisp: those having | |
136 to do with Lisp programming, and those having to do with editing. The | |
137 former exist in many Lisp implementations, in one form or another. The | |
138 latter are unique to Emacs Lisp. | |
139 | |
140 @menu | |
141 * Integer Type:: Numbers without fractional parts. | |
142 * Floating Point Type:: Numbers with fractional parts and with a large range. | |
143 * Character Type:: The representation of letters, numbers and | |
144 control characters. | |
145 * Symbol Type:: A multi-use object that refers to a function, | |
146 variable, or property list, and has a unique identity. | |
147 * Sequence Type:: Both lists and arrays are classified as sequences. | |
148 * Cons Cell Type:: Cons cells, and lists (which are made from cons cells). | |
149 * Array Type:: Arrays include strings and vectors. | |
150 * String Type:: An (efficient) array of characters. | |
151 * Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays. | |
152 * Char-Table Type:: One-dimensional sparse arrays indexed by characters. | |
153 * Bool-Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays of @code{t} or @code{nil}. | |
154 * Hash Table Type:: Super-fast lookup tables. | |
155 * Function Type:: A piece of executable code you can call from elsewhere. | |
156 * Macro Type:: A method of expanding an expression into another | |
157 expression, more fundamental but less pretty. | |
158 * Primitive Function Type:: A function written in C, callable from Lisp. | |
159 * Byte-Code Type:: A function written in Lisp, then compiled. | |
160 * Autoload Type:: A type used for automatically loading seldom-used | |
161 functions. | |
162 @end menu | |
163 | |
164 @node Integer Type | |
165 @subsection Integer Type | |
166 | |
167 The range of values for integers in Emacs Lisp is @minus{}268435456 to | |
168 268435455 (29 bits; i.e., | |
169 @ifnottex | |
170 -2**28 | |
171 @end ifnottex | |
172 @tex | |
173 @math{-2^{28}} | |
174 @end tex | |
175 to | |
176 @ifnottex | |
177 2**28 - 1) | |
178 @end ifnottex | |
179 @tex | |
180 @math{2^{28}-1}) | |
181 @end tex | |
182 on most machines. (Some machines may provide a wider range.) It is | |
183 important to note that the Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions do not check | |
184 for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 268435455)} is @minus{}268435456 on most | |
185 machines. | |
186 | |
187 The read syntax for integers is a sequence of (base ten) digits with an | |
188 optional sign at the beginning and an optional period at the end. The | |
189 printed representation produced by the Lisp interpreter never has a | |
190 leading @samp{+} or a final @samp{.}. | |
191 | |
192 @example | |
193 @group | |
194 -1 ; @r{The integer -1.} | |
195 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
196 1. ; @r{Also the integer 1.} | |
197 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} | |
198 536870913 ; @r{Also the integer 1 on a 29-bit implementation.} | |
199 @end group | |
200 @end example | |
201 | |
202 @xref{Numbers}, for more information. | |
203 | |
204 @node Floating Point Type | |
205 @subsection Floating Point Type | |
206 | |
207 Floating point numbers are the computer equivalent of scientific | |
208 notation; you can think of a floating point number as a fraction | |
209 together with a power of ten. The precise number of significant | |
210 figures and the range of possible exponents is machine-specific; Emacs | |
211 uses the C data type @code{double} to store the value, and internally | |
212 this records a power of 2 rather than a power of 10. | |
213 | |
214 The printed representation for floating point numbers requires either | |
215 a decimal point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or | |
216 both. For example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, | |
217 @samp{1.5e3}, and @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point | |
218 number whose value is 1500. They are all equivalent. | |
219 | |
220 @xref{Numbers}, for more information. | |
221 | |
222 @node Character Type | |
223 @subsection Character Type | |
224 @cindex @acronym{ASCII} character codes | |
225 | |
226 A @dfn{character} in Emacs Lisp is nothing more than an integer. In | |
227 other words, characters are represented by their character codes. For | |
228 example, the character @kbd{A} is represented as the @w{integer 65}. | |
229 | |
230 Individual characters are used occasionally in programs, but it is | |
231 more common to work with @emph{strings}, which are sequences composed | |
232 of characters. @xref{String Type}. | |
233 | |
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234 Characters in strings and buffers are currently limited to the range |
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235 of 0 to 4194303---twenty two bits (@pxref{Character Codes}). Codes 0 |
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236 through 127 are @acronym{ASCII} codes; the rest are |
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237 non-@acronym{ASCII} (@pxref{Non-ASCII Characters}). Characters that |
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238 represent keyboard input have a much wider range, to encode modifier |
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239 keys such as Control, Meta and Shift. |
84092 | 240 |
241 There are special functions for producing a human-readable textual | |
242 description of a character for the sake of messages. @xref{Describing | |
243 Characters}. | |
244 | |
245 @menu | |
246 * Basic Char Syntax:: | |
247 * General Escape Syntax:: | |
248 * Ctl-Char Syntax:: | |
249 * Meta-Char Syntax:: | |
250 * Other Char Bits:: | |
251 @end menu | |
252 | |
253 @node Basic Char Syntax | |
254 @subsubsection Basic Char Syntax | |
255 @cindex read syntax for characters | |
256 @cindex printed representation for characters | |
257 @cindex syntax for characters | |
258 @cindex @samp{?} in character constant | |
259 @cindex question mark in character constant | |
260 | |
261 Since characters are really integers, the printed representation of | |
262 a character is a decimal number. This is also a possible read syntax | |
263 for a character, but writing characters that way in Lisp programs is | |
264 not clear programming. You should @emph{always} use the special read | |
265 syntax formats that Emacs Lisp provides for characters. These syntax | |
266 formats start with a question mark. | |
267 | |
268 The usual read syntax for alphanumeric characters is a question mark | |
269 followed by the character; thus, @samp{?A} for the character | |
270 @kbd{A}, @samp{?B} for the character @kbd{B}, and @samp{?a} for the | |
271 character @kbd{a}. | |
272 | |
273 For example: | |
274 | |
275 @example | |
276 ?Q @result{} 81 ?q @result{} 113 | |
277 @end example | |
278 | |
279 You can use the same syntax for punctuation characters, but it is | |
280 often a good idea to add a @samp{\} so that the Emacs commands for | |
281 editing Lisp code don't get confused. For example, @samp{?\(} is the | |
282 way to write the open-paren character. If the character is @samp{\}, | |
283 you @emph{must} use a second @samp{\} to quote it: @samp{?\\}. | |
284 | |
285 @cindex whitespace | |
286 @cindex bell character | |
287 @cindex @samp{\a} | |
288 @cindex backspace | |
289 @cindex @samp{\b} | |
290 @cindex tab (ASCII character) | |
291 @cindex @samp{\t} | |
292 @cindex vertical tab | |
293 @cindex @samp{\v} | |
294 @cindex formfeed | |
295 @cindex @samp{\f} | |
296 @cindex newline | |
297 @cindex @samp{\n} | |
298 @cindex return (ASCII character) | |
299 @cindex @samp{\r} | |
300 @cindex escape (ASCII character) | |
301 @cindex @samp{\e} | |
302 @cindex space (ASCII character) | |
303 @cindex @samp{\s} | |
304 You can express the characters control-g, backspace, tab, newline, | |
305 vertical tab, formfeed, space, return, del, and escape as @samp{?\a}, | |
306 @samp{?\b}, @samp{?\t}, @samp{?\n}, @samp{?\v}, @samp{?\f}, | |
307 @samp{?\s}, @samp{?\r}, @samp{?\d}, and @samp{?\e}, respectively. | |
308 (@samp{?\s} followed by a dash has a different meaning---it applies | |
309 the ``super'' modifier to the following character.) Thus, | |
310 | |
311 @example | |
312 ?\a @result{} 7 ; @r{control-g, @kbd{C-g}} | |
313 ?\b @result{} 8 ; @r{backspace, @key{BS}, @kbd{C-h}} | |
314 ?\t @result{} 9 ; @r{tab, @key{TAB}, @kbd{C-i}} | |
315 ?\n @result{} 10 ; @r{newline, @kbd{C-j}} | |
316 ?\v @result{} 11 ; @r{vertical tab, @kbd{C-k}} | |
317 ?\f @result{} 12 ; @r{formfeed character, @kbd{C-l}} | |
318 ?\r @result{} 13 ; @r{carriage return, @key{RET}, @kbd{C-m}} | |
319 ?\e @result{} 27 ; @r{escape character, @key{ESC}, @kbd{C-[}} | |
320 ?\s @result{} 32 ; @r{space character, @key{SPC}} | |
321 ?\\ @result{} 92 ; @r{backslash character, @kbd{\}} | |
322 ?\d @result{} 127 ; @r{delete character, @key{DEL}} | |
323 @end example | |
324 | |
325 @cindex escape sequence | |
326 These sequences which start with backslash are also known as | |
327 @dfn{escape sequences}, because backslash plays the role of an | |
328 ``escape character''; this terminology has nothing to do with the | |
329 character @key{ESC}. @samp{\s} is meant for use in character | |
330 constants; in string constants, just write the space. | |
331 | |
332 A backslash is allowed, and harmless, preceding any character without | |
333 a special escape meaning; thus, @samp{?\+} is equivalent to @samp{?+}. | |
334 There is no reason to add a backslash before most characters. However, | |
335 you should add a backslash before any of the characters | |
336 @samp{()\|;'`"#.,} to avoid confusing the Emacs commands for editing | |
337 Lisp code. You can also add a backslash before whitespace characters such as | |
338 space, tab, newline and formfeed. However, it is cleaner to use one of | |
339 the easily readable escape sequences, such as @samp{\t} or @samp{\s}, | |
340 instead of an actual whitespace character such as a tab or a space. | |
341 (If you do write backslash followed by a space, you should write | |
342 an extra space after the character constant to separate it from the | |
343 following text.) | |
344 | |
345 @node General Escape Syntax | |
346 @subsubsection General Escape Syntax | |
347 | |
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348 In addition to the specific escape sequences for special important |
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349 control characters, Emacs provides several types of escape syntax that |
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350 you can use to specify non-ASCII text characters. |
84092 | 351 |
352 @cindex unicode character escape | |
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353 You can specify characters by their Unicode values. |
84092 | 354 @code{?\u@var{nnnn}} represents a character that maps to the Unicode |
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355 code point @samp{U+@var{nnnn}} (by convention, Unicode code points are |
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356 given in hexadecimal). There is a slightly different syntax for |
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357 specifying characters with code points higher than |
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358 @code{U+@var{ffff}}: @code{\U00@var{nnnnnn}} represents the character |
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359 whose code point is @samp{U+@var{nnnnnn}}. The Unicode standard only |
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360 defines code points up to @samp{U+@var{10ffff}}, so if you specify a |
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361 code point higher than that, Emacs signals an error. |
84092 | 362 |
363 This peculiar and inconvenient syntax was adopted for compatibility | |
364 with other programming languages. Unlike some other languages, Emacs | |
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365 Lisp supports this syntax only in character literals and strings. |
84092 | 366 |
367 @cindex @samp{\} in character constant | |
368 @cindex backslash in character constant | |
369 @cindex octal character code | |
370 The most general read syntax for a character represents the | |
371 character code in either octal or hex. To use octal, write a question | |
372 mark followed by a backslash and the octal character code (up to three | |
373 octal digits); thus, @samp{?\101} for the character @kbd{A}, | |
374 @samp{?\001} for the character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\002} for the | |
375 character @kbd{C-b}. Although this syntax can represent any | |
376 @acronym{ASCII} character, it is preferred only when the precise octal | |
377 value is more important than the @acronym{ASCII} representation. | |
378 | |
379 @example | |
380 @group | |
381 ?\012 @result{} 10 ?\n @result{} 10 ?\C-j @result{} 10 | |
382 ?\101 @result{} 65 ?A @result{} 65 | |
383 @end group | |
384 @end example | |
385 | |
386 To use hex, write a question mark followed by a backslash, @samp{x}, | |
387 and the hexadecimal character code. You can use any number of hex | |
388 digits, so you can represent any character code in this way. | |
389 Thus, @samp{?\x41} for the character @kbd{A}, @samp{?\x1} for the | |
390 character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\x8e0} for the Latin-1 character | |
391 @iftex | |
392 @samp{@`a}. | |
393 @end iftex | |
394 @ifnottex | |
395 @samp{a} with grave accent. | |
396 @end ifnottex | |
397 | |
398 @node Ctl-Char Syntax | |
399 @subsubsection Control-Character Syntax | |
400 | |
401 @cindex control characters | |
402 Control characters can be represented using yet another read syntax. | |
403 This consists of a question mark followed by a backslash, caret, and the | |
404 corresponding non-control character, in either upper or lower case. For | |
405 example, both @samp{?\^I} and @samp{?\^i} are valid read syntax for the | |
406 character @kbd{C-i}, the character whose value is 9. | |
407 | |
408 Instead of the @samp{^}, you can use @samp{C-}; thus, @samp{?\C-i} is | |
409 equivalent to @samp{?\^I} and to @samp{?\^i}: | |
410 | |
411 @example | |
412 ?\^I @result{} 9 ?\C-I @result{} 9 | |
413 @end example | |
414 | |
415 In strings and buffers, the only control characters allowed are those | |
416 that exist in @acronym{ASCII}; but for keyboard input purposes, you can turn | |
417 any character into a control character with @samp{C-}. The character | |
418 codes for these non-@acronym{ASCII} control characters include the | |
419 @tex | |
420 @math{2^{26}} | |
421 @end tex | |
422 @ifnottex | |
423 2**26 | |
424 @end ifnottex | |
425 bit as well as the code for the corresponding non-control | |
426 character. Ordinary terminals have no way of generating non-@acronym{ASCII} | |
427 control characters, but you can generate them straightforwardly using X | |
428 and other window systems. | |
429 | |
430 For historical reasons, Emacs treats the @key{DEL} character as | |
431 the control equivalent of @kbd{?}: | |
432 | |
433 @example | |
434 ?\^? @result{} 127 ?\C-? @result{} 127 | |
435 @end example | |
436 | |
437 @noindent | |
438 As a result, it is currently not possible to represent the character | |
439 @kbd{Control-?}, which is a meaningful input character under X, using | |
440 @samp{\C-}. It is not easy to change this, as various Lisp files refer | |
441 to @key{DEL} in this way. | |
442 | |
443 For representing control characters to be found in files or strings, | |
444 we recommend the @samp{^} syntax; for control characters in keyboard | |
445 input, we prefer the @samp{C-} syntax. Which one you use does not | |
446 affect the meaning of the program, but may guide the understanding of | |
447 people who read it. | |
448 | |
449 @node Meta-Char Syntax | |
450 @subsubsection Meta-Character Syntax | |
451 | |
452 @cindex meta characters | |
453 A @dfn{meta character} is a character typed with the @key{META} | |
454 modifier key. The integer that represents such a character has the | |
455 @tex | |
456 @math{2^{27}} | |
457 @end tex | |
458 @ifnottex | |
459 2**27 | |
460 @end ifnottex | |
461 bit set. We use high bits for this and other modifiers to make | |
462 possible a wide range of basic character codes. | |
463 | |
464 In a string, the | |
465 @tex | |
466 @math{2^{7}} | |
467 @end tex | |
468 @ifnottex | |
469 2**7 | |
470 @end ifnottex | |
471 bit attached to an @acronym{ASCII} character indicates a meta | |
472 character; thus, the meta characters that can fit in a string have | |
473 codes in the range from 128 to 255, and are the meta versions of the | |
474 ordinary @acronym{ASCII} characters. (In Emacs versions 18 and older, | |
475 this convention was used for characters outside of strings as well.) | |
476 | |
477 The read syntax for meta characters uses @samp{\M-}. For example, | |
478 @samp{?\M-A} stands for @kbd{M-A}. You can use @samp{\M-} together with | |
479 octal character codes (see below), with @samp{\C-}, or with any other | |
480 syntax for a character. Thus, you can write @kbd{M-A} as @samp{?\M-A}, | |
481 or as @samp{?\M-\101}. Likewise, you can write @kbd{C-M-b} as | |
482 @samp{?\M-\C-b}, @samp{?\C-\M-b}, or @samp{?\M-\002}. | |
483 | |
484 @node Other Char Bits | |
485 @subsubsection Other Character Modifier Bits | |
486 | |
487 The case of a graphic character is indicated by its character code; | |
488 for example, @acronym{ASCII} distinguishes between the characters @samp{a} | |
489 and @samp{A}. But @acronym{ASCII} has no way to represent whether a control | |
490 character is upper case or lower case. Emacs uses the | |
491 @tex | |
492 @math{2^{25}} | |
493 @end tex | |
494 @ifnottex | |
495 2**25 | |
496 @end ifnottex | |
497 bit to indicate that the shift key was used in typing a control | |
498 character. This distinction is possible only when you use X terminals | |
499 or other special terminals; ordinary terminals do not report the | |
500 distinction to the computer in any way. The Lisp syntax for | |
501 the shift bit is @samp{\S-}; thus, @samp{?\C-\S-o} or @samp{?\C-\S-O} | |
502 represents the shifted-control-o character. | |
503 | |
504 @cindex hyper characters | |
505 @cindex super characters | |
506 @cindex alt characters | |
507 The X Window System defines three other | |
508 @anchor{modifier bits}modifier bits that can be set | |
509 in a character: @dfn{hyper}, @dfn{super} and @dfn{alt}. The syntaxes | |
510 for these bits are @samp{\H-}, @samp{\s-} and @samp{\A-}. (Case is | |
511 significant in these prefixes.) Thus, @samp{?\H-\M-\A-x} represents | |
512 @kbd{Alt-Hyper-Meta-x}. (Note that @samp{\s} with no following @samp{-} | |
513 represents the space character.) | |
514 @tex | |
515 Numerically, the bit values are @math{2^{22}} for alt, @math{2^{23}} | |
516 for super and @math{2^{24}} for hyper. | |
517 @end tex | |
518 @ifnottex | |
519 Numerically, the | |
520 bit values are 2**22 for alt, 2**23 for super and 2**24 for hyper. | |
521 @end ifnottex | |
522 | |
523 @node Symbol Type | |
524 @subsection Symbol Type | |
525 | |
526 A @dfn{symbol} in GNU Emacs Lisp is an object with a name. The | |
527 symbol name serves as the printed representation of the symbol. In | |
87098 | 528 ordinary Lisp use, with one single obarray (@pxref{Creating Symbols}), |
84092 | 529 a symbol's name is unique---no two symbols have the same name. |
530 | |
531 A symbol can serve as a variable, as a function name, or to hold a | |
532 property list. Or it may serve only to be distinct from all other Lisp | |
533 objects, so that its presence in a data structure may be recognized | |
534 reliably. In a given context, usually only one of these uses is | |
535 intended. But you can use one symbol in all of these ways, | |
536 independently. | |
537 | |
538 A symbol whose name starts with a colon (@samp{:}) is called a | |
539 @dfn{keyword symbol}. These symbols automatically act as constants, and | |
540 are normally used only by comparing an unknown symbol with a few | |
541 specific alternatives. | |
542 | |
543 @cindex @samp{\} in symbols | |
544 @cindex backslash in symbols | |
545 A symbol name can contain any characters whatever. Most symbol names | |
546 are written with letters, digits, and the punctuation characters | |
547 @samp{-+=*/}. Such names require no special punctuation; the characters | |
548 of the name suffice as long as the name does not look like a number. | |
549 (If it does, write a @samp{\} at the beginning of the name to force | |
550 interpretation as a symbol.) The characters @samp{_~!@@$%^&:<>@{@}?} are | |
551 less often used but also require no special punctuation. Any other | |
552 characters may be included in a symbol's name by escaping them with a | |
553 backslash. In contrast to its use in strings, however, a backslash in | |
554 the name of a symbol simply quotes the single character that follows the | |
555 backslash. For example, in a string, @samp{\t} represents a tab | |
556 character; in the name of a symbol, however, @samp{\t} merely quotes the | |
557 letter @samp{t}. To have a symbol with a tab character in its name, you | |
558 must actually use a tab (preceded with a backslash). But it's rare to | |
559 do such a thing. | |
560 | |
561 @cindex CL note---case of letters | |
562 @quotation | |
563 @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, lower case letters are always | |
564 ``folded'' to upper case, unless they are explicitly escaped. In Emacs | |
565 Lisp, upper case and lower case letters are distinct. | |
566 @end quotation | |
567 | |
568 Here are several examples of symbol names. Note that the @samp{+} in | |
569 the fifth example is escaped to prevent it from being read as a number. | |
570 This is not necessary in the fourth example because the rest of the name | |
571 makes it invalid as a number. | |
572 | |
573 @example | |
574 @group | |
575 foo ; @r{A symbol named @samp{foo}.} | |
576 FOO ; @r{A symbol named @samp{FOO}, different from @samp{foo}.} | |
577 char-to-string ; @r{A symbol named @samp{char-to-string}.} | |
578 @end group | |
579 @group | |
580 1+ ; @r{A symbol named @samp{1+}} | |
581 ; @r{(not @samp{+1}, which is an integer).} | |
582 @end group | |
583 @group | |
584 \+1 ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+1}} | |
585 ; @r{(not a very readable name).} | |
586 @end group | |
587 @group | |
588 \(*\ 1\ 2\) ; @r{A symbol named @samp{(* 1 2)} (a worse name).} | |
589 @c the @'s in this next line use up three characters, hence the | |
590 @c apparent misalignment of the comment. | |
591 +-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@} ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@}}.} | |
592 ; @r{These characters need not be escaped.} | |
593 @end group | |
594 @end example | |
595 | |
596 @ifinfo | |
597 @c This uses ``colon'' instead of a literal `:' because Info cannot | |
598 @c cope with a `:' in a menu | |
599 @cindex @samp{#@var{colon}} read syntax | |
600 @end ifinfo | |
601 @ifnotinfo | |
602 @cindex @samp{#:} read syntax | |
603 @end ifnotinfo | |
604 Normally the Lisp reader interns all symbols (@pxref{Creating | |
605 Symbols}). To prevent interning, you can write @samp{#:} before the | |
606 name of the symbol. | |
607 | |
608 @node Sequence Type | |
609 @subsection Sequence Types | |
610 | |
611 A @dfn{sequence} is a Lisp object that represents an ordered set of | |
612 elements. There are two kinds of sequence in Emacs Lisp, lists and | |
613 arrays. Thus, an object of type list or of type array is also | |
614 considered a sequence. | |
615 | |
616 Arrays are further subdivided into strings, vectors, char-tables and | |
617 bool-vectors. Vectors can hold elements of any type, but string | |
618 elements must be characters, and bool-vector elements must be @code{t} | |
619 or @code{nil}. Char-tables are like vectors except that they are | |
620 indexed by any valid character code. The characters in a string can | |
621 have text properties like characters in a buffer (@pxref{Text | |
622 Properties}), but vectors do not support text properties, even when | |
623 their elements happen to be characters. | |
624 | |
625 Lists, strings and the other array types are different, but they have | |
626 important similarities. For example, all have a length @var{l}, and all | |
627 have elements which can be indexed from zero to @var{l} minus one. | |
628 Several functions, called sequence functions, accept any kind of | |
629 sequence. For example, the function @code{elt} can be used to extract | |
630 an element of a sequence, given its index. @xref{Sequences Arrays | |
631 Vectors}. | |
632 | |
633 It is generally impossible to read the same sequence twice, since | |
634 sequences are always created anew upon reading. If you read the read | |
635 syntax for a sequence twice, you get two sequences with equal contents. | |
636 There is one exception: the empty list @code{()} always stands for the | |
637 same object, @code{nil}. | |
638 | |
639 @node Cons Cell Type | |
640 @subsection Cons Cell and List Types | |
641 @cindex address field of register | |
642 @cindex decrement field of register | |
643 @cindex pointers | |
644 | |
645 A @dfn{cons cell} is an object that consists of two slots, called the | |
646 @sc{car} slot and the @sc{cdr} slot. Each slot can @dfn{hold} or | |
647 @dfn{refer to} any Lisp object. We also say that ``the @sc{car} of | |
648 this cons cell is'' whatever object its @sc{car} slot currently holds, | |
649 and likewise for the @sc{cdr}. | |
650 | |
651 @quotation | |
652 A note to C programmers: in Lisp, we do not distinguish between | |
653 ``holding'' a value and ``pointing to'' the value, because pointers in | |
654 Lisp are implicit. | |
655 @end quotation | |
656 | |
657 A @dfn{list} is a series of cons cells, linked together so that the | |
658 @sc{cdr} slot of each cons cell holds either the next cons cell or the | |
659 empty list. The empty list is actually the symbol @code{nil}. | |
660 @xref{Lists}, for functions that work on lists. Because most cons | |
661 cells are used as part of lists, the phrase @dfn{list structure} has | |
662 come to refer to any structure made out of cons cells. | |
663 | |
664 @cindex atoms | |
665 Because cons cells are so central to Lisp, we also have a word for | |
666 ``an object which is not a cons cell.'' These objects are called | |
667 @dfn{atoms}. | |
668 | |
669 @cindex parenthesis | |
670 @cindex @samp{(@dots{})} in lists | |
671 The read syntax and printed representation for lists are identical, and | |
672 consist of a left parenthesis, an arbitrary number of elements, and a | |
673 right parenthesis. Here are examples of lists: | |
674 | |
675 @example | |
676 (A 2 "A") ; @r{A list of three elements.} | |
677 () ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} | |
678 nil ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} | |
679 ("A ()") ; @r{A list of one element: the string @code{"A ()"}.} | |
680 (A ()) ; @r{A list of two elements: @code{A} and the empty list.} | |
681 (A nil) ; @r{Equivalent to the previous.} | |
682 ((A B C)) ; @r{A list of one element} | |
683 ; @r{(which is a list of three elements).} | |
684 @end example | |
685 | |
686 Upon reading, each object inside the parentheses becomes an element | |
687 of the list. That is, a cons cell is made for each element. The | |
688 @sc{car} slot of the cons cell holds the element, and its @sc{cdr} | |
689 slot refers to the next cons cell of the list, which holds the next | |
690 element in the list. The @sc{cdr} slot of the last cons cell is set to | |
691 hold @code{nil}. | |
692 | |
693 The names @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} derive from the history of Lisp. The | |
694 original Lisp implementation ran on an @w{IBM 704} computer which | |
695 divided words into two parts, called the ``address'' part and the | |
696 ``decrement''; @sc{car} was an instruction to extract the contents of | |
697 the address part of a register, and @sc{cdr} an instruction to extract | |
698 the contents of the decrement. By contrast, ``cons cells'' are named | |
699 for the function @code{cons} that creates them, which in turn was named | |
700 for its purpose, the construction of cells. | |
701 | |
702 @menu | |
703 * Box Diagrams:: Drawing pictures of lists. | |
704 * Dotted Pair Notation:: A general syntax for cons cells. | |
705 * Association List Type:: A specially constructed list. | |
706 @end menu | |
707 | |
708 @node Box Diagrams | |
709 @subsubsection Drawing Lists as Box Diagrams | |
710 @cindex box diagrams, for lists | |
711 @cindex diagrams, boxed, for lists | |
712 | |
713 A list can be illustrated by a diagram in which the cons cells are | |
714 shown as pairs of boxes, like dominoes. (The Lisp reader cannot read | |
715 such an illustration; unlike the textual notation, which can be | |
716 understood by both humans and computers, the box illustrations can be | |
717 understood only by humans.) This picture represents the three-element | |
718 list @code{(rose violet buttercup)}: | |
719 | |
720 @example | |
721 @group | |
722 --- --- --- --- --- --- | |
723 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil | |
724 --- --- --- --- --- --- | |
725 | | | | |
726 | | | | |
727 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup | |
728 @end group | |
729 @end example | |
730 | |
731 In this diagram, each box represents a slot that can hold or refer to | |
732 any Lisp object. Each pair of boxes represents a cons cell. Each arrow | |
733 represents a reference to a Lisp object, either an atom or another cons | |
734 cell. | |
735 | |
736 In this example, the first box, which holds the @sc{car} of the first | |
737 cons cell, refers to or ``holds'' @code{rose} (a symbol). The second | |
738 box, holding the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell, refers to the next | |
739 pair of boxes, the second cons cell. The @sc{car} of the second cons | |
740 cell is @code{violet}, and its @sc{cdr} is the third cons cell. The | |
741 @sc{cdr} of the third (and last) cons cell is @code{nil}. | |
742 | |
743 Here is another diagram of the same list, @code{(rose violet | |
744 buttercup)}, sketched in a different manner: | |
745 | |
746 @smallexample | |
747 @group | |
748 --------------- ---------------- ------------------- | |
749 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
750 | rose | o-------->| violet | o-------->| buttercup | nil | | |
751 | | | | | | | | | | |
752 --------------- ---------------- ------------------- | |
753 @end group | |
754 @end smallexample | |
755 | |
756 @cindex @code{nil} as a list | |
757 @cindex empty list | |
758 A list with no elements in it is the @dfn{empty list}; it is identical | |
759 to the symbol @code{nil}. In other words, @code{nil} is both a symbol | |
760 and a list. | |
761 | |
762 Here is the list @code{(A ())}, or equivalently @code{(A nil)}, | |
763 depicted with boxes and arrows: | |
764 | |
765 @example | |
766 @group | |
767 --- --- --- --- | |
768 | | |--> | | |--> nil | |
769 --- --- --- --- | |
770 | | | |
771 | | | |
772 --> A --> nil | |
773 @end group | |
774 @end example | |
775 | |
776 Here is a more complex illustration, showing the three-element list, | |
777 @code{((pine needles) oak maple)}, the first element of which is a | |
778 two-element list: | |
779 | |
780 @example | |
781 @group | |
782 --- --- --- --- --- --- | |
783 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil | |
784 --- --- --- --- --- --- | |
785 | | | | |
786 | | | | |
787 | --> oak --> maple | |
788 | | |
789 | --- --- --- --- | |
790 --> | | |--> | | |--> nil | |
791 --- --- --- --- | |
792 | | | |
793 | | | |
794 --> pine --> needles | |
795 @end group | |
796 @end example | |
797 | |
798 The same list represented in the second box notation looks like this: | |
799 | |
800 @example | |
801 @group | |
802 -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
803 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
804 | o | o------->| oak | o------->| maple | nil | | |
805 | | | | | | | | | | | |
806 -- | --------- -------------- -------------- | |
807 | | |
808 | | |
809 | -------------- ---------------- | |
810 | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
811 ------>| pine | o------->| needles | nil | | |
812 | | | | | | | |
813 -------------- ---------------- | |
814 @end group | |
815 @end example | |
816 | |
817 @node Dotted Pair Notation | |
818 @subsubsection Dotted Pair Notation | |
819 @cindex dotted pair notation | |
820 @cindex @samp{.} in lists | |
821 | |
822 @dfn{Dotted pair notation} is a general syntax for cons cells that | |
823 represents the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} explicitly. In this syntax, | |
824 @code{(@var{a} .@: @var{b})} stands for a cons cell whose @sc{car} is | |
825 the object @var{a} and whose @sc{cdr} is the object @var{b}. Dotted | |
826 pair notation is more general than list syntax because the @sc{cdr} | |
827 does not have to be a list. However, it is more cumbersome in cases | |
828 where list syntax would work. In dotted pair notation, the list | |
829 @samp{(1 2 3)} is written as @samp{(1 . (2 . (3 . nil)))}. For | |
830 @code{nil}-terminated lists, you can use either notation, but list | |
831 notation is usually clearer and more convenient. When printing a | |
832 list, the dotted pair notation is only used if the @sc{cdr} of a cons | |
833 cell is not a list. | |
834 | |
835 Here's an example using boxes to illustrate dotted pair notation. | |
836 This example shows the pair @code{(rose . violet)}: | |
837 | |
838 @example | |
839 @group | |
840 --- --- | |
841 | | |--> violet | |
842 --- --- | |
843 | | |
844 | | |
845 --> rose | |
846 @end group | |
847 @end example | |
848 | |
849 You can combine dotted pair notation with list notation to represent | |
850 conveniently a chain of cons cells with a non-@code{nil} final @sc{cdr}. | |
851 You write a dot after the last element of the list, followed by the | |
852 @sc{cdr} of the final cons cell. For example, @code{(rose violet | |
853 . buttercup)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . buttercup))}. | |
854 The object looks like this: | |
855 | |
856 @example | |
857 @group | |
858 --- --- --- --- | |
859 | | |--> | | |--> buttercup | |
860 --- --- --- --- | |
861 | | | |
862 | | | |
863 --> rose --> violet | |
864 @end group | |
865 @end example | |
866 | |
867 The syntax @code{(rose .@: violet .@: buttercup)} is invalid because | |
868 there is nothing that it could mean. If anything, it would say to put | |
869 @code{buttercup} in the @sc{cdr} of a cons cell whose @sc{cdr} is already | |
870 used for @code{violet}. | |
871 | |
872 The list @code{(rose violet)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet))}, | |
873 and looks like this: | |
874 | |
875 @example | |
876 @group | |
877 --- --- --- --- | |
878 | | |--> | | |--> nil | |
879 --- --- --- --- | |
880 | | | |
881 | | | |
882 --> rose --> violet | |
883 @end group | |
884 @end example | |
885 | |
886 Similarly, the three-element list @code{(rose violet buttercup)} | |
887 is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . (buttercup)))}. | |
888 @ifnottex | |
889 It looks like this: | |
890 | |
891 @example | |
892 @group | |
893 --- --- --- --- --- --- | |
894 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil | |
895 --- --- --- --- --- --- | |
896 | | | | |
897 | | | | |
898 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup | |
899 @end group | |
900 @end example | |
901 @end ifnottex | |
902 | |
903 @node Association List Type | |
904 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
905 @subsubsection Association List Type | |
906 | |
907 An @dfn{association list} or @dfn{alist} is a specially-constructed | |
908 list whose elements are cons cells. In each element, the @sc{car} is | |
909 considered a @dfn{key}, and the @sc{cdr} is considered an | |
910 @dfn{associated value}. (In some cases, the associated value is stored | |
911 in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr}.) Association lists are often used as | |
912 stacks, since it is easy to add or remove associations at the front of | |
913 the list. | |
914 | |
915 For example, | |
916 | |
917 @example | |
918 (setq alist-of-colors | |
919 '((rose . red) (lily . white) (buttercup . yellow))) | |
920 @end example | |
921 | |
922 @noindent | |
923 sets the variable @code{alist-of-colors} to an alist of three elements. In the | |
924 first element, @code{rose} is the key and @code{red} is the value. | |
925 | |
926 @xref{Association Lists}, for a further explanation of alists and for | |
927 functions that work on alists. @xref{Hash Tables}, for another kind of | |
928 lookup table, which is much faster for handling a large number of keys. | |
929 | |
930 @node Array Type | |
931 @subsection Array Type | |
932 | |
933 An @dfn{array} is composed of an arbitrary number of slots for | |
934 holding or referring to other Lisp objects, arranged in a contiguous block of | |
935 memory. Accessing any element of an array takes approximately the same | |
936 amount of time. In contrast, accessing an element of a list requires | |
937 time proportional to the position of the element in the list. (Elements | |
938 at the end of a list take longer to access than elements at the | |
939 beginning of a list.) | |
940 | |
941 Emacs defines four types of array: strings, vectors, bool-vectors, and | |
942 char-tables. | |
943 | |
944 A string is an array of characters and a vector is an array of | |
945 arbitrary objects. A bool-vector can hold only @code{t} or @code{nil}. | |
946 These kinds of array may have any length up to the largest integer. | |
947 Char-tables are sparse arrays indexed by any valid character code; they | |
948 can hold arbitrary objects. | |
949 | |
950 The first element of an array has index zero, the second element has | |
951 index 1, and so on. This is called @dfn{zero-origin} indexing. For | |
952 example, an array of four elements has indices 0, 1, 2, @w{and 3}. The | |
953 largest possible index value is one less than the length of the array. | |
954 Once an array is created, its length is fixed. | |
955 | |
956 All Emacs Lisp arrays are one-dimensional. (Most other programming | |
957 languages support multidimensional arrays, but they are not essential; | |
958 you can get the same effect with nested one-dimensional arrays.) Each | |
959 type of array has its own read syntax; see the following sections for | |
960 details. | |
961 | |
962 The array type is a subset of the sequence type, and contains the | |
963 string type, the vector type, the bool-vector type, and the char-table | |
964 type. | |
965 | |
966 @node String Type | |
967 @subsection String Type | |
968 | |
969 A @dfn{string} is an array of characters. Strings are used for many | |
970 purposes in Emacs, as can be expected in a text editor; for example, as | |
971 the names of Lisp symbols, as messages for the user, and to represent | |
972 text extracted from buffers. Strings in Lisp are constants: evaluation | |
973 of a string returns the same string. | |
974 | |
975 @xref{Strings and Characters}, for functions that operate on strings. | |
976 | |
977 @menu | |
978 * Syntax for Strings:: | |
979 * Non-ASCII in Strings:: | |
980 * Nonprinting Characters:: | |
981 * Text Props and Strings:: | |
982 @end menu | |
983 | |
984 @node Syntax for Strings | |
985 @subsubsection Syntax for Strings | |
986 | |
987 @cindex @samp{"} in strings | |
988 @cindex double-quote in strings | |
989 @cindex @samp{\} in strings | |
990 @cindex backslash in strings | |
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991 The read syntax for a string is a double-quote, an arbitrary number |
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992 of characters, and another double-quote, @code{"like this"}. To |
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993 include a double-quote in a string, precede it with a backslash; thus, |
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994 @code{"\""} is a string containing just a single double-quote |
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995 character. Likewise, you can include a backslash by preceding it with |
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996 another backslash, like this: @code{"this \\ is a single embedded |
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997 backslash"}. |
84092 | 998 |
999 @cindex newline in strings | |
1000 The newline character is not special in the read syntax for strings; | |
1001 if you write a new line between the double-quotes, it becomes a | |
1002 character in the string. But an escaped newline---one that is preceded | |
1003 by @samp{\}---does not become part of the string; i.e., the Lisp reader | |
1004 ignores an escaped newline while reading a string. An escaped space | |
1005 @w{@samp{\ }} is likewise ignored. | |
1006 | |
1007 @example | |
1008 "It is useful to include newlines | |
1009 in documentation strings, | |
1010 but the newline is \ | |
1011 ignored if escaped." | |
1012 @result{} "It is useful to include newlines | |
1013 in documentation strings, | |
1014 but the newline is ignored if escaped." | |
1015 @end example | |
1016 | |
1017 @node Non-ASCII in Strings | |
1018 @subsubsection Non-@acronym{ASCII} Characters in Strings | |
1019 | |
1020 You can include a non-@acronym{ASCII} international character in a string | |
1021 constant by writing it literally. There are two text representations | |
1022 for non-@acronym{ASCII} characters in Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte | |
1023 and multibyte. If the string constant is read from a multibyte source, | |
1024 such as a multibyte buffer or string, or a file that would be visited as | |
1025 multibyte, then the character is read as a multibyte character, and that | |
1026 makes the string multibyte. If the string constant is read from a | |
1027 unibyte source, then the character is read as unibyte and that makes the | |
1028 string unibyte. | |
1029 | |
1030 You can also represent a multibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character with its | |
1031 character code: use a hex escape, @samp{\x@var{nnnnnnn}}, with as many | |
1032 digits as necessary. (Multibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character codes are all | |
1033 greater than 256.) Any character which is not a valid hex digit | |
1034 terminates this construct. If the next character in the string could be | |
1035 interpreted as a hex digit, write @w{@samp{\ }} (backslash and space) to | |
1036 terminate the hex escape---for example, @w{@samp{\x8e0\ }} represents | |
1037 one character, @samp{a} with grave accent. @w{@samp{\ }} in a string | |
1038 constant is just like backslash-newline; it does not contribute any | |
1039 character to the string, but it does terminate the preceding hex escape. | |
1040 | |
1041 You can represent a unibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character with its | |
1042 character code, which must be in the range from 128 (0200 octal) to | |
1043 255 (0377 octal). If you write all such character codes in octal and | |
1044 the string contains no other characters forcing it to be multibyte, | |
1045 this produces a unibyte string. However, using any hex escape in a | |
1046 string (even for an @acronym{ASCII} character) forces the string to be | |
1047 multibyte. | |
1048 | |
1049 You can also specify characters in a string by their numeric values | |
1050 in Unicode, using @samp{\u} and @samp{\U} (@pxref{Character Type}). | |
1051 | |
1052 @xref{Text Representations}, for more information about the two | |
1053 text representations. | |
1054 | |
1055 @node Nonprinting Characters | |
1056 @subsubsection Nonprinting Characters in Strings | |
1057 | |
1058 You can use the same backslash escape-sequences in a string constant | |
1059 as in character literals (but do not use the question mark that begins a | |
1060 character constant). For example, you can write a string containing the | |
1061 nonprinting characters tab and @kbd{C-a}, with commas and spaces between | |
1062 them, like this: @code{"\t, \C-a"}. @xref{Character Type}, for a | |
1063 description of the read syntax for characters. | |
1064 | |
1065 However, not all of the characters you can write with backslash | |
1066 escape-sequences are valid in strings. The only control characters that | |
1067 a string can hold are the @acronym{ASCII} control characters. Strings do not | |
1068 distinguish case in @acronym{ASCII} control characters. | |
1069 | |
1070 Properly speaking, strings cannot hold meta characters; but when a | |
1071 string is to be used as a key sequence, there is a special convention | |
1072 that provides a way to represent meta versions of @acronym{ASCII} | |
1073 characters in a string. If you use the @samp{\M-} syntax to indicate | |
1074 a meta character in a string constant, this sets the | |
1075 @tex | |
1076 @math{2^{7}} | |
1077 @end tex | |
1078 @ifnottex | |
1079 2**7 | |
1080 @end ifnottex | |
1081 bit of the character in the string. If the string is used in | |
1082 @code{define-key} or @code{lookup-key}, this numeric code is translated | |
1083 into the equivalent meta character. @xref{Character Type}. | |
1084 | |
1085 Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super, or alt | |
1086 modifiers. | |
1087 | |
1088 @node Text Props and Strings | |
1089 @subsubsection Text Properties in Strings | |
1090 | |
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1091 @cindex @samp{#(} read syntax |
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1092 @cindex text properties, read syntax |
84092 | 1093 A string can hold properties for the characters it contains, in |
1094 addition to the characters themselves. This enables programs that copy | |
1095 text between strings and buffers to copy the text's properties with no | |
1096 special effort. @xref{Text Properties}, for an explanation of what text | |
1097 properties mean. Strings with text properties use a special read and | |
1098 print syntax: | |
1099 | |
1100 @example | |
1101 #("@var{characters}" @var{property-data}...) | |
1102 @end example | |
1103 | |
1104 @noindent | |
1105 where @var{property-data} consists of zero or more elements, in groups | |
1106 of three as follows: | |
1107 | |
1108 @example | |
1109 @var{beg} @var{end} @var{plist} | |
1110 @end example | |
1111 | |
1112 @noindent | |
1113 The elements @var{beg} and @var{end} are integers, and together specify | |
1114 a range of indices in the string; @var{plist} is the property list for | |
1115 that range. For example, | |
1116 | |
1117 @example | |
1118 #("foo bar" 0 3 (face bold) 3 4 nil 4 7 (face italic)) | |
1119 @end example | |
1120 | |
1121 @noindent | |
1122 represents a string whose textual contents are @samp{foo bar}, in which | |
1123 the first three characters have a @code{face} property with value | |
1124 @code{bold}, and the last three have a @code{face} property with value | |
1125 @code{italic}. (The fourth character has no text properties, so its | |
1126 property list is @code{nil}. It is not actually necessary to mention | |
1127 ranges with @code{nil} as the property list, since any characters not | |
1128 mentioned in any range will default to having no properties.) | |
1129 | |
1130 @node Vector Type | |
1131 @subsection Vector Type | |
1132 | |
1133 A @dfn{vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type. It | |
1134 takes a constant amount of time to access any element of a vector. (In | |
1135 a list, the access time of an element is proportional to the distance of | |
1136 the element from the beginning of the list.) | |
1137 | |
1138 The printed representation of a vector consists of a left square | |
1139 bracket, the elements, and a right square bracket. This is also the | |
1140 read syntax. Like numbers and strings, vectors are considered constants | |
1141 for evaluation. | |
1142 | |
1143 @example | |
1144 [1 "two" (three)] ; @r{A vector of three elements.} | |
1145 @result{} [1 "two" (three)] | |
1146 @end example | |
1147 | |
1148 @xref{Vectors}, for functions that work with vectors. | |
1149 | |
1150 @node Char-Table Type | |
1151 @subsection Char-Table Type | |
1152 | |
1153 A @dfn{char-table} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type, | |
1154 indexed by character codes. Char-tables have certain extra features to | |
1155 make them more useful for many jobs that involve assigning information | |
1156 to character codes---for example, a char-table can have a parent to | |
1157 inherit from, a default value, and a small number of extra slots to use for | |
1158 special purposes. A char-table can also specify a single value for | |
1159 a whole character set. | |
1160 | |
1161 The printed representation of a char-table is like a vector | |
1162 except that there is an extra @samp{#^} at the beginning. | |
1163 | |
1164 @xref{Char-Tables}, for special functions to operate on char-tables. | |
1165 Uses of char-tables include: | |
1166 | |
1167 @itemize @bullet | |
1168 @item | |
1169 Case tables (@pxref{Case Tables}). | |
1170 | |
1171 @item | |
1172 Character category tables (@pxref{Categories}). | |
1173 | |
1174 @item | |
1175 Display tables (@pxref{Display Tables}). | |
1176 | |
1177 @item | |
1178 Syntax tables (@pxref{Syntax Tables}). | |
1179 @end itemize | |
1180 | |
1181 @node Bool-Vector Type | |
1182 @subsection Bool-Vector Type | |
1183 | |
1184 A @dfn{bool-vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements that | |
1185 must be @code{t} or @code{nil}. | |
1186 | |
1187 The printed representation of a bool-vector is like a string, except | |
1188 that it begins with @samp{#&} followed by the length. The string | |
1189 constant that follows actually specifies the contents of the bool-vector | |
1190 as a bitmap---each ``character'' in the string contains 8 bits, which | |
1191 specify the next 8 elements of the bool-vector (1 stands for @code{t}, | |
1192 and 0 for @code{nil}). The least significant bits of the character | |
1193 correspond to the lowest indices in the bool-vector. | |
1194 | |
1195 @example | |
1196 (make-bool-vector 3 t) | |
1197 @result{} #&3"^G" | |
1198 (make-bool-vector 3 nil) | |
1199 @result{} #&3"^@@" | |
1200 @end example | |
1201 | |
1202 @noindent | |
1203 These results make sense, because the binary code for @samp{C-g} is | |
1204 111 and @samp{C-@@} is the character with code 0. | |
1205 | |
1206 If the length is not a multiple of 8, the printed representation | |
1207 shows extra elements, but these extras really make no difference. For | |
1208 instance, in the next example, the two bool-vectors are equal, because | |
1209 only the first 3 bits are used: | |
1210 | |
1211 @example | |
1212 (equal #&3"\377" #&3"\007") | |
1213 @result{} t | |
1214 @end example | |
1215 | |
1216 @node Hash Table Type | |
1217 @subsection Hash Table Type | |
1218 | |
1219 A hash table is a very fast kind of lookup table, somewhat like an | |
1220 alist in that it maps keys to corresponding values, but much faster. | |
1221 Hash tables have no read syntax, and print using hash notation. | |
1222 @xref{Hash Tables}, for functions that operate on hash tables. | |
1223 | |
1224 @example | |
1225 (make-hash-table) | |
1226 @result{} #<hash-table 'eql nil 0/65 0x83af980> | |
1227 @end example | |
1228 | |
1229 @node Function Type | |
1230 @subsection Function Type | |
1231 | |
1232 Lisp functions are executable code, just like functions in other | |
1233 programming languages. In Lisp, unlike most languages, functions are | |
1234 also Lisp objects. A non-compiled function in Lisp is a lambda | |
1235 expression: that is, a list whose first element is the symbol | |
1236 @code{lambda} (@pxref{Lambda Expressions}). | |
1237 | |
1238 In most programming languages, it is impossible to have a function | |
1239 without a name. In Lisp, a function has no intrinsic name. A lambda | |
1240 expression can be called as a function even though it has no name; to | |
1241 emphasize this, we also call it an @dfn{anonymous function} | |
1242 (@pxref{Anonymous Functions}). A named function in Lisp is just a | |
1243 symbol with a valid function in its function cell (@pxref{Defining | |
1244 Functions}). | |
1245 | |
1246 Most of the time, functions are called when their names are written in | |
1247 Lisp expressions in Lisp programs. However, you can construct or obtain | |
1248 a function object at run time and then call it with the primitive | |
1249 functions @code{funcall} and @code{apply}. @xref{Calling Functions}. | |
1250 | |
1251 @node Macro Type | |
1252 @subsection Macro Type | |
1253 | |
1254 A @dfn{Lisp macro} is a user-defined construct that extends the Lisp | |
1255 language. It is represented as an object much like a function, but with | |
1256 different argument-passing semantics. A Lisp macro has the form of a | |
1257 list whose first element is the symbol @code{macro} and whose @sc{cdr} | |
1258 is a Lisp function object, including the @code{lambda} symbol. | |
1259 | |
1260 Lisp macro objects are usually defined with the built-in | |
1261 @code{defmacro} function, but any list that begins with @code{macro} is | |
1262 a macro as far as Emacs is concerned. @xref{Macros}, for an explanation | |
1263 of how to write a macro. | |
1264 | |
1265 @strong{Warning}: Lisp macros and keyboard macros (@pxref{Keyboard | |
1266 Macros}) are entirely different things. When we use the word ``macro'' | |
1267 without qualification, we mean a Lisp macro, not a keyboard macro. | |
1268 | |
1269 @node Primitive Function Type | |
1270 @subsection Primitive Function Type | |
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1271 @cindex primitive function |
84092 | 1272 |
1273 A @dfn{primitive function} is a function callable from Lisp but | |
1274 written in the C programming language. Primitive functions are also | |
1275 called @dfn{subrs} or @dfn{built-in functions}. (The word ``subr'' is | |
1276 derived from ``subroutine.'') Most primitive functions evaluate all | |
1277 their arguments when they are called. A primitive function that does | |
1278 not evaluate all its arguments is called a @dfn{special form} | |
1279 (@pxref{Special Forms}).@refill | |
1280 | |
1281 It does not matter to the caller of a function whether the function is | |
1282 primitive. However, this does matter if you try to redefine a primitive | |
1283 with a function written in Lisp. The reason is that the primitive | |
1284 function may be called directly from C code. Calls to the redefined | |
1285 function from Lisp will use the new definition, but calls from C code | |
1286 may still use the built-in definition. Therefore, @strong{we discourage | |
1287 redefinition of primitive functions}. | |
1288 | |
1289 The term @dfn{function} refers to all Emacs functions, whether written | |
1290 in Lisp or C. @xref{Function Type}, for information about the | |
1291 functions written in Lisp. | |
1292 | |
1293 Primitive functions have no read syntax and print in hash notation | |
1294 with the name of the subroutine. | |
1295 | |
1296 @example | |
1297 @group | |
1298 (symbol-function 'car) ; @r{Access the function cell} | |
1299 ; @r{of the symbol.} | |
1300 @result{} #<subr car> | |
1301 (subrp (symbol-function 'car)) ; @r{Is this a primitive function?} | |
1302 @result{} t ; @r{Yes.} | |
1303 @end group | |
1304 @end example | |
1305 | |
1306 @node Byte-Code Type | |
1307 @subsection Byte-Code Function Type | |
1308 | |
1309 The byte compiler produces @dfn{byte-code function objects}. | |
1310 Internally, a byte-code function object is much like a vector; however, | |
1311 the evaluator handles this data type specially when it appears as a | |
1312 function to be called. @xref{Byte Compilation}, for information about | |
1313 the byte compiler. | |
1314 | |
1315 The printed representation and read syntax for a byte-code function | |
1316 object is like that for a vector, with an additional @samp{#} before the | |
1317 opening @samp{[}. | |
1318 | |
1319 @node Autoload Type | |
1320 @subsection Autoload Type | |
1321 | |
1322 An @dfn{autoload object} is a list whose first element is the symbol | |
1323 @code{autoload}. It is stored as the function definition of a symbol, | |
1324 where it serves as a placeholder for the real definition. The autoload | |
1325 object says that the real definition is found in a file of Lisp code | |
1326 that should be loaded when necessary. It contains the name of the file, | |
1327 plus some other information about the real definition. | |
1328 | |
1329 After the file has been loaded, the symbol should have a new function | |
1330 definition that is not an autoload object. The new definition is then | |
1331 called as if it had been there to begin with. From the user's point of | |
1332 view, the function call works as expected, using the function definition | |
1333 in the loaded file. | |
1334 | |
1335 An autoload object is usually created with the function | |
1336 @code{autoload}, which stores the object in the function cell of a | |
1337 symbol. @xref{Autoload}, for more details. | |
1338 | |
1339 @node Editing Types | |
1340 @section Editing Types | |
1341 @cindex editing types | |
1342 | |
1343 The types in the previous section are used for general programming | |
1344 purposes, and most of them are common to most Lisp dialects. Emacs Lisp | |
1345 provides several additional data types for purposes connected with | |
1346 editing. | |
1347 | |
1348 @menu | |
1349 * Buffer Type:: The basic object of editing. | |
1350 * Marker Type:: A position in a buffer. | |
1351 * Window Type:: Buffers are displayed in windows. | |
100714 | 1352 * Frame Type:: Windows subdivide frames. |
1353 * Terminal Type:: A terminal device displays frames. | |
84092 | 1354 * Window Configuration Type:: Recording the way a frame is subdivided. |
1355 * Frame Configuration Type:: Recording the status of all frames. | |
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1356 * Process Type:: A subprocess of Emacs running on the underlying OS. |
84092 | 1357 * Stream Type:: Receive or send characters. |
1358 * Keymap Type:: What function a keystroke invokes. | |
1359 * Overlay Type:: How an overlay is represented. | |
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1360 * Font Type:: Fonts for displaying text. |
84092 | 1361 @end menu |
1362 | |
1363 @node Buffer Type | |
1364 @subsection Buffer Type | |
1365 | |
1366 A @dfn{buffer} is an object that holds text that can be edited | |
1367 (@pxref{Buffers}). Most buffers hold the contents of a disk file | |
1368 (@pxref{Files}) so they can be edited, but some are used for other | |
1369 purposes. Most buffers are also meant to be seen by the user, and | |
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1370 therefore displayed, at some time, in a window (@pxref{Windows}). But |
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1371 a buffer need not be displayed in any window. Each buffer has a |
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1372 designated position called @dfn{point} (@pxref{Positions}); most |
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1373 editing commands act on the contents of the current buffer in the |
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1374 neighborhood of point. At any time, one buffer is the @dfn{current |
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1375 buffer}. |
84092 | 1376 |
1377 The contents of a buffer are much like a string, but buffers are not | |
1378 used like strings in Emacs Lisp, and the available operations are | |
1379 different. For example, you can insert text efficiently into an | |
1380 existing buffer, altering the buffer's contents, whereas ``inserting'' | |
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1381 text into a string requires concatenating substrings, and the result |
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1382 is an entirely new string object. |
84092 | 1383 |
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1384 Many of the standard Emacs functions manipulate or test the |
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1385 characters in the current buffer; a whole chapter in this manual is |
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1386 devoted to describing these functions (@pxref{Text}). |
84092 | 1387 |
1388 Several other data structures are associated with each buffer: | |
1389 | |
1390 @itemize @bullet | |
1391 @item | |
1392 a local syntax table (@pxref{Syntax Tables}); | |
1393 | |
1394 @item | |
1395 a local keymap (@pxref{Keymaps}); and, | |
1396 | |
1397 @item | |
1398 a list of buffer-local variable bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local Variables}). | |
1399 | |
1400 @item | |
1401 overlays (@pxref{Overlays}). | |
1402 | |
1403 @item | |
1404 text properties for the text in the buffer (@pxref{Text Properties}). | |
1405 @end itemize | |
1406 | |
1407 @noindent | |
1408 The local keymap and variable list contain entries that individually | |
1409 override global bindings or values. These are used to customize the | |
1410 behavior of programs in different buffers, without actually changing the | |
1411 programs. | |
1412 | |
1413 A buffer may be @dfn{indirect}, which means it shares the text | |
1414 of another buffer, but presents it differently. @xref{Indirect Buffers}. | |
1415 | |
1416 Buffers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, showing the | |
1417 buffer name. | |
1418 | |
1419 @example | |
1420 @group | |
1421 (current-buffer) | |
1422 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> | |
1423 @end group | |
1424 @end example | |
1425 | |
1426 @node Marker Type | |
1427 @subsection Marker Type | |
1428 | |
1429 A @dfn{marker} denotes a position in a specific buffer. Markers | |
1430 therefore have two components: one for the buffer, and one for the | |
1431 position. Changes in the buffer's text automatically relocate the | |
1432 position value as necessary to ensure that the marker always points | |
1433 between the same two characters in the buffer. | |
1434 | |
1435 Markers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1436 current character position and the name of the buffer. | |
1437 | |
1438 @example | |
1439 @group | |
1440 (point-marker) | |
1441 @result{} #<marker at 10779 in objects.texi> | |
1442 @end group | |
1443 @end example | |
1444 | |
1445 @xref{Markers}, for information on how to test, create, copy, and move | |
1446 markers. | |
1447 | |
1448 @node Window Type | |
1449 @subsection Window Type | |
1450 | |
1451 A @dfn{window} describes the portion of the terminal screen that Emacs | |
1452 uses to display a buffer. Every window has one associated buffer, whose | |
1453 contents appear in the window. By contrast, a given buffer may appear | |
1454 in one window, no window, or several windows. | |
1455 | |
1456 Though many windows may exist simultaneously, at any time one window | |
1457 is designated the @dfn{selected window}. This is the window where the | |
1458 cursor is (usually) displayed when Emacs is ready for a command. The | |
1459 selected window usually displays the current buffer, but this is not | |
1460 necessarily the case. | |
1461 | |
1462 Windows are grouped on the screen into frames; each window belongs to | |
1463 one and only one frame. @xref{Frame Type}. | |
1464 | |
1465 Windows have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1466 window number and the name of the buffer being displayed. The window | |
1467 numbers exist to identify windows uniquely, since the buffer displayed | |
1468 in any given window can change frequently. | |
1469 | |
1470 @example | |
1471 @group | |
1472 (selected-window) | |
1473 @result{} #<window 1 on objects.texi> | |
1474 @end group | |
1475 @end example | |
1476 | |
1477 @xref{Windows}, for a description of the functions that work on windows. | |
1478 | |
1479 @node Frame Type | |
1480 @subsection Frame Type | |
1481 | |
1482 A @dfn{frame} is a screen area that contains one or more Emacs | |
1483 windows; we also use the term ``frame'' to refer to the Lisp object | |
1484 that Emacs uses to refer to the screen area. | |
1485 | |
1486 Frames have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1487 frame's title, plus its address in core (useful to identify the frame | |
1488 uniquely). | |
1489 | |
1490 @example | |
1491 @group | |
1492 (selected-frame) | |
1493 @result{} #<frame emacs@@psilocin.gnu.org 0xdac80> | |
1494 @end group | |
1495 @end example | |
1496 | |
1497 @xref{Frames}, for a description of the functions that work on frames. | |
1498 | |
100714 | 1499 @node Terminal Type |
1500 @subsection Terminal Type | |
1501 @cindex terminal type | |
1502 | |
1503 A @dfn{terminal} is a device capable of displaying one or more | |
1504 Emacs frames (@pxref{Frame Type}). | |
1505 | |
1506 Terminals have no read syntax. They print in hash notation giving | |
1507 the terminal's ordinal number and its TTY device file name. | |
1508 | |
1509 @example | |
1510 @group | |
1511 (get-device-terminal nil) | |
1512 @result{} #<terminal 1 on /dev/tty> | |
1513 @end group | |
1514 @end example | |
1515 | |
1516 @c FIXME: add an xref to where terminal-related primitives are described. | |
1517 | |
84092 | 1518 @node Window Configuration Type |
1519 @subsection Window Configuration Type | |
1520 @cindex window layout in a frame | |
1521 | |
1522 A @dfn{window configuration} stores information about the positions, | |
1523 sizes, and contents of the windows in a frame, so you can recreate the | |
1524 same arrangement of windows later. | |
1525 | |
1526 Window configurations do not have a read syntax; their print syntax | |
1527 looks like @samp{#<window-configuration>}. @xref{Window | |
1528 Configurations}, for a description of several functions related to | |
1529 window configurations. | |
1530 | |
1531 @node Frame Configuration Type | |
1532 @subsection Frame Configuration Type | |
1533 @cindex screen layout | |
1534 @cindex window layout, all frames | |
1535 | |
1536 A @dfn{frame configuration} stores information about the positions, | |
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1537 sizes, and contents of the windows in all frames. It is not a |
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1538 primitive type---it is actually a list whose @sc{car} is |
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1539 @code{frame-configuration} and whose @sc{cdr} is an alist. Each alist |
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1540 element describes one frame, which appears as the @sc{car} of that |
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1541 element. |
84092 | 1542 |
1543 @xref{Frame Configurations}, for a description of several functions | |
1544 related to frame configurations. | |
1545 | |
1546 @node Process Type | |
1547 @subsection Process Type | |
1548 | |
1549 The word @dfn{process} usually means a running program. Emacs itself | |
1550 runs in a process of this sort. However, in Emacs Lisp, a process is a | |
1551 Lisp object that designates a subprocess created by the Emacs process. | |
1552 Programs such as shells, GDB, ftp, and compilers, running in | |
1553 subprocesses of Emacs, extend the capabilities of Emacs. | |
1554 | |
1555 An Emacs subprocess takes textual input from Emacs and returns textual | |
1556 output to Emacs for further manipulation. Emacs can also send signals | |
1557 to the subprocess. | |
1558 | |
1559 Process objects have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, | |
1560 giving the name of the process: | |
1561 | |
1562 @example | |
1563 @group | |
1564 (process-list) | |
1565 @result{} (#<process shell>) | |
1566 @end group | |
1567 @end example | |
1568 | |
1569 @xref{Processes}, for information about functions that create, delete, | |
1570 return information about, send input or signals to, and receive output | |
1571 from processes. | |
1572 | |
1573 @node Stream Type | |
1574 @subsection Stream Type | |
1575 | |
1576 A @dfn{stream} is an object that can be used as a source or sink for | |
1577 characters---either to supply characters for input or to accept them as | |
1578 output. Many different types can be used this way: markers, buffers, | |
1579 strings, and functions. Most often, input streams (character sources) | |
1580 obtain characters from the keyboard, a buffer, or a file, and output | |
1581 streams (character sinks) send characters to a buffer, such as a | |
1582 @file{*Help*} buffer, or to the echo area. | |
1583 | |
1584 The object @code{nil}, in addition to its other meanings, may be used | |
1585 as a stream. It stands for the value of the variable | |
1586 @code{standard-input} or @code{standard-output}. Also, the object | |
1587 @code{t} as a stream specifies input using the minibuffer | |
1588 (@pxref{Minibuffers}) or output in the echo area (@pxref{The Echo | |
1589 Area}). | |
1590 | |
1591 Streams have no special printed representation or read syntax, and | |
1592 print as whatever primitive type they are. | |
1593 | |
1594 @xref{Read and Print}, for a description of functions | |
1595 related to streams, including parsing and printing functions. | |
1596 | |
1597 @node Keymap Type | |
1598 @subsection Keymap Type | |
1599 | |
1600 A @dfn{keymap} maps keys typed by the user to commands. This mapping | |
1601 controls how the user's command input is executed. A keymap is actually | |
1602 a list whose @sc{car} is the symbol @code{keymap}. | |
1603 | |
1604 @xref{Keymaps}, for information about creating keymaps, handling prefix | |
1605 keys, local as well as global keymaps, and changing key bindings. | |
1606 | |
1607 @node Overlay Type | |
1608 @subsection Overlay Type | |
1609 | |
1610 An @dfn{overlay} specifies properties that apply to a part of a | |
1611 buffer. Each overlay applies to a specified range of the buffer, and | |
1612 contains a property list (a list whose elements are alternating property | |
1613 names and values). Overlay properties are used to present parts of the | |
1614 buffer temporarily in a different display style. Overlays have no read | |
1615 syntax, and print in hash notation, giving the buffer name and range of | |
1616 positions. | |
1617 | |
1618 @xref{Overlays}, for how to create and use overlays. | |
1619 | |
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1620 @node Font Type |
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1621 @subsection Font Type |
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1622 |
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1623 A @dfn{font} specifies how to display text on a graphical terminal. |
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1624 There are actually three separate font types---@dfn{font objects}, |
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1625 @dfn{font specs}, and @dfn{font entities}---each of which has slightly |
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1626 different properties. None of them have a read syntax; their print |
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1627 syntax looks like @samp{#<font-object>}, @samp{#<font-spec>}, and |
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1628 @samp{#<font-entity>} respectively. @xref{Low-Level Font}, for a |
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1629 description of these Lisp objects. |
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1630 |
84092 | 1631 @node Circular Objects |
1632 @section Read Syntax for Circular Objects | |
1633 @cindex circular structure, read syntax | |
1634 @cindex shared structure, read syntax | |
1635 @cindex @samp{#@var{n}=} read syntax | |
1636 @cindex @samp{#@var{n}#} read syntax | |
1637 | |
1638 To represent shared or circular structures within a complex of Lisp | |
1639 objects, you can use the reader constructs @samp{#@var{n}=} and | |
1640 @samp{#@var{n}#}. | |
1641 | |
1642 Use @code{#@var{n}=} before an object to label it for later reference; | |
1643 subsequently, you can use @code{#@var{n}#} to refer the same object in | |
1644 another place. Here, @var{n} is some integer. For example, here is how | |
1645 to make a list in which the first element recurs as the third element: | |
1646 | |
1647 @example | |
1648 (#1=(a) b #1#) | |
1649 @end example | |
1650 | |
1651 @noindent | |
1652 This differs from ordinary syntax such as this | |
1653 | |
1654 @example | |
1655 ((a) b (a)) | |
1656 @end example | |
1657 | |
1658 @noindent | |
1659 which would result in a list whose first and third elements | |
1660 look alike but are not the same Lisp object. This shows the difference: | |
1661 | |
1662 @example | |
1663 (prog1 nil | |
1664 (setq x '(#1=(a) b #1#))) | |
1665 (eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x)) | |
1666 @result{} t | |
1667 (setq x '((a) b (a))) | |
1668 (eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x)) | |
1669 @result{} nil | |
1670 @end example | |
1671 | |
1672 You can also use the same syntax to make a circular structure, which | |
1673 appears as an ``element'' within itself. Here is an example: | |
1674 | |
1675 @example | |
1676 #1=(a #1#) | |
1677 @end example | |
1678 | |
1679 @noindent | |
1680 This makes a list whose second element is the list itself. | |
1681 Here's how you can see that it really works: | |
1682 | |
1683 @example | |
1684 (prog1 nil | |
1685 (setq x '#1=(a #1#))) | |
1686 (eq x (cadr x)) | |
1687 @result{} t | |
1688 @end example | |
1689 | |
1690 The Lisp printer can produce this syntax to record circular and shared | |
1691 structure in a Lisp object, if you bind the variable @code{print-circle} | |
1692 to a non-@code{nil} value. @xref{Output Variables}. | |
1693 | |
1694 @node Type Predicates | |
1695 @section Type Predicates | |
1696 @cindex type checking | |
1697 @kindex wrong-type-argument | |
1698 | |
1699 The Emacs Lisp interpreter itself does not perform type checking on | |
1700 the actual arguments passed to functions when they are called. It could | |
1701 not do so, since function arguments in Lisp do not have declared data | |
1702 types, as they do in other programming languages. It is therefore up to | |
1703 the individual function to test whether each actual argument belongs to | |
1704 a type that the function can use. | |
1705 | |
1706 All built-in functions do check the types of their actual arguments | |
1707 when appropriate, and signal a @code{wrong-type-argument} error if an | |
1708 argument is of the wrong type. For example, here is what happens if you | |
1709 pass an argument to @code{+} that it cannot handle: | |
1710 | |
1711 @example | |
1712 @group | |
1713 (+ 2 'a) | |
1714 @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, a | |
1715 @end group | |
1716 @end example | |
1717 | |
1718 @cindex type predicates | |
1719 @cindex testing types | |
1720 If you want your program to handle different types differently, you | |
1721 must do explicit type checking. The most common way to check the type | |
1722 of an object is to call a @dfn{type predicate} function. Emacs has a | |
1723 type predicate for each type, as well as some predicates for | |
1724 combinations of types. | |
1725 | |
1726 A type predicate function takes one argument; it returns @code{t} if | |
1727 the argument belongs to the appropriate type, and @code{nil} otherwise. | |
1728 Following a general Lisp convention for predicate functions, most type | |
1729 predicates' names end with @samp{p}. | |
1730 | |
1731 Here is an example which uses the predicates @code{listp} to check for | |
1732 a list and @code{symbolp} to check for a symbol. | |
1733 | |
1734 @example | |
1735 (defun add-on (x) | |
1736 (cond ((symbolp x) | |
1737 ;; If X is a symbol, put it on LIST. | |
1738 (setq list (cons x list))) | |
1739 ((listp x) | |
1740 ;; If X is a list, add its elements to LIST. | |
1741 (setq list (append x list))) | |
1742 (t | |
1743 ;; We handle only symbols and lists. | |
1744 (error "Invalid argument %s in add-on" x)))) | |
1745 @end example | |
1746 | |
1747 Here is a table of predefined type predicates, in alphabetical order, | |
1748 with references to further information. | |
1749 | |
1750 @table @code | |
1751 @item atom | |
1752 @xref{List-related Predicates, atom}. | |
1753 | |
1754 @item arrayp | |
1755 @xref{Array Functions, arrayp}. | |
1756 | |
1757 @item bool-vector-p | |
1758 @xref{Bool-Vectors, bool-vector-p}. | |
1759 | |
1760 @item bufferp | |
1761 @xref{Buffer Basics, bufferp}. | |
1762 | |
1763 @item byte-code-function-p | |
1764 @xref{Byte-Code Type, byte-code-function-p}. | |
1765 | |
1766 @item case-table-p | |
1767 @xref{Case Tables, case-table-p}. | |
1768 | |
1769 @item char-or-string-p | |
1770 @xref{Predicates for Strings, char-or-string-p}. | |
1771 | |
1772 @item char-table-p | |
1773 @xref{Char-Tables, char-table-p}. | |
1774 | |
1775 @item commandp | |
1776 @xref{Interactive Call, commandp}. | |
1777 | |
1778 @item consp | |
1779 @xref{List-related Predicates, consp}. | |
1780 | |
1781 @item display-table-p | |
1782 @xref{Display Tables, display-table-p}. | |
1783 | |
1784 @item floatp | |
1785 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, floatp}. | |
1786 | |
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1787 @item fontp |
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1788 @xref{Low-Level Font}. |
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1789 |
84092 | 1790 @item frame-configuration-p |
1791 @xref{Frame Configurations, frame-configuration-p}. | |
1792 | |
1793 @item frame-live-p | |
1794 @xref{Deleting Frames, frame-live-p}. | |
1795 | |
1796 @item framep | |
1797 @xref{Frames, framep}. | |
1798 | |
1799 @item functionp | |
1800 @xref{Functions, functionp}. | |
1801 | |
1802 @item hash-table-p | |
1803 @xref{Other Hash, hash-table-p}. | |
1804 | |
1805 @item integer-or-marker-p | |
1806 @xref{Predicates on Markers, integer-or-marker-p}. | |
1807 | |
1808 @item integerp | |
1809 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, integerp}. | |
1810 | |
1811 @item keymapp | |
1812 @xref{Creating Keymaps, keymapp}. | |
1813 | |
1814 @item keywordp | |
1815 @xref{Constant Variables}. | |
1816 | |
1817 @item listp | |
1818 @xref{List-related Predicates, listp}. | |
1819 | |
1820 @item markerp | |
1821 @xref{Predicates on Markers, markerp}. | |
1822 | |
1823 @item wholenump | |
1824 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, wholenump}. | |
1825 | |
1826 @item nlistp | |
1827 @xref{List-related Predicates, nlistp}. | |
1828 | |
1829 @item numberp | |
1830 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, numberp}. | |
1831 | |
1832 @item number-or-marker-p | |
1833 @xref{Predicates on Markers, number-or-marker-p}. | |
1834 | |
1835 @item overlayp | |
1836 @xref{Overlays, overlayp}. | |
1837 | |
1838 @item processp | |
1839 @xref{Processes, processp}. | |
1840 | |
1841 @item sequencep | |
1842 @xref{Sequence Functions, sequencep}. | |
1843 | |
1844 @item stringp | |
1845 @xref{Predicates for Strings, stringp}. | |
1846 | |
1847 @item subrp | |
1848 @xref{Function Cells, subrp}. | |
1849 | |
1850 @item symbolp | |
1851 @xref{Symbols, symbolp}. | |
1852 | |
1853 @item syntax-table-p | |
1854 @xref{Syntax Tables, syntax-table-p}. | |
1855 | |
1856 @item user-variable-p | |
1857 @xref{Defining Variables, user-variable-p}. | |
1858 | |
1859 @item vectorp | |
1860 @xref{Vectors, vectorp}. | |
1861 | |
1862 @item window-configuration-p | |
1863 @xref{Window Configurations, window-configuration-p}. | |
1864 | |
1865 @item window-live-p | |
1866 @xref{Deleting Windows, window-live-p}. | |
1867 | |
1868 @item windowp | |
1869 @xref{Basic Windows, windowp}. | |
1870 | |
1871 @item booleanp | |
1872 @xref{nil and t, booleanp}. | |
1873 | |
1874 @item string-or-null-p | |
1875 @xref{Predicates for Strings, string-or-null-p}. | |
1876 @end table | |
1877 | |
1878 The most general way to check the type of an object is to call the | |
1879 function @code{type-of}. Recall that each object belongs to one and | |
1880 only one primitive type; @code{type-of} tells you which one (@pxref{Lisp | |
1881 Data Types}). But @code{type-of} knows nothing about non-primitive | |
1882 types. In most cases, it is more convenient to use type predicates than | |
1883 @code{type-of}. | |
1884 | |
1885 @defun type-of object | |
1886 This function returns a symbol naming the primitive type of | |
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1887 @var{object}. The value is one of the symbols @code{bool-vector}, |
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1888 @code{buffer}, @code{char-table}, @code{compiled-function}, |
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1889 @code{cons}, @code{float}, @code{font-entity}, @code{font-object}, |
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1890 @code{font-spec}, @code{frame}, @code{hash-table}, @code{integer}, |
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1891 @code{marker}, @code{overlay}, @code{process}, @code{string}, |
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1892 @code{subr}, @code{symbol}, @code{vector}, @code{window}, or |
84092 | 1893 @code{window-configuration}. |
1894 | |
1895 @example | |
1896 (type-of 1) | |
1897 @result{} integer | |
1898 @group | |
1899 (type-of 'nil) | |
1900 @result{} symbol | |
1901 (type-of '()) ; @r{@code{()} is @code{nil}.} | |
1902 @result{} symbol | |
1903 (type-of '(x)) | |
1904 @result{} cons | |
1905 @end group | |
1906 @end example | |
1907 @end defun | |
1908 | |
1909 @node Equality Predicates | |
1910 @section Equality Predicates | |
1911 @cindex equality | |
1912 | |
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1913 Here we describe functions that test for equality between any two |
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1914 objects. Other functions test equality of contents between objects of specific |
84092 | 1915 types, e.g., strings. For these predicates, see the appropriate chapter |
1916 describing the data type. | |
1917 | |
1918 @defun eq object1 object2 | |
1919 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are | |
1920 the same object, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
1921 | |
1922 @code{eq} returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are | |
1923 integers with the same value. Also, since symbol names are normally | |
1924 unique, if the arguments are symbols with the same name, they are | |
1925 @code{eq}. For other types (e.g., lists, vectors, strings), two | |
1926 arguments with the same contents or elements are not necessarily | |
1927 @code{eq} to each other: they are @code{eq} only if they are the same | |
1928 object, meaning that a change in the contents of one will be reflected | |
1929 by the same change in the contents of the other. | |
1930 | |
1931 @example | |
1932 @group | |
1933 (eq 'foo 'foo) | |
1934 @result{} t | |
1935 @end group | |
1936 | |
1937 @group | |
1938 (eq 456 456) | |
1939 @result{} t | |
1940 @end group | |
1941 | |
1942 @group | |
1943 (eq "asdf" "asdf") | |
1944 @result{} nil | |
1945 @end group | |
1946 | |
1947 @group | |
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1948 (eq "" "") |
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1949 @result{} t |
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1950 ;; @r{This exception occurs because Emacs Lisp} |
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1951 ;; @r{makes just one multibyte empty string, to save space.} |
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1952 @end group |
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1953 |
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1954 @group |
84092 | 1955 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) |
1956 @result{} nil | |
1957 @end group | |
1958 | |
1959 @group | |
1960 (setq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1961 @result{} (1 (2 (3))) | |
1962 (eq foo foo) | |
1963 @result{} t | |
1964 (eq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1965 @result{} nil | |
1966 @end group | |
1967 | |
1968 @group | |
1969 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1970 @result{} nil | |
1971 @end group | |
1972 | |
1973 @group | |
1974 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1975 @result{} nil | |
1976 @end group | |
1977 @end example | |
1978 | |
1979 The @code{make-symbol} function returns an uninterned symbol, distinct | |
1980 from the symbol that is used if you write the name in a Lisp expression. | |
1981 Distinct symbols with the same name are not @code{eq}. @xref{Creating | |
1982 Symbols}. | |
1983 | |
1984 @example | |
1985 @group | |
1986 (eq (make-symbol "foo") 'foo) | |
1987 @result{} nil | |
1988 @end group | |
1989 @end example | |
1990 @end defun | |
1991 | |
1992 @defun equal object1 object2 | |
1993 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} have | |
1994 equal components, @code{nil} otherwise. Whereas @code{eq} tests if its | |
1995 arguments are the same object, @code{equal} looks inside nonidentical | |
1996 arguments to see if their elements or contents are the same. So, if two | |
1997 objects are @code{eq}, they are @code{equal}, but the converse is not | |
1998 always true. | |
1999 | |
2000 @example | |
2001 @group | |
2002 (equal 'foo 'foo) | |
2003 @result{} t | |
2004 @end group | |
2005 | |
2006 @group | |
2007 (equal 456 456) | |
2008 @result{} t | |
2009 @end group | |
2010 | |
2011 @group | |
2012 (equal "asdf" "asdf") | |
2013 @result{} t | |
2014 @end group | |
2015 @group | |
2016 (eq "asdf" "asdf") | |
2017 @result{} nil | |
2018 @end group | |
2019 | |
2020 @group | |
2021 (equal '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
2022 @result{} t | |
2023 @end group | |
2024 @group | |
2025 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
2026 @result{} nil | |
2027 @end group | |
2028 | |
2029 @group | |
2030 (equal [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
2031 @result{} t | |
2032 @end group | |
2033 @group | |
2034 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
2035 @result{} nil | |
2036 @end group | |
2037 | |
2038 @group | |
2039 (equal (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
2040 @result{} t | |
2041 @end group | |
2042 | |
2043 @group | |
2044 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
2045 @result{} nil | |
2046 @end group | |
2047 @end example | |
2048 | |
2049 Comparison of strings is case-sensitive, but does not take account of | |
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2050 text properties---it compares only the characters in the strings. Use |
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2051 @code{equal-including-properties} to also compare text properties. For |
84092 | 2052 technical reasons, a unibyte string and a multibyte string are |
2053 @code{equal} if and only if they contain the same sequence of | |
2054 character codes and all these codes are either in the range 0 through | |
2055 127 (@acronym{ASCII}) or 160 through 255 (@code{eight-bit-graphic}). | |
2056 (@pxref{Text Representations}). | |
2057 | |
2058 @example | |
2059 @group | |
2060 (equal "asdf" "ASDF") | |
2061 @result{} nil | |
2062 @end group | |
2063 @end example | |
2064 | |
2065 However, two distinct buffers are never considered @code{equal}, even if | |
2066 their textual contents are the same. | |
2067 @end defun | |
2068 | |
2069 The test for equality is implemented recursively; for example, given | |
2070 two cons cells @var{x} and @var{y}, @code{(equal @var{x} @var{y})} | |
2071 returns @code{t} if and only if both the expressions below return | |
2072 @code{t}: | |
2073 | |
2074 @example | |
2075 (equal (car @var{x}) (car @var{y})) | |
2076 (equal (cdr @var{x}) (cdr @var{y})) | |
2077 @end example | |
2078 | |
2079 Because of this recursive method, circular lists may therefore cause | |
2080 infinite recursion (leading to an error). | |
2081 | |
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2082 @defun equal-including-properties object1 object2 |
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2083 This function behaves like @code{equal} in all cases but also requires |
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2084 that for two strings to be equal, they have the same text properties. |
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2085 |
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2086 @example |
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2087 @group |
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2088 (equal "asdf" (propertize "asdf" '(asdf t))) |
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2089 @result{} t |
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2090 @end group |
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2091 @group |
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2092 (equal-including-properties "asdf" |
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2093 (propertize "asdf" '(asdf t))) |
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2094 @result{} nil |
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2095 @end group |
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2096 @end example |
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2097 @end defun |
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2098 |
84092 | 2099 @ignore |
2100 arch-tag: 9711a66e-4749-4265-9e8c-972d55b67096 | |
2101 @end ignore |