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annotate doc/lispref/control.texi @ 103774:5048b64c7cf0
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author | Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com> |
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date | Wed, 08 Jul 2009 03:20:03 +0000 |
parents | 12ca674f1a3c |
children | 79fa2d910b72 |
rev | line source |
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84057 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2001, 2002, | |
100974 | 4 @c 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
84057 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
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6 @setfilename ../../info/control |
84057 | 7 @node Control Structures, Variables, Evaluation, Top |
8 @chapter Control Structures | |
9 @cindex special forms for control structures | |
10 @cindex control structures | |
11 | |
12 A Lisp program consists of expressions or @dfn{forms} (@pxref{Forms}). | |
13 We control the order of execution of these forms by enclosing them in | |
14 @dfn{control structures}. Control structures are special forms which | |
15 control when, whether, or how many times to execute the forms they | |
16 contain. | |
17 | |
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18 @cindex textual order |
84057 | 19 The simplest order of execution is sequential execution: first form |
20 @var{a}, then form @var{b}, and so on. This is what happens when you | |
21 write several forms in succession in the body of a function, or at top | |
22 level in a file of Lisp code---the forms are executed in the order | |
23 written. We call this @dfn{textual order}. For example, if a function | |
24 body consists of two forms @var{a} and @var{b}, evaluation of the | |
25 function evaluates first @var{a} and then @var{b}. The result of | |
26 evaluating @var{b} becomes the value of the function. | |
27 | |
28 Explicit control structures make possible an order of execution other | |
29 than sequential. | |
30 | |
31 Emacs Lisp provides several kinds of control structure, including | |
32 other varieties of sequencing, conditionals, iteration, and (controlled) | |
33 jumps---all discussed below. The built-in control structures are | |
34 special forms since their subforms are not necessarily evaluated or not | |
35 evaluated sequentially. You can use macros to define your own control | |
36 structure constructs (@pxref{Macros}). | |
37 | |
38 @menu | |
39 * Sequencing:: Evaluation in textual order. | |
40 * Conditionals:: @code{if}, @code{cond}, @code{when}, @code{unless}. | |
41 * Combining Conditions:: @code{and}, @code{or}, @code{not}. | |
42 * Iteration:: @code{while} loops. | |
43 * Nonlocal Exits:: Jumping out of a sequence. | |
44 @end menu | |
45 | |
46 @node Sequencing | |
47 @section Sequencing | |
48 | |
49 Evaluating forms in the order they appear is the most common way | |
50 control passes from one form to another. In some contexts, such as in a | |
51 function body, this happens automatically. Elsewhere you must use a | |
52 control structure construct to do this: @code{progn}, the simplest | |
53 control construct of Lisp. | |
54 | |
55 A @code{progn} special form looks like this: | |
56 | |
57 @example | |
58 @group | |
59 (progn @var{a} @var{b} @var{c} @dots{}) | |
60 @end group | |
61 @end example | |
62 | |
63 @noindent | |
64 and it says to execute the forms @var{a}, @var{b}, @var{c}, and so on, in | |
65 that order. These forms are called the @dfn{body} of the @code{progn} form. | |
66 The value of the last form in the body becomes the value of the entire | |
67 @code{progn}. @code{(progn)} returns @code{nil}. | |
68 | |
69 @cindex implicit @code{progn} | |
70 In the early days of Lisp, @code{progn} was the only way to execute | |
71 two or more forms in succession and use the value of the last of them. | |
72 But programmers found they often needed to use a @code{progn} in the | |
73 body of a function, where (at that time) only one form was allowed. So | |
74 the body of a function was made into an ``implicit @code{progn}'': | |
75 several forms are allowed just as in the body of an actual @code{progn}. | |
76 Many other control structures likewise contain an implicit @code{progn}. | |
77 As a result, @code{progn} is not used as much as it was many years ago. | |
78 It is needed now most often inside an @code{unwind-protect}, @code{and}, | |
79 @code{or}, or in the @var{then}-part of an @code{if}. | |
80 | |
81 @defspec progn forms@dots{} | |
82 This special form evaluates all of the @var{forms}, in textual | |
83 order, returning the result of the final form. | |
84 | |
85 @example | |
86 @group | |
87 (progn (print "The first form") | |
88 (print "The second form") | |
89 (print "The third form")) | |
90 @print{} "The first form" | |
91 @print{} "The second form" | |
92 @print{} "The third form" | |
93 @result{} "The third form" | |
94 @end group | |
95 @end example | |
96 @end defspec | |
97 | |
98 Two other control constructs likewise evaluate a series of forms but return | |
99 a different value: | |
100 | |
101 @defspec prog1 form1 forms@dots{} | |
102 This special form evaluates @var{form1} and all of the @var{forms}, in | |
103 textual order, returning the result of @var{form1}. | |
104 | |
105 @example | |
106 @group | |
107 (prog1 (print "The first form") | |
108 (print "The second form") | |
109 (print "The third form")) | |
110 @print{} "The first form" | |
111 @print{} "The second form" | |
112 @print{} "The third form" | |
113 @result{} "The first form" | |
114 @end group | |
115 @end example | |
116 | |
117 Here is a way to remove the first element from a list in the variable | |
118 @code{x}, then return the value of that former element: | |
119 | |
120 @example | |
121 (prog1 (car x) (setq x (cdr x))) | |
122 @end example | |
123 @end defspec | |
124 | |
125 @defspec prog2 form1 form2 forms@dots{} | |
126 This special form evaluates @var{form1}, @var{form2}, and all of the | |
127 following @var{forms}, in textual order, returning the result of | |
128 @var{form2}. | |
129 | |
130 @example | |
131 @group | |
132 (prog2 (print "The first form") | |
133 (print "The second form") | |
134 (print "The third form")) | |
135 @print{} "The first form" | |
136 @print{} "The second form" | |
137 @print{} "The third form" | |
138 @result{} "The second form" | |
139 @end group | |
140 @end example | |
141 @end defspec | |
142 | |
143 @node Conditionals | |
144 @section Conditionals | |
145 @cindex conditional evaluation | |
146 | |
147 Conditional control structures choose among alternatives. Emacs Lisp | |
148 has four conditional forms: @code{if}, which is much the same as in | |
149 other languages; @code{when} and @code{unless}, which are variants of | |
150 @code{if}; and @code{cond}, which is a generalized case statement. | |
151 | |
152 @defspec if condition then-form else-forms@dots{} | |
153 @code{if} chooses between the @var{then-form} and the @var{else-forms} | |
154 based on the value of @var{condition}. If the evaluated @var{condition} is | |
155 non-@code{nil}, @var{then-form} is evaluated and the result returned. | |
156 Otherwise, the @var{else-forms} are evaluated in textual order, and the | |
157 value of the last one is returned. (The @var{else} part of @code{if} is | |
158 an example of an implicit @code{progn}. @xref{Sequencing}.) | |
159 | |
160 If @var{condition} has the value @code{nil}, and no @var{else-forms} are | |
161 given, @code{if} returns @code{nil}. | |
162 | |
163 @code{if} is a special form because the branch that is not selected is | |
164 never evaluated---it is ignored. Thus, in the example below, | |
165 @code{true} is not printed because @code{print} is never called. | |
166 | |
167 @example | |
168 @group | |
169 (if nil | |
170 (print 'true) | |
171 'very-false) | |
172 @result{} very-false | |
173 @end group | |
174 @end example | |
175 @end defspec | |
176 | |
177 @defmac when condition then-forms@dots{} | |
178 This is a variant of @code{if} where there are no @var{else-forms}, | |
179 and possibly several @var{then-forms}. In particular, | |
180 | |
181 @example | |
182 (when @var{condition} @var{a} @var{b} @var{c}) | |
183 @end example | |
184 | |
185 @noindent | |
186 is entirely equivalent to | |
187 | |
188 @example | |
189 (if @var{condition} (progn @var{a} @var{b} @var{c}) nil) | |
190 @end example | |
191 @end defmac | |
192 | |
193 @defmac unless condition forms@dots{} | |
194 This is a variant of @code{if} where there is no @var{then-form}: | |
195 | |
196 @example | |
197 (unless @var{condition} @var{a} @var{b} @var{c}) | |
198 @end example | |
199 | |
200 @noindent | |
201 is entirely equivalent to | |
202 | |
203 @example | |
204 (if @var{condition} nil | |
205 @var{a} @var{b} @var{c}) | |
206 @end example | |
207 @end defmac | |
208 | |
209 @defspec cond clause@dots{} | |
210 @code{cond} chooses among an arbitrary number of alternatives. Each | |
211 @var{clause} in the @code{cond} must be a list. The @sc{car} of this | |
212 list is the @var{condition}; the remaining elements, if any, the | |
213 @var{body-forms}. Thus, a clause looks like this: | |
214 | |
215 @example | |
216 (@var{condition} @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
217 @end example | |
218 | |
219 @code{cond} tries the clauses in textual order, by evaluating the | |
220 @var{condition} of each clause. If the value of @var{condition} is | |
221 non-@code{nil}, the clause ``succeeds''; then @code{cond} evaluates its | |
222 @var{body-forms}, and the value of the last of @var{body-forms} becomes | |
223 the value of the @code{cond}. The remaining clauses are ignored. | |
224 | |
225 If the value of @var{condition} is @code{nil}, the clause ``fails,'' so | |
226 the @code{cond} moves on to the following clause, trying its | |
227 @var{condition}. | |
228 | |
229 If every @var{condition} evaluates to @code{nil}, so that every clause | |
230 fails, @code{cond} returns @code{nil}. | |
231 | |
232 A clause may also look like this: | |
233 | |
234 @example | |
235 (@var{condition}) | |
236 @end example | |
237 | |
238 @noindent | |
239 Then, if @var{condition} is non-@code{nil} when tested, the value of | |
240 @var{condition} becomes the value of the @code{cond} form. | |
241 | |
242 The following example has four clauses, which test for the cases where | |
243 the value of @code{x} is a number, string, buffer and symbol, | |
244 respectively: | |
245 | |
246 @example | |
247 @group | |
248 (cond ((numberp x) x) | |
249 ((stringp x) x) | |
250 ((bufferp x) | |
251 (setq temporary-hack x) ; @r{multiple body-forms} | |
252 (buffer-name x)) ; @r{in one clause} | |
253 ((symbolp x) (symbol-value x))) | |
254 @end group | |
255 @end example | |
256 | |
257 Often we want to execute the last clause whenever none of the previous | |
258 clauses was successful. To do this, we use @code{t} as the | |
259 @var{condition} of the last clause, like this: @code{(t | |
260 @var{body-forms})}. The form @code{t} evaluates to @code{t}, which is | |
261 never @code{nil}, so this clause never fails, provided the @code{cond} | |
262 gets to it at all. | |
263 | |
264 For example, | |
265 | |
266 @example | |
267 @group | |
268 (setq a 5) | |
269 (cond ((eq a 'hack) 'foo) | |
270 (t "default")) | |
271 @result{} "default" | |
272 @end group | |
273 @end example | |
274 | |
275 @noindent | |
276 This @code{cond} expression returns @code{foo} if the value of @code{a} | |
277 is @code{hack}, and returns the string @code{"default"} otherwise. | |
278 @end defspec | |
279 | |
280 Any conditional construct can be expressed with @code{cond} or with | |
281 @code{if}. Therefore, the choice between them is a matter of style. | |
282 For example: | |
283 | |
284 @example | |
285 @group | |
286 (if @var{a} @var{b} @var{c}) | |
287 @equiv{} | |
288 (cond (@var{a} @var{b}) (t @var{c})) | |
289 @end group | |
290 @end example | |
291 | |
292 @node Combining Conditions | |
293 @section Constructs for Combining Conditions | |
294 | |
295 This section describes three constructs that are often used together | |
296 with @code{if} and @code{cond} to express complicated conditions. The | |
297 constructs @code{and} and @code{or} can also be used individually as | |
298 kinds of multiple conditional constructs. | |
299 | |
300 @defun not condition | |
301 This function tests for the falsehood of @var{condition}. It returns | |
302 @code{t} if @var{condition} is @code{nil}, and @code{nil} otherwise. | |
303 The function @code{not} is identical to @code{null}, and we recommend | |
304 using the name @code{null} if you are testing for an empty list. | |
305 @end defun | |
306 | |
307 @defspec and conditions@dots{} | |
308 The @code{and} special form tests whether all the @var{conditions} are | |
309 true. It works by evaluating the @var{conditions} one by one in the | |
310 order written. | |
311 | |
312 If any of the @var{conditions} evaluates to @code{nil}, then the result | |
313 of the @code{and} must be @code{nil} regardless of the remaining | |
314 @var{conditions}; so @code{and} returns @code{nil} right away, ignoring | |
315 the remaining @var{conditions}. | |
316 | |
317 If all the @var{conditions} turn out non-@code{nil}, then the value of | |
318 the last of them becomes the value of the @code{and} form. Just | |
319 @code{(and)}, with no @var{conditions}, returns @code{t}, appropriate | |
320 because all the @var{conditions} turned out non-@code{nil}. (Think | |
321 about it; which one did not?) | |
322 | |
323 Here is an example. The first condition returns the integer 1, which is | |
324 not @code{nil}. Similarly, the second condition returns the integer 2, | |
325 which is not @code{nil}. The third condition is @code{nil}, so the | |
326 remaining condition is never evaluated. | |
327 | |
328 @example | |
329 @group | |
330 (and (print 1) (print 2) nil (print 3)) | |
331 @print{} 1 | |
332 @print{} 2 | |
333 @result{} nil | |
334 @end group | |
335 @end example | |
336 | |
337 Here is a more realistic example of using @code{and}: | |
338 | |
339 @example | |
340 @group | |
341 (if (and (consp foo) (eq (car foo) 'x)) | |
342 (message "foo is a list starting with x")) | |
343 @end group | |
344 @end example | |
345 | |
346 @noindent | |
347 Note that @code{(car foo)} is not executed if @code{(consp foo)} returns | |
348 @code{nil}, thus avoiding an error. | |
349 | |
350 @code{and} expressions can also be written using either @code{if} or | |
351 @code{cond}. Here's how: | |
352 | |
353 @example | |
354 @group | |
355 (and @var{arg1} @var{arg2} @var{arg3}) | |
356 @equiv{} | |
357 (if @var{arg1} (if @var{arg2} @var{arg3})) | |
358 @equiv{} | |
359 (cond (@var{arg1} (cond (@var{arg2} @var{arg3})))) | |
360 @end group | |
361 @end example | |
362 @end defspec | |
363 | |
364 @defspec or conditions@dots{} | |
365 The @code{or} special form tests whether at least one of the | |
366 @var{conditions} is true. It works by evaluating all the | |
367 @var{conditions} one by one in the order written. | |
368 | |
369 If any of the @var{conditions} evaluates to a non-@code{nil} value, then | |
370 the result of the @code{or} must be non-@code{nil}; so @code{or} returns | |
371 right away, ignoring the remaining @var{conditions}. The value it | |
372 returns is the non-@code{nil} value of the condition just evaluated. | |
373 | |
374 If all the @var{conditions} turn out @code{nil}, then the @code{or} | |
375 expression returns @code{nil}. Just @code{(or)}, with no | |
376 @var{conditions}, returns @code{nil}, appropriate because all the | |
377 @var{conditions} turned out @code{nil}. (Think about it; which one | |
378 did not?) | |
379 | |
380 For example, this expression tests whether @code{x} is either | |
381 @code{nil} or the integer zero: | |
382 | |
383 @example | |
384 (or (eq x nil) (eq x 0)) | |
385 @end example | |
386 | |
387 Like the @code{and} construct, @code{or} can be written in terms of | |
388 @code{cond}. For example: | |
389 | |
390 @example | |
391 @group | |
392 (or @var{arg1} @var{arg2} @var{arg3}) | |
393 @equiv{} | |
394 (cond (@var{arg1}) | |
395 (@var{arg2}) | |
396 (@var{arg3})) | |
397 @end group | |
398 @end example | |
399 | |
400 You could almost write @code{or} in terms of @code{if}, but not quite: | |
401 | |
402 @example | |
403 @group | |
404 (if @var{arg1} @var{arg1} | |
405 (if @var{arg2} @var{arg2} | |
406 @var{arg3})) | |
407 @end group | |
408 @end example | |
409 | |
410 @noindent | |
411 This is not completely equivalent because it can evaluate @var{arg1} or | |
412 @var{arg2} twice. By contrast, @code{(or @var{arg1} @var{arg2} | |
413 @var{arg3})} never evaluates any argument more than once. | |
414 @end defspec | |
415 | |
416 @node Iteration | |
417 @section Iteration | |
418 @cindex iteration | |
419 @cindex recursion | |
420 | |
421 Iteration means executing part of a program repetitively. For | |
422 example, you might want to repeat some computation once for each element | |
423 of a list, or once for each integer from 0 to @var{n}. You can do this | |
424 in Emacs Lisp with the special form @code{while}: | |
425 | |
426 @defspec while condition forms@dots{} | |
427 @code{while} first evaluates @var{condition}. If the result is | |
428 non-@code{nil}, it evaluates @var{forms} in textual order. Then it | |
429 reevaluates @var{condition}, and if the result is non-@code{nil}, it | |
430 evaluates @var{forms} again. This process repeats until @var{condition} | |
431 evaluates to @code{nil}. | |
432 | |
433 There is no limit on the number of iterations that may occur. The loop | |
434 will continue until either @var{condition} evaluates to @code{nil} or | |
435 until an error or @code{throw} jumps out of it (@pxref{Nonlocal Exits}). | |
436 | |
437 The value of a @code{while} form is always @code{nil}. | |
438 | |
439 @example | |
440 @group | |
441 (setq num 0) | |
442 @result{} 0 | |
443 @end group | |
444 @group | |
445 (while (< num 4) | |
446 (princ (format "Iteration %d." num)) | |
447 (setq num (1+ num))) | |
448 @print{} Iteration 0. | |
449 @print{} Iteration 1. | |
450 @print{} Iteration 2. | |
451 @print{} Iteration 3. | |
452 @result{} nil | |
453 @end group | |
454 @end example | |
455 | |
456 To write a ``repeat...until'' loop, which will execute something on each | |
457 iteration and then do the end-test, put the body followed by the | |
458 end-test in a @code{progn} as the first argument of @code{while}, as | |
459 shown here: | |
460 | |
461 @example | |
462 @group | |
463 (while (progn | |
464 (forward-line 1) | |
465 (not (looking-at "^$")))) | |
466 @end group | |
467 @end example | |
468 | |
469 @noindent | |
470 This moves forward one line and continues moving by lines until it | |
471 reaches an empty line. It is peculiar in that the @code{while} has no | |
472 body, just the end test (which also does the real work of moving point). | |
473 @end defspec | |
474 | |
475 The @code{dolist} and @code{dotimes} macros provide convenient ways to | |
476 write two common kinds of loops. | |
477 | |
478 @defmac dolist (var list [result]) body@dots{} | |
479 This construct executes @var{body} once for each element of | |
480 @var{list}, binding the variable @var{var} locally to hold the current | |
481 element. Then it returns the value of evaluating @var{result}, or | |
482 @code{nil} if @var{result} is omitted. For example, here is how you | |
483 could use @code{dolist} to define the @code{reverse} function: | |
484 | |
485 @example | |
486 (defun reverse (list) | |
487 (let (value) | |
488 (dolist (elt list value) | |
489 (setq value (cons elt value))))) | |
490 @end example | |
491 @end defmac | |
492 | |
493 @defmac dotimes (var count [result]) body@dots{} | |
494 This construct executes @var{body} once for each integer from 0 | |
495 (inclusive) to @var{count} (exclusive), binding the variable @var{var} | |
496 to the integer for the current iteration. Then it returns the value | |
497 of evaluating @var{result}, or @code{nil} if @var{result} is omitted. | |
498 Here is an example of using @code{dotimes} to do something 100 times: | |
499 | |
500 @example | |
501 (dotimes (i 100) | |
502 (insert "I will not obey absurd orders\n")) | |
503 @end example | |
504 @end defmac | |
505 | |
506 @node Nonlocal Exits | |
507 @section Nonlocal Exits | |
508 @cindex nonlocal exits | |
509 | |
510 A @dfn{nonlocal exit} is a transfer of control from one point in a | |
511 program to another remote point. Nonlocal exits can occur in Emacs Lisp | |
512 as a result of errors; you can also use them under explicit control. | |
513 Nonlocal exits unbind all variable bindings made by the constructs being | |
514 exited. | |
515 | |
516 @menu | |
517 * Catch and Throw:: Nonlocal exits for the program's own purposes. | |
518 * Examples of Catch:: Showing how such nonlocal exits can be written. | |
519 * Errors:: How errors are signaled and handled. | |
520 * Cleanups:: Arranging to run a cleanup form if an error happens. | |
521 @end menu | |
522 | |
523 @node Catch and Throw | |
524 @subsection Explicit Nonlocal Exits: @code{catch} and @code{throw} | |
525 | |
526 Most control constructs affect only the flow of control within the | |
527 construct itself. The function @code{throw} is the exception to this | |
528 rule of normal program execution: it performs a nonlocal exit on | |
529 request. (There are other exceptions, but they are for error handling | |
530 only.) @code{throw} is used inside a @code{catch}, and jumps back to | |
531 that @code{catch}. For example: | |
532 | |
533 @example | |
534 @group | |
535 (defun foo-outer () | |
536 (catch 'foo | |
537 (foo-inner))) | |
538 | |
539 (defun foo-inner () | |
540 @dots{} | |
541 (if x | |
542 (throw 'foo t)) | |
543 @dots{}) | |
544 @end group | |
545 @end example | |
546 | |
547 @noindent | |
548 The @code{throw} form, if executed, transfers control straight back to | |
549 the corresponding @code{catch}, which returns immediately. The code | |
550 following the @code{throw} is not executed. The second argument of | |
551 @code{throw} is used as the return value of the @code{catch}. | |
552 | |
553 The function @code{throw} finds the matching @code{catch} based on the | |
554 first argument: it searches for a @code{catch} whose first argument is | |
555 @code{eq} to the one specified in the @code{throw}. If there is more | |
556 than one applicable @code{catch}, the innermost one takes precedence. | |
557 Thus, in the above example, the @code{throw} specifies @code{foo}, and | |
558 the @code{catch} in @code{foo-outer} specifies the same symbol, so that | |
559 @code{catch} is the applicable one (assuming there is no other matching | |
560 @code{catch} in between). | |
561 | |
562 Executing @code{throw} exits all Lisp constructs up to the matching | |
563 @code{catch}, including function calls. When binding constructs such as | |
564 @code{let} or function calls are exited in this way, the bindings are | |
565 unbound, just as they are when these constructs exit normally | |
566 (@pxref{Local Variables}). Likewise, @code{throw} restores the buffer | |
567 and position saved by @code{save-excursion} (@pxref{Excursions}), and | |
568 the narrowing status saved by @code{save-restriction} and the window | |
569 selection saved by @code{save-window-excursion} (@pxref{Window | |
570 Configurations}). It also runs any cleanups established with the | |
571 @code{unwind-protect} special form when it exits that form | |
572 (@pxref{Cleanups}). | |
573 | |
574 The @code{throw} need not appear lexically within the @code{catch} | |
575 that it jumps to. It can equally well be called from another function | |
576 called within the @code{catch}. As long as the @code{throw} takes place | |
577 chronologically after entry to the @code{catch}, and chronologically | |
578 before exit from it, it has access to that @code{catch}. This is why | |
579 @code{throw} can be used in commands such as @code{exit-recursive-edit} | |
580 that throw back to the editor command loop (@pxref{Recursive Editing}). | |
581 | |
582 @cindex CL note---only @code{throw} in Emacs | |
583 @quotation | |
584 @b{Common Lisp note:} Most other versions of Lisp, including Common Lisp, | |
585 have several ways of transferring control nonsequentially: @code{return}, | |
586 @code{return-from}, and @code{go}, for example. Emacs Lisp has only | |
587 @code{throw}. | |
588 @end quotation | |
589 | |
590 @defspec catch tag body@dots{} | |
591 @cindex tag on run time stack | |
592 @code{catch} establishes a return point for the @code{throw} function. | |
593 The return point is distinguished from other such return points by | |
594 @var{tag}, which may be any Lisp object except @code{nil}. The argument | |
595 @var{tag} is evaluated normally before the return point is established. | |
596 | |
597 With the return point in effect, @code{catch} evaluates the forms of the | |
598 @var{body} in textual order. If the forms execute normally (without | |
599 error or nonlocal exit) the value of the last body form is returned from | |
600 the @code{catch}. | |
601 | |
602 If a @code{throw} is executed during the execution of @var{body}, | |
603 specifying the same value @var{tag}, the @code{catch} form exits | |
604 immediately; the value it returns is whatever was specified as the | |
605 second argument of @code{throw}. | |
606 @end defspec | |
607 | |
608 @defun throw tag value | |
609 The purpose of @code{throw} is to return from a return point previously | |
610 established with @code{catch}. The argument @var{tag} is used to choose | |
611 among the various existing return points; it must be @code{eq} to the value | |
612 specified in the @code{catch}. If multiple return points match @var{tag}, | |
613 the innermost one is used. | |
614 | |
615 The argument @var{value} is used as the value to return from that | |
616 @code{catch}. | |
617 | |
618 @kindex no-catch | |
619 If no return point is in effect with tag @var{tag}, then a @code{no-catch} | |
620 error is signaled with data @code{(@var{tag} @var{value})}. | |
621 @end defun | |
622 | |
623 @node Examples of Catch | |
624 @subsection Examples of @code{catch} and @code{throw} | |
625 | |
626 One way to use @code{catch} and @code{throw} is to exit from a doubly | |
627 nested loop. (In most languages, this would be done with a ``go to.'') | |
628 Here we compute @code{(foo @var{i} @var{j})} for @var{i} and @var{j} | |
629 varying from 0 to 9: | |
630 | |
631 @example | |
632 @group | |
633 (defun search-foo () | |
634 (catch 'loop | |
635 (let ((i 0)) | |
636 (while (< i 10) | |
637 (let ((j 0)) | |
638 (while (< j 10) | |
639 (if (foo i j) | |
640 (throw 'loop (list i j))) | |
641 (setq j (1+ j)))) | |
642 (setq i (1+ i)))))) | |
643 @end group | |
644 @end example | |
645 | |
646 @noindent | |
647 If @code{foo} ever returns non-@code{nil}, we stop immediately and return a | |
648 list of @var{i} and @var{j}. If @code{foo} always returns @code{nil}, the | |
649 @code{catch} returns normally, and the value is @code{nil}, since that | |
650 is the result of the @code{while}. | |
651 | |
652 Here are two tricky examples, slightly different, showing two | |
653 return points at once. First, two return points with the same tag, | |
654 @code{hack}: | |
655 | |
656 @example | |
657 @group | |
658 (defun catch2 (tag) | |
659 (catch tag | |
660 (throw 'hack 'yes))) | |
661 @result{} catch2 | |
662 @end group | |
663 | |
664 @group | |
665 (catch 'hack | |
666 (print (catch2 'hack)) | |
667 'no) | |
668 @print{} yes | |
669 @result{} no | |
670 @end group | |
671 @end example | |
672 | |
673 @noindent | |
674 Since both return points have tags that match the @code{throw}, it goes to | |
675 the inner one, the one established in @code{catch2}. Therefore, | |
676 @code{catch2} returns normally with value @code{yes}, and this value is | |
677 printed. Finally the second body form in the outer @code{catch}, which is | |
678 @code{'no}, is evaluated and returned from the outer @code{catch}. | |
679 | |
680 Now let's change the argument given to @code{catch2}: | |
681 | |
682 @example | |
683 @group | |
684 (catch 'hack | |
685 (print (catch2 'quux)) | |
686 'no) | |
687 @result{} yes | |
688 @end group | |
689 @end example | |
690 | |
691 @noindent | |
692 We still have two return points, but this time only the outer one has | |
693 the tag @code{hack}; the inner one has the tag @code{quux} instead. | |
694 Therefore, @code{throw} makes the outer @code{catch} return the value | |
695 @code{yes}. The function @code{print} is never called, and the | |
696 body-form @code{'no} is never evaluated. | |
697 | |
698 @node Errors | |
699 @subsection Errors | |
700 @cindex errors | |
701 | |
702 When Emacs Lisp attempts to evaluate a form that, for some reason, | |
703 cannot be evaluated, it @dfn{signals} an @dfn{error}. | |
704 | |
705 When an error is signaled, Emacs's default reaction is to print an | |
706 error message and terminate execution of the current command. This is | |
707 the right thing to do in most cases, such as if you type @kbd{C-f} at | |
708 the end of the buffer. | |
709 | |
710 In complicated programs, simple termination may not be what you want. | |
711 For example, the program may have made temporary changes in data | |
712 structures, or created temporary buffers that should be deleted before | |
713 the program is finished. In such cases, you would use | |
714 @code{unwind-protect} to establish @dfn{cleanup expressions} to be | |
715 evaluated in case of error. (@xref{Cleanups}.) Occasionally, you may | |
716 wish the program to continue execution despite an error in a subroutine. | |
717 In these cases, you would use @code{condition-case} to establish | |
718 @dfn{error handlers} to recover control in case of error. | |
719 | |
720 Resist the temptation to use error handling to transfer control from | |
721 one part of the program to another; use @code{catch} and @code{throw} | |
722 instead. @xref{Catch and Throw}. | |
723 | |
724 @menu | |
725 * Signaling Errors:: How to report an error. | |
726 * Processing of Errors:: What Emacs does when you report an error. | |
727 * Handling Errors:: How you can trap errors and continue execution. | |
728 * Error Symbols:: How errors are classified for trapping them. | |
729 @end menu | |
730 | |
731 @node Signaling Errors | |
732 @subsubsection How to Signal an Error | |
733 @cindex signaling errors | |
734 | |
735 @dfn{Signaling} an error means beginning error processing. Error | |
736 processing normally aborts all or part of the running program and | |
737 returns to a point that is set up to handle the error | |
738 (@pxref{Processing of Errors}). Here we describe how to signal an | |
739 error. | |
740 | |
741 Most errors are signaled ``automatically'' within Lisp primitives | |
742 which you call for other purposes, such as if you try to take the | |
743 @sc{car} of an integer or move forward a character at the end of the | |
744 buffer. You can also signal errors explicitly with the functions | |
745 @code{error} and @code{signal}. | |
746 | |
747 Quitting, which happens when the user types @kbd{C-g}, is not | |
748 considered an error, but it is handled almost like an error. | |
749 @xref{Quitting}. | |
750 | |
751 Every error specifies an error message, one way or another. The | |
752 message should state what is wrong (``File does not exist''), not how | |
753 things ought to be (``File must exist''). The convention in Emacs | |
754 Lisp is that error messages should start with a capital letter, but | |
755 should not end with any sort of punctuation. | |
756 | |
757 @defun error format-string &rest args | |
758 This function signals an error with an error message constructed by | |
759 applying @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting Strings}) to | |
760 @var{format-string} and @var{args}. | |
761 | |
762 These examples show typical uses of @code{error}: | |
763 | |
764 @example | |
765 @group | |
766 (error "That is an error -- try something else") | |
767 @error{} That is an error -- try something else | |
768 @end group | |
769 | |
770 @group | |
771 (error "You have committed %d errors" 10) | |
772 @error{} You have committed 10 errors | |
773 @end group | |
774 @end example | |
775 | |
776 @code{error} works by calling @code{signal} with two arguments: the | |
777 error symbol @code{error}, and a list containing the string returned by | |
778 @code{format}. | |
779 | |
780 @strong{Warning:} If you want to use your own string as an error message | |
781 verbatim, don't just write @code{(error @var{string})}. If @var{string} | |
782 contains @samp{%}, it will be interpreted as a format specifier, with | |
783 undesirable results. Instead, use @code{(error "%s" @var{string})}. | |
784 @end defun | |
785 | |
786 @defun signal error-symbol data | |
787 @anchor{Definition of signal} | |
788 This function signals an error named by @var{error-symbol}. The | |
789 argument @var{data} is a list of additional Lisp objects relevant to | |
790 the circumstances of the error. | |
791 | |
792 The argument @var{error-symbol} must be an @dfn{error symbol}---a symbol | |
793 bearing a property @code{error-conditions} whose value is a list of | |
794 condition names. This is how Emacs Lisp classifies different sorts of | |
795 errors. @xref{Error Symbols}, for a description of error symbols, | |
796 error conditions and condition names. | |
797 | |
798 If the error is not handled, the two arguments are used in printing | |
799 the error message. Normally, this error message is provided by the | |
800 @code{error-message} property of @var{error-symbol}. If @var{data} is | |
801 non-@code{nil}, this is followed by a colon and a comma separated list | |
802 of the unevaluated elements of @var{data}. For @code{error}, the | |
803 error message is the @sc{car} of @var{data} (that must be a string). | |
804 Subcategories of @code{file-error} are handled specially. | |
805 | |
806 The number and significance of the objects in @var{data} depends on | |
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807 @var{error-symbol}. For example, with a @code{wrong-type-argument} error, |
84057 | 808 there should be two objects in the list: a predicate that describes the type |
809 that was expected, and the object that failed to fit that type. | |
810 | |
811 Both @var{error-symbol} and @var{data} are available to any error | |
812 handlers that handle the error: @code{condition-case} binds a local | |
813 variable to a list of the form @code{(@var{error-symbol} .@: | |
814 @var{data})} (@pxref{Handling Errors}). | |
815 | |
816 The function @code{signal} never returns (though in older Emacs versions | |
817 it could sometimes return). | |
818 | |
819 @smallexample | |
820 @group | |
821 (signal 'wrong-number-of-arguments '(x y)) | |
822 @error{} Wrong number of arguments: x, y | |
823 @end group | |
824 | |
825 @group | |
826 (signal 'no-such-error '("My unknown error condition")) | |
827 @error{} peculiar error: "My unknown error condition" | |
828 @end group | |
829 @end smallexample | |
830 @end defun | |
831 | |
832 @cindex CL note---no continuable errors | |
833 @quotation | |
834 @b{Common Lisp note:} Emacs Lisp has nothing like the Common Lisp | |
835 concept of continuable errors. | |
836 @end quotation | |
837 | |
838 @node Processing of Errors | |
839 @subsubsection How Emacs Processes Errors | |
840 | |
841 When an error is signaled, @code{signal} searches for an active | |
842 @dfn{handler} for the error. A handler is a sequence of Lisp | |
843 expressions designated to be executed if an error happens in part of the | |
844 Lisp program. If the error has an applicable handler, the handler is | |
845 executed, and control resumes following the handler. The handler | |
846 executes in the environment of the @code{condition-case} that | |
847 established it; all functions called within that @code{condition-case} | |
848 have already been exited, and the handler cannot return to them. | |
849 | |
850 If there is no applicable handler for the error, it terminates the | |
851 current command and returns control to the editor command loop. (The | |
852 command loop has an implicit handler for all kinds of errors.) The | |
853 command loop's handler uses the error symbol and associated data to | |
854 print an error message. You can use the variable | |
855 @code{command-error-function} to control how this is done: | |
856 | |
857 @defvar command-error-function | |
858 This variable, if non-@code{nil}, specifies a function to use to | |
859 handle errors that return control to the Emacs command loop. The | |
860 function should take three arguments: @var{data}, a list of the same | |
861 form that @code{condition-case} would bind to its variable; | |
862 @var{context}, a string describing the situation in which the error | |
863 occurred, or (more often) @code{nil}; and @var{caller}, the Lisp | |
864 function which called the primitive that signaled the error. | |
865 @end defvar | |
866 | |
867 @cindex @code{debug-on-error} use | |
868 An error that has no explicit handler may call the Lisp debugger. The | |
869 debugger is enabled if the variable @code{debug-on-error} (@pxref{Error | |
870 Debugging}) is non-@code{nil}. Unlike error handlers, the debugger runs | |
871 in the environment of the error, so that you can examine values of | |
872 variables precisely as they were at the time of the error. | |
873 | |
874 @node Handling Errors | |
875 @subsubsection Writing Code to Handle Errors | |
876 @cindex error handler | |
877 @cindex handling errors | |
878 | |
879 The usual effect of signaling an error is to terminate the command | |
880 that is running and return immediately to the Emacs editor command loop. | |
881 You can arrange to trap errors occurring in a part of your program by | |
882 establishing an error handler, with the special form | |
883 @code{condition-case}. A simple example looks like this: | |
884 | |
885 @example | |
886 @group | |
887 (condition-case nil | |
888 (delete-file filename) | |
889 (error nil)) | |
890 @end group | |
891 @end example | |
892 | |
893 @noindent | |
894 This deletes the file named @var{filename}, catching any error and | |
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895 returning @code{nil} if an error occurs@footnote{ |
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896 Actually, you should use @code{ignore-errors} in such a simple case; |
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897 see below.}. |
84057 | 898 |
899 The @code{condition-case} construct is often used to trap errors that | |
900 are predictable, such as failure to open a file in a call to | |
901 @code{insert-file-contents}. It is also used to trap errors that are | |
902 totally unpredictable, such as when the program evaluates an expression | |
903 read from the user. | |
904 | |
905 The second argument of @code{condition-case} is called the | |
906 @dfn{protected form}. (In the example above, the protected form is a | |
907 call to @code{delete-file}.) The error handlers go into effect when | |
908 this form begins execution and are deactivated when this form returns. | |
909 They remain in effect for all the intervening time. In particular, they | |
910 are in effect during the execution of functions called by this form, in | |
911 their subroutines, and so on. This is a good thing, since, strictly | |
912 speaking, errors can be signaled only by Lisp primitives (including | |
913 @code{signal} and @code{error}) called by the protected form, not by the | |
914 protected form itself. | |
915 | |
916 The arguments after the protected form are handlers. Each handler | |
917 lists one or more @dfn{condition names} (which are symbols) to specify | |
918 which errors it will handle. The error symbol specified when an error | |
919 is signaled also defines a list of condition names. A handler applies | |
920 to an error if they have any condition names in common. In the example | |
921 above, there is one handler, and it specifies one condition name, | |
922 @code{error}, which covers all errors. | |
923 | |
924 The search for an applicable handler checks all the established handlers | |
925 starting with the most recently established one. Thus, if two nested | |
926 @code{condition-case} forms offer to handle the same error, the inner of | |
927 the two gets to handle it. | |
928 | |
929 If an error is handled by some @code{condition-case} form, this | |
930 ordinarily prevents the debugger from being run, even if | |
931 @code{debug-on-error} says this error should invoke the debugger. | |
932 | |
933 If you want to be able to debug errors that are caught by a | |
934 @code{condition-case}, set the variable @code{debug-on-signal} to a | |
935 non-@code{nil} value. You can also specify that a particular handler | |
936 should let the debugger run first, by writing @code{debug} among the | |
937 conditions, like this: | |
938 | |
939 @example | |
940 @group | |
941 (condition-case nil | |
942 (delete-file filename) | |
943 ((debug error) nil)) | |
944 @end group | |
945 @end example | |
946 | |
947 @noindent | |
948 The effect of @code{debug} here is only to prevent | |
949 @code{condition-case} from suppressing the call to the debugger. Any | |
950 given error will invoke the debugger only if @code{debug-on-error} and | |
951 the other usual filtering mechanisms say it should. @xref{Error Debugging}. | |
952 | |
953 Once Emacs decides that a certain handler handles the error, it | |
954 returns control to that handler. To do so, Emacs unbinds all variable | |
955 bindings made by binding constructs that are being exited, and | |
956 executes the cleanups of all @code{unwind-protect} forms that are | |
957 being exited. Once control arrives at the handler, the body of the | |
958 handler executes normally. | |
959 | |
960 After execution of the handler body, execution returns from the | |
961 @code{condition-case} form. Because the protected form is exited | |
962 completely before execution of the handler, the handler cannot resume | |
963 execution at the point of the error, nor can it examine variable | |
964 bindings that were made within the protected form. All it can do is | |
965 clean up and proceed. | |
966 | |
967 Error signaling and handling have some resemblance to @code{throw} and | |
968 @code{catch} (@pxref{Catch and Throw}), but they are entirely separate | |
969 facilities. An error cannot be caught by a @code{catch}, and a | |
970 @code{throw} cannot be handled by an error handler (though using | |
971 @code{throw} when there is no suitable @code{catch} signals an error | |
972 that can be handled). | |
973 | |
974 @defspec condition-case var protected-form handlers@dots{} | |
975 This special form establishes the error handlers @var{handlers} around | |
976 the execution of @var{protected-form}. If @var{protected-form} executes | |
977 without error, the value it returns becomes the value of the | |
978 @code{condition-case} form; in this case, the @code{condition-case} has | |
979 no effect. The @code{condition-case} form makes a difference when an | |
980 error occurs during @var{protected-form}. | |
981 | |
982 Each of the @var{handlers} is a list of the form @code{(@var{conditions} | |
983 @var{body}@dots{})}. Here @var{conditions} is an error condition name | |
984 to be handled, or a list of condition names (which can include @code{debug} | |
985 to allow the debugger to run before the handler); @var{body} is one or more | |
986 Lisp expressions to be executed when this handler handles an error. | |
987 Here are examples of handlers: | |
988 | |
989 @smallexample | |
990 @group | |
991 (error nil) | |
992 | |
993 (arith-error (message "Division by zero")) | |
994 | |
995 ((arith-error file-error) | |
996 (message | |
997 "Either division by zero or failure to open a file")) | |
998 @end group | |
999 @end smallexample | |
1000 | |
1001 Each error that occurs has an @dfn{error symbol} that describes what | |
1002 kind of error it is. The @code{error-conditions} property of this | |
1003 symbol is a list of condition names (@pxref{Error Symbols}). Emacs | |
1004 searches all the active @code{condition-case} forms for a handler that | |
1005 specifies one or more of these condition names; the innermost matching | |
1006 @code{condition-case} handles the error. Within this | |
1007 @code{condition-case}, the first applicable handler handles the error. | |
1008 | |
1009 After executing the body of the handler, the @code{condition-case} | |
1010 returns normally, using the value of the last form in the handler body | |
1011 as the overall value. | |
1012 | |
1013 @cindex error description | |
1014 The argument @var{var} is a variable. @code{condition-case} does not | |
1015 bind this variable when executing the @var{protected-form}, only when it | |
1016 handles an error. At that time, it binds @var{var} locally to an | |
1017 @dfn{error description}, which is a list giving the particulars of the | |
1018 error. The error description has the form @code{(@var{error-symbol} | |
1019 . @var{data})}. The handler can refer to this list to decide what to | |
1020 do. For example, if the error is for failure opening a file, the file | |
1021 name is the second element of @var{data}---the third element of the | |
1022 error description. | |
1023 | |
1024 If @var{var} is @code{nil}, that means no variable is bound. Then the | |
1025 error symbol and associated data are not available to the handler. | |
1026 @end defspec | |
1027 | |
1028 @defun error-message-string error-description | |
1029 This function returns the error message string for a given error | |
1030 descriptor. It is useful if you want to handle an error by printing the | |
1031 usual error message for that error. @xref{Definition of signal}. | |
1032 @end defun | |
1033 | |
1034 @cindex @code{arith-error} example | |
1035 Here is an example of using @code{condition-case} to handle the error | |
1036 that results from dividing by zero. The handler displays the error | |
1037 message (but without a beep), then returns a very large number. | |
1038 | |
1039 @smallexample | |
1040 @group | |
1041 (defun safe-divide (dividend divisor) | |
1042 (condition-case err | |
1043 ;; @r{Protected form.} | |
1044 (/ dividend divisor) | |
1045 @end group | |
1046 @group | |
1047 ;; @r{The handler.} | |
1048 (arith-error ; @r{Condition.} | |
1049 ;; @r{Display the usual message for this error.} | |
1050 (message "%s" (error-message-string err)) | |
1051 1000000))) | |
1052 @result{} safe-divide | |
1053 @end group | |
1054 | |
1055 @group | |
1056 (safe-divide 5 0) | |
1057 @print{} Arithmetic error: (arith-error) | |
1058 @result{} 1000000 | |
1059 @end group | |
1060 @end smallexample | |
1061 | |
1062 @noindent | |
1063 The handler specifies condition name @code{arith-error} so that it will handle only division-by-zero errors. Other kinds of errors will not be handled, at least not by this @code{condition-case}. Thus, | |
1064 | |
1065 @smallexample | |
1066 @group | |
1067 (safe-divide nil 3) | |
1068 @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, nil | |
1069 @end group | |
1070 @end smallexample | |
1071 | |
1072 Here is a @code{condition-case} that catches all kinds of errors, | |
1073 including those signaled with @code{error}: | |
1074 | |
1075 @smallexample | |
1076 @group | |
1077 (setq baz 34) | |
1078 @result{} 34 | |
1079 @end group | |
1080 | |
1081 @group | |
1082 (condition-case err | |
1083 (if (eq baz 35) | |
1084 t | |
1085 ;; @r{This is a call to the function @code{error}.} | |
1086 (error "Rats! The variable %s was %s, not 35" 'baz baz)) | |
1087 ;; @r{This is the handler; it is not a form.} | |
1088 (error (princ (format "The error was: %s" err)) | |
1089 2)) | |
1090 @print{} The error was: (error "Rats! The variable baz was 34, not 35") | |
1091 @result{} 2 | |
1092 @end group | |
1093 @end smallexample | |
1094 | |
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1095 @defmac ignore-errors body@dots{} |
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1096 This construct executes @var{body}, ignoring any errors that occur |
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1097 during its execution. If the execution is without error, |
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1098 @code{ignore-errors} returns the value of the last form in @var{body}; |
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1099 otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. |
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1100 |
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1101 Here's the example at the beginning of this subsection rewritten using |
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1102 @code{ignore-errors}: |
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1103 |
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1104 @smallexample |
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1105 @group |
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1106 (ignore-errors |
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1107 (delete-file filename)) |
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1108 @end group |
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1109 @end smallexample |
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1110 @end defmac |
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1111 |
84057 | 1112 @node Error Symbols |
1113 @subsubsection Error Symbols and Condition Names | |
1114 @cindex error symbol | |
1115 @cindex error name | |
1116 @cindex condition name | |
1117 @cindex user-defined error | |
1118 @kindex error-conditions | |
1119 | |
1120 When you signal an error, you specify an @dfn{error symbol} to specify | |
1121 the kind of error you have in mind. Each error has one and only one | |
1122 error symbol to categorize it. This is the finest classification of | |
1123 errors defined by the Emacs Lisp language. | |
1124 | |
1125 These narrow classifications are grouped into a hierarchy of wider | |
1126 classes called @dfn{error conditions}, identified by @dfn{condition | |
1127 names}. The narrowest such classes belong to the error symbols | |
1128 themselves: each error symbol is also a condition name. There are also | |
1129 condition names for more extensive classes, up to the condition name | |
1130 @code{error} which takes in all kinds of errors (but not @code{quit}). | |
1131 Thus, each error has one or more condition names: @code{error}, the | |
1132 error symbol if that is distinct from @code{error}, and perhaps some | |
1133 intermediate classifications. | |
1134 | |
1135 In order for a symbol to be an error symbol, it must have an | |
1136 @code{error-conditions} property which gives a list of condition names. | |
1137 This list defines the conditions that this kind of error belongs to. | |
1138 (The error symbol itself, and the symbol @code{error}, should always be | |
1139 members of this list.) Thus, the hierarchy of condition names is | |
1140 defined by the @code{error-conditions} properties of the error symbols. | |
1141 Because quitting is not considered an error, the value of the | |
1142 @code{error-conditions} property of @code{quit} is just @code{(quit)}. | |
1143 | |
1144 @cindex peculiar error | |
1145 In addition to the @code{error-conditions} list, the error symbol | |
1146 should have an @code{error-message} property whose value is a string to | |
1147 be printed when that error is signaled but not handled. If the | |
1148 error symbol has no @code{error-message} property or if the | |
1149 @code{error-message} property exists, but is not a string, the error | |
1150 message @samp{peculiar error} is used. @xref{Definition of signal}. | |
1151 | |
1152 Here is how we define a new error symbol, @code{new-error}: | |
1153 | |
1154 @example | |
1155 @group | |
1156 (put 'new-error | |
1157 'error-conditions | |
1158 '(error my-own-errors new-error)) | |
1159 @result{} (error my-own-errors new-error) | |
1160 @end group | |
1161 @group | |
1162 (put 'new-error 'error-message "A new error") | |
1163 @result{} "A new error" | |
1164 @end group | |
1165 @end example | |
1166 | |
1167 @noindent | |
1168 This error has three condition names: @code{new-error}, the narrowest | |
1169 classification; @code{my-own-errors}, which we imagine is a wider | |
1170 classification; and @code{error}, which is the widest of all. | |
1171 | |
1172 The error string should start with a capital letter but it should | |
1173 not end with a period. This is for consistency with the rest of Emacs. | |
1174 | |
1175 Naturally, Emacs will never signal @code{new-error} on its own; only | |
1176 an explicit call to @code{signal} (@pxref{Definition of signal}) in | |
1177 your code can do this: | |
1178 | |
1179 @example | |
1180 @group | |
1181 (signal 'new-error '(x y)) | |
1182 @error{} A new error: x, y | |
1183 @end group | |
1184 @end example | |
1185 | |
1186 This error can be handled through any of the three condition names. | |
1187 This example handles @code{new-error} and any other errors in the class | |
1188 @code{my-own-errors}: | |
1189 | |
1190 @example | |
1191 @group | |
1192 (condition-case foo | |
1193 (bar nil t) | |
1194 (my-own-errors nil)) | |
1195 @end group | |
1196 @end example | |
1197 | |
1198 The significant way that errors are classified is by their condition | |
1199 names---the names used to match errors with handlers. An error symbol | |
1200 serves only as a convenient way to specify the intended error message | |
1201 and list of condition names. It would be cumbersome to give | |
1202 @code{signal} a list of condition names rather than one error symbol. | |
1203 | |
1204 By contrast, using only error symbols without condition names would | |
1205 seriously decrease the power of @code{condition-case}. Condition names | |
1206 make it possible to categorize errors at various levels of generality | |
1207 when you write an error handler. Using error symbols alone would | |
1208 eliminate all but the narrowest level of classification. | |
1209 | |
1210 @xref{Standard Errors}, for a list of all the standard error symbols | |
1211 and their conditions. | |
1212 | |
1213 @node Cleanups | |
1214 @subsection Cleaning Up from Nonlocal Exits | |
1215 | |
1216 The @code{unwind-protect} construct is essential whenever you | |
1217 temporarily put a data structure in an inconsistent state; it permits | |
1218 you to make the data consistent again in the event of an error or | |
1219 throw. (Another more specific cleanup construct that is used only for | |
1220 changes in buffer contents is the atomic change group; @ref{Atomic | |
1221 Changes}.) | |
1222 | |
1223 @defspec unwind-protect body-form cleanup-forms@dots{} | |
1224 @cindex cleanup forms | |
1225 @cindex protected forms | |
1226 @cindex error cleanup | |
1227 @cindex unwinding | |
1228 @code{unwind-protect} executes @var{body-form} with a guarantee that | |
1229 the @var{cleanup-forms} will be evaluated if control leaves | |
1230 @var{body-form}, no matter how that happens. @var{body-form} may | |
1231 complete normally, or execute a @code{throw} out of the | |
1232 @code{unwind-protect}, or cause an error; in all cases, the | |
1233 @var{cleanup-forms} will be evaluated. | |
1234 | |
1235 If @var{body-form} finishes normally, @code{unwind-protect} returns the | |
1236 value of @var{body-form}, after it evaluates the @var{cleanup-forms}. | |
1237 If @var{body-form} does not finish, @code{unwind-protect} does not | |
1238 return any value in the normal sense. | |
1239 | |
1240 Only @var{body-form} is protected by the @code{unwind-protect}. If any | |
1241 of the @var{cleanup-forms} themselves exits nonlocally (via a | |
1242 @code{throw} or an error), @code{unwind-protect} is @emph{not} | |
1243 guaranteed to evaluate the rest of them. If the failure of one of the | |
1244 @var{cleanup-forms} has the potential to cause trouble, then protect | |
1245 it with another @code{unwind-protect} around that form. | |
1246 | |
1247 The number of currently active @code{unwind-protect} forms counts, | |
1248 together with the number of local variable bindings, against the limit | |
1249 @code{max-specpdl-size} (@pxref{Definition of max-specpdl-size,, Local | |
1250 Variables}). | |
1251 @end defspec | |
1252 | |
1253 For example, here we make an invisible buffer for temporary use, and | |
1254 make sure to kill it before finishing: | |
1255 | |
1256 @smallexample | |
1257 @group | |
1258 (save-excursion | |
1259 (let ((buffer (get-buffer-create " *temp*"))) | |
1260 (set-buffer buffer) | |
1261 (unwind-protect | |
1262 @var{body-form} | |
1263 (kill-buffer buffer)))) | |
1264 @end group | |
1265 @end smallexample | |
1266 | |
1267 @noindent | |
1268 You might think that we could just as well write @code{(kill-buffer | |
1269 (current-buffer))} and dispense with the variable @code{buffer}. | |
1270 However, the way shown above is safer, if @var{body-form} happens to | |
1271 get an error after switching to a different buffer! (Alternatively, | |
1272 you could write another @code{save-excursion} around @var{body-form}, | |
1273 to ensure that the temporary buffer becomes current again in time to | |
1274 kill it.) | |
1275 | |
1276 Emacs includes a standard macro called @code{with-temp-buffer} which | |
1277 expands into more or less the code shown above (@pxref{Definition of | |
1278 with-temp-buffer,, Current Buffer}). Several of the macros defined in | |
1279 this manual use @code{unwind-protect} in this way. | |
1280 | |
1281 @findex ftp-login | |
1282 Here is an actual example derived from an FTP package. It creates a | |
1283 process (@pxref{Processes}) to try to establish a connection to a remote | |
1284 machine. As the function @code{ftp-login} is highly susceptible to | |
1285 numerous problems that the writer of the function cannot anticipate, it | |
1286 is protected with a form that guarantees deletion of the process in the | |
1287 event of failure. Otherwise, Emacs might fill up with useless | |
1288 subprocesses. | |
1289 | |
1290 @smallexample | |
1291 @group | |
1292 (let ((win nil)) | |
1293 (unwind-protect | |
1294 (progn | |
1295 (setq process (ftp-setup-buffer host file)) | |
1296 (if (setq win (ftp-login process host user password)) | |
1297 (message "Logged in") | |
1298 (error "Ftp login failed"))) | |
1299 (or win (and process (delete-process process))))) | |
1300 @end group | |
1301 @end smallexample | |
1302 | |
1303 This example has a small bug: if the user types @kbd{C-g} to | |
1304 quit, and the quit happens immediately after the function | |
1305 @code{ftp-setup-buffer} returns but before the variable @code{process} is | |
1306 set, the process will not be killed. There is no easy way to fix this bug, | |
1307 but at least it is very unlikely. | |
1308 | |
1309 @ignore | |
1310 arch-tag: 8abc30d4-4d3a-47f9-b908-e9e971c18c6d | |
1311 @end ignore |