annotate lispref/objects.texi @ 45527:51cb1913e231

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author Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
date Sun, 26 May 2002 19:58:31 +0000
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999
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4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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6 @setfilename ../info/objects
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7 @node Lisp Data Types, Numbers, Introduction, Top
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8 @chapter Lisp Data Types
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9 @cindex object
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10 @cindex Lisp object
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11 @cindex type
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12 @cindex data type
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13
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14 A Lisp @dfn{object} is a piece of data used and manipulated by Lisp
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15 programs. For our purposes, a @dfn{type} or @dfn{data type} is a set of
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16 possible objects.
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17
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18 Every object belongs to at least one type. Objects of the same type
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19 have similar structures and may usually be used in the same contexts.
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20 Types can overlap, and objects can belong to two or more types.
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21 Consequently, we can ask whether an object belongs to a particular type,
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22 but not for ``the'' type of an object.
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23
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24 @cindex primitive type
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25 A few fundamental object types are built into Emacs. These, from
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26 which all other types are constructed, are called @dfn{primitive types}.
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27 Each object belongs to one and only one primitive type. These types
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28 include @dfn{integer}, @dfn{float}, @dfn{cons}, @dfn{symbol},
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29 @dfn{string}, @dfn{vector}, @dfn{hash-table}, @dfn{subr}, and
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30 @dfn{byte-code function}, plus several special types, such as
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31 @dfn{buffer}, that are related to editing. (@xref{Editing Types}.)
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32
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33 Each primitive type has a corresponding Lisp function that checks
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34 whether an object is a member of that type.
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35
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36 Note that Lisp is unlike many other languages in that Lisp objects are
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37 @dfn{self-typing}: the primitive type of the object is implicit in the
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38 object itself. For example, if an object is a vector, nothing can treat
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39 it as a number; Lisp knows it is a vector, not a number.
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40
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41 In most languages, the programmer must declare the data type of each
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42 variable, and the type is known by the compiler but not represented in
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43 the data. Such type declarations do not exist in Emacs Lisp. A Lisp
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44 variable can have any type of value, and it remembers whatever value
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45 you store in it, type and all.
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47 This chapter describes the purpose, printed representation, and read
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48 syntax of each of the standard types in GNU Emacs Lisp. Details on how
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49 to use these types can be found in later chapters.
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50
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51 @menu
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52 * Printed Representation:: How Lisp objects are represented as text.
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53 * Comments:: Comments and their formatting conventions.
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54 * Programming Types:: Types found in all Lisp systems.
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55 * Editing Types:: Types specific to Emacs.
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56 * Circular Objects:: Read syntax for circular structure.
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57 * Type Predicates:: Tests related to types.
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58 * Equality Predicates:: Tests of equality between any two objects.
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59 @end menu
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60
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61 @node Printed Representation
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62 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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63 @section Printed Representation and Read Syntax
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64 @cindex printed representation
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65 @cindex read syntax
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66
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67 The @dfn{printed representation} of an object is the format of the
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68 output generated by the Lisp printer (the function @code{prin1}) for
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69 that object. The @dfn{read syntax} of an object is the format of the
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70 input accepted by the Lisp reader (the function @code{read}) for that
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71 object. @xref{Read and Print}.
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72
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73 Most objects have more than one possible read syntax. Some types of
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74 object have no read syntax, since it may not make sense to enter objects
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75 of these types directly in a Lisp program. Except for these cases, the
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76 printed representation of an object is also a read syntax for it.
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77
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78 In other languages, an expression is text; it has no other form. In
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79 Lisp, an expression is primarily a Lisp object and only secondarily the
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80 text that is the object's read syntax. Often there is no need to
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81 emphasize this distinction, but you must keep it in the back of your
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82 mind, or you will occasionally be very confused.
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83
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84 @cindex hash notation
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85 Every type has a printed representation. Some types have no read
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86 syntax---for example, the buffer type has none. Objects of these types
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87 are printed in @dfn{hash notation}: the characters @samp{#<} followed by
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88 a descriptive string (typically the type name followed by the name of
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89 the object), and closed with a matching @samp{>}. Hash notation cannot
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90 be read at all, so the Lisp reader signals the error
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91 @code{invalid-read-syntax} whenever it encounters @samp{#<}.
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92 @kindex invalid-read-syntax
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93
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94 @example
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95 (current-buffer)
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96 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi>
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97 @end example
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98
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99 When you evaluate an expression interactively, the Lisp interpreter
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100 first reads the textual representation of it, producing a Lisp object,
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101 and then evaluates that object (@pxref{Evaluation}). However,
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102 evaluation and reading are separate activities. Reading returns the
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103 Lisp object represented by the text that is read; the object may or may
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104 not be evaluated later. @xref{Input Functions}, for a description of
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105 @code{read}, the basic function for reading objects.
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106
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107 @node Comments
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108 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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109 @section Comments
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110 @cindex comments
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111 @cindex @samp{;} in comment
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112
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113 A @dfn{comment} is text that is written in a program only for the sake
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114 of humans that read the program, and that has no effect on the meaning
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115 of the program. In Lisp, a semicolon (@samp{;}) starts a comment if it
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116 is not within a string or character constant. The comment continues to
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117 the end of line. The Lisp reader discards comments; they do not become
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118 part of the Lisp objects which represent the program within the Lisp
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119 system.
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120
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121 The @samp{#@@@var{count}} construct, which skips the next @var{count}
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122 characters, is useful for program-generated comments containing binary
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123 data. The Emacs Lisp byte compiler uses this in its output files
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124 (@pxref{Byte Compilation}). It isn't meant for source files, however.
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125
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126 @xref{Comment Tips}, for conventions for formatting comments.
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127
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128 @node Programming Types
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129 @section Programming Types
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130 @cindex programming types
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131
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132 There are two general categories of types in Emacs Lisp: those having
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133 to do with Lisp programming, and those having to do with editing. The
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134 former exist in many Lisp implementations, in one form or another. The
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135 latter are unique to Emacs Lisp.
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136
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137 @menu
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138 * Integer Type:: Numbers without fractional parts.
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139 * Floating Point Type:: Numbers with fractional parts and with a large range.
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140 * Character Type:: The representation of letters, numbers and
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141 control characters.
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142 * Symbol Type:: A multi-use object that refers to a function,
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143 variable, or property list, and has a unique identity.
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144 * Sequence Type:: Both lists and arrays are classified as sequences.
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145 * Cons Cell Type:: Cons cells, and lists (which are made from cons cells).
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146 * Array Type:: Arrays include strings and vectors.
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147 * String Type:: An (efficient) array of characters.
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148 * Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays.
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149 * Char-Table Type:: One-dimensional sparse arrays indexed by characters.
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150 * Bool-Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays of @code{t} or @code{nil}.
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151 * Hash Table Type:: Super-fast lookup tables.
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152 * Function Type:: A piece of executable code you can call from elsewhere.
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153 * Macro Type:: A method of expanding an expression into another
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154 expression, more fundamental but less pretty.
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155 * Primitive Function Type:: A function written in C, callable from Lisp.
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156 * Byte-Code Type:: A function written in Lisp, then compiled.
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157 * Autoload Type:: A type used for automatically loading seldom-used
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158 functions.
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159 @end menu
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160
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161 @node Integer Type
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162 @subsection Integer Type
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163
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164 The range of values for integers in Emacs Lisp is @minus{}134217728 to
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165 134217727 (28 bits; i.e.,
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166 @ifnottex
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167 -2**27
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168 @end ifnottex
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169 @tex
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170 @math{-2^{27}}
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171 @end tex
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172 to
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173 @ifnottex
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174 2**27 - 1)
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175 @end ifnottex
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176 @tex
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177 @math{2^{28}-1})
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178 @end tex
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179 on most machines. (Some machines may provide a wider range.) It is
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180 important to note that the Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions do not check
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181 for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 134217727)} is @minus{}134217728 on most
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182 machines.
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183
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184 The read syntax for integers is a sequence of (base ten) digits with an
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185 optional sign at the beginning and an optional period at the end. The
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186 printed representation produced by the Lisp interpreter never has a
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187 leading @samp{+} or a final @samp{.}.
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188
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189 @example
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190 @group
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191 -1 ; @r{The integer -1.}
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192 1 ; @r{The integer 1.}
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193 1. ; @r{Also the integer 1.}
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194 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.}
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195 268435457 ; @r{Also the integer 1 on a 28-bit implementation.}
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196 @end group
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197 @end example
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198
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199 @xref{Numbers}, for more information.
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200
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201 @node Floating Point Type
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202 @subsection Floating Point Type
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203
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204 Floating point numbers are the computer equivalent of scientific
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205 notation. The precise number of significant figures and the range of
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206 possible exponents is machine-specific; Emacs always uses the C data
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207 type @code{double} to store the value.
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208
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209 The printed representation for floating point numbers requires either
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210 a decimal point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or
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211 both. For example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2},
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212 @samp{1.5e3}, and @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point
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213 number whose value is 1500. They are all equivalent.
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214
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215 @xref{Numbers}, for more information.
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216
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217 @node Character Type
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218 @subsection Character Type
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219 @cindex @sc{ascii} character codes
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220
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221 A @dfn{character} in Emacs Lisp is nothing more than an integer. In
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222 other words, characters are represented by their character codes. For
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223 example, the character @kbd{A} is represented as the @w{integer 65}.
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224
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225 Individual characters are not often used in programs. It is far more
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226 common to work with @emph{strings}, which are sequences composed of
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227 characters. @xref{String Type}.
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228
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229 Characters in strings, buffers, and files are currently limited to the
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230 range of 0 to 524287---nineteen bits. But not all values in that range
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231 are valid character codes. Codes 0 through 127 are @sc{ascii} codes; the
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232 rest are non-@sc{ascii} (@pxref{Non-ASCII Characters}). Characters that represent
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233 keyboard input have a much wider range, to encode modifier keys such as
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234 Control, Meta and Shift.
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235
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236 @cindex read syntax for characters
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237 @cindex printed representation for characters
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238 @cindex syntax for characters
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239 @cindex @samp{?} in character constant
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240 @cindex question mark in character constant
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241 Since characters are really integers, the printed representation of a
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242 character is a decimal number. This is also a possible read syntax for
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243 a character, but writing characters that way in Lisp programs is a very
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244 bad idea. You should @emph{always} use the special read syntax formats
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245 that Emacs Lisp provides for characters. These syntax formats start
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246 with a question mark.
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247
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248 The usual read syntax for alphanumeric characters is a question mark
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249 followed by the character; thus, @samp{?A} for the character
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250 @kbd{A}, @samp{?B} for the character @kbd{B}, and @samp{?a} for the
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251 character @kbd{a}.
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252
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253 For example:
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254
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255 @example
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256 ?Q @result{} 81 ?q @result{} 113
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257 @end example
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258
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259 You can use the same syntax for punctuation characters, but it is
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260 often a good idea to add a @samp{\} so that the Emacs commands for
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261 editing Lisp code don't get confused. For example, @samp{?\ } is the
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262 way to write the space character. If the character is @samp{\}, you
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263 @emph{must} use a second @samp{\} to quote it: @samp{?\\}.
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264
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265 @cindex whitespace
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266 @cindex bell character
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267 @cindex @samp{\a}
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268 @cindex backspace
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269 @cindex @samp{\b}
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270 @cindex tab
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271 @cindex @samp{\t}
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272 @cindex vertical tab
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273 @cindex @samp{\v}
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274 @cindex formfeed
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275 @cindex @samp{\f}
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276 @cindex newline
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277 @cindex @samp{\n}
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278 @cindex return
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279 @cindex @samp{\r}
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280 @cindex escape
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281 @cindex @samp{\e}
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282 You can express the characters Control-g, backspace, tab, newline,
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283 vertical tab, formfeed, return, del, and escape as @samp{?\a},
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284 @samp{?\b}, @samp{?\t}, @samp{?\n}, @samp{?\v}, @samp{?\f},
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285 @samp{?\r}, @samp{?\d}, and @samp{?\e}, respectively. Thus,
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286
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287 @example
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288 ?\a @result{} 7 ; @r{@kbd{C-g}}
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289 ?\b @result{} 8 ; @r{backspace, @key{BS}, @kbd{C-h}}
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290 ?\t @result{} 9 ; @r{tab, @key{TAB}, @kbd{C-i}}
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291 ?\n @result{} 10 ; @r{newline, @kbd{C-j}}
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292 ?\v @result{} 11 ; @r{vertical tab, @kbd{C-k}}
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293 ?\f @result{} 12 ; @r{formfeed character, @kbd{C-l}}
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294 ?\r @result{} 13 ; @r{carriage return, @key{RET}, @kbd{C-m}}
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295 ?\e @result{} 27 ; @r{escape character, @key{ESC}, @kbd{C-[}}
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296 ?\\ @result{} 92 ; @r{backslash character, @kbd{\}}
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297 ?\d @result{} 127 ; @r{delete character, @key{DEL}}
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298 @end example
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299
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300 @cindex escape sequence
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301 These sequences which start with backslash are also known as
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302 @dfn{escape sequences}, because backslash plays the role of an escape
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303 character; this usage has nothing to do with the character @key{ESC}.
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304
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305 @cindex control characters
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306 Control characters may be represented using yet another read syntax.
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307 This consists of a question mark followed by a backslash, caret, and the
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308 corresponding non-control character, in either upper or lower case. For
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309 example, both @samp{?\^I} and @samp{?\^i} are valid read syntax for the
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310 character @kbd{C-i}, the character whose value is 9.
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311
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312 Instead of the @samp{^}, you can use @samp{C-}; thus, @samp{?\C-i} is
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313 equivalent to @samp{?\^I} and to @samp{?\^i}:
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314
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315 @example
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316 ?\^I @result{} 9 ?\C-I @result{} 9
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317 @end example
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318
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319 In strings and buffers, the only control characters allowed are those
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320 that exist in @sc{ascii}; but for keyboard input purposes, you can turn
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321 any character into a control character with @samp{C-}. The character
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322 codes for these non-@sc{ascii} control characters include the
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323 @tex
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324 @math{2^{26}}
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325 @end tex
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326 @ifnottex
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327 2**26
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328 @end ifnottex
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329 bit as well as the code for the corresponding non-control
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330 character. Ordinary terminals have no way of generating non-@sc{ascii}
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331 control characters, but you can generate them straightforwardly using X
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332 and other window systems.
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333
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334 For historical reasons, Emacs treats the @key{DEL} character as
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335 the control equivalent of @kbd{?}:
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336
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337 @example
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338 ?\^? @result{} 127 ?\C-? @result{} 127
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339 @end example
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340
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341 @noindent
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342 As a result, it is currently not possible to represent the character
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343 @kbd{Control-?}, which is a meaningful input character under X, using
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344 @samp{\C-}. It is not easy to change this, as various Lisp files refer
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345 to @key{DEL} in this way.
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346
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347 For representing control characters to be found in files or strings,
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348 we recommend the @samp{^} syntax; for control characters in keyboard
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349 input, we prefer the @samp{C-} syntax. Which one you use does not
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350 affect the meaning of the program, but may guide the understanding of
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351 people who read it.
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352
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353 @cindex meta characters
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354 A @dfn{meta character} is a character typed with the @key{META}
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355 modifier key. The integer that represents such a character has the
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356 @tex
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357 @math{2^{27}}
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358 @end tex
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359 @ifnottex
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360 2**27
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361 @end ifnottex
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362 bit set (which on most machines makes it a negative number). We
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363 use high bits for this and other modifiers to make possible a wide range
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364 of basic character codes.
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365
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366 In a string, the
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367 @tex
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368 @math{2^{7}}
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369 @end tex
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370 @ifnottex
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371 2**7
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372 @end ifnottex
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373 bit attached to an @sc{ascii} character indicates a meta character; thus, the
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374 meta characters that can fit in a string have codes in the range from
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375 128 to 255, and are the meta versions of the ordinary @sc{ascii}
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376 characters. (In Emacs versions 18 and older, this convention was used
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377 for characters outside of strings as well.)
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378
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379 The read syntax for meta characters uses @samp{\M-}. For example,
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380 @samp{?\M-A} stands for @kbd{M-A}. You can use @samp{\M-} together with
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381 octal character codes (see below), with @samp{\C-}, or with any other
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382 syntax for a character. Thus, you can write @kbd{M-A} as @samp{?\M-A},
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383 or as @samp{?\M-\101}. Likewise, you can write @kbd{C-M-b} as
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384 @samp{?\M-\C-b}, @samp{?\C-\M-b}, or @samp{?\M-\002}.
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385
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386 The case of a graphic character is indicated by its character code;
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387 for example, @sc{ascii} distinguishes between the characters @samp{a}
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388 and @samp{A}. But @sc{ascii} has no way to represent whether a control
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389 character is upper case or lower case. Emacs uses the
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390 @tex
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391 @math{2^{25}}
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392 @end tex
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393 @ifnottex
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394 2**25
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395 @end ifnottex
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396 bit to indicate that the shift key was used in typing a control
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397 character. This distinction is possible only when you use X terminals
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398 or other special terminals; ordinary terminals do not report the
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399 distinction to the computer in any way. The Lisp syntax for
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400 the shift bit is @samp{\S-}; thus, @samp{?\C-\S-o} or @samp{?\C-\S-O}
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401 represents the shifted-control-o character.
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402
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403 @cindex hyper characters
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404 @cindex super characters
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405 @cindex alt characters
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406 The X Window System defines three other modifier bits that can be set
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407 in a character: @dfn{hyper}, @dfn{super} and @dfn{alt}. The syntaxes
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408 for these bits are @samp{\H-}, @samp{\s-} and @samp{\A-}. (Case is
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409 significant in these prefixes.) Thus, @samp{?\H-\M-\A-x} represents
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410 @kbd{Alt-Hyper-Meta-x}.
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411 @tex
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412 Numerically, the
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413 bit values are @math{2^{22}} for alt, @math{2^{23}} for super and @math{2^{24}} for hyper.
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414 @end tex
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415 @ifnottex
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416 Numerically, the
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417 bit values are 2**22 for alt, 2**23 for super and 2**24 for hyper.
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418 @end ifnottex
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419
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420 @cindex @samp{\} in character constant
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421 @cindex backslash in character constant
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422 @cindex octal character code
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423 Finally, the most general read syntax for a character represents the
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424 character code in either octal or hex. To use octal, write a question
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425 mark followed by a backslash and the octal character code (up to three
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426 octal digits); thus, @samp{?\101} for the character @kbd{A},
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427 @samp{?\001} for the character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\002} for the
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428 character @kbd{C-b}. Although this syntax can represent any @sc{ascii}
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429 character, it is preferred only when the precise octal value is more
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430 important than the @sc{ascii} representation.
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431
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432 @example
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433 @group
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434 ?\012 @result{} 10 ?\n @result{} 10 ?\C-j @result{} 10
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435 ?\101 @result{} 65 ?A @result{} 65
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436 @end group
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437 @end example
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438
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439 To use hex, write a question mark followed by a backslash, @samp{x},
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440 and the hexadecimal character code. You can use any number of hex
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441 digits, so you can represent any character code in this way.
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442 Thus, @samp{?\x41} for the character @kbd{A}, @samp{?\x1} for the
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443 character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\x8e0} for the Latin-1 character
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444 @iftex
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445 @samp{@`a}.
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446 @end iftex
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447 @ifnottex
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448 @samp{a} with grave accent.
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449 @end ifnottex
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450
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451 A backslash is allowed, and harmless, preceding any character without
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452 a special escape meaning; thus, @samp{?\+} is equivalent to @samp{?+}.
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453 There is no reason to add a backslash before most characters. However,
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454 you should add a backslash before any of the characters
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455 @samp{()\|;'`"#.,} to avoid confusing the Emacs commands for editing
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456 Lisp code. Also add a backslash before whitespace characters such as
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457 space, tab, newline and formfeed. However, it is cleaner to use one of
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458 the easily readable escape sequences, such as @samp{\t}, instead of an
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459 actual whitespace character such as a tab.
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460
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461 @node Symbol Type
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462 @subsection Symbol Type
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463
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464 A @dfn{symbol} in GNU Emacs Lisp is an object with a name. The symbol
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465 name serves as the printed representation of the symbol. In ordinary
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466 use, the name is unique---no two symbols have the same name.
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467
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468 A symbol can serve as a variable, as a function name, or to hold a
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469 property list. Or it may serve only to be distinct from all other Lisp
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470 objects, so that its presence in a data structure may be recognized
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471 reliably. In a given context, usually only one of these uses is
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472 intended. But you can use one symbol in all of these ways,
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473 independently.
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474
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475 A symbol whose name starts with a colon (@samp{:}) is called a
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476 @dfn{keyword symbol}. These symbols automatically act as constants, and
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477 are normally used only by comparing an unknown symbol with a few
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478 specific alternatives.
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479
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480 @cindex @samp{\} in symbols
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481 @cindex backslash in symbols
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482 A symbol name can contain any characters whatever. Most symbol names
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483 are written with letters, digits, and the punctuation characters
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484 @samp{-+=*/}. Such names require no special punctuation; the characters
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485 of the name suffice as long as the name does not look like a number.
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486 (If it does, write a @samp{\} at the beginning of the name to force
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487 interpretation as a symbol.) The characters @samp{_~!@@$%^&:<>@{@}?} are
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488 less often used but also require no special punctuation. Any other
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489 characters may be included in a symbol's name by escaping them with a
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490 backslash. In contrast to its use in strings, however, a backslash in
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491 the name of a symbol simply quotes the single character that follows the
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492 backslash. For example, in a string, @samp{\t} represents a tab
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493 character; in the name of a symbol, however, @samp{\t} merely quotes the
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494 letter @samp{t}. To have a symbol with a tab character in its name, you
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495 must actually use a tab (preceded with a backslash). But it's rare to
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496 do such a thing.
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497
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498 @cindex CL note---case of letters
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499 @quotation
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500 @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, lower case letters are always
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501 ``folded'' to upper case, unless they are explicitly escaped. In Emacs
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502 Lisp, upper case and lower case letters are distinct.
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503 @end quotation
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504
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505 Here are several examples of symbol names. Note that the @samp{+} in
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506 the fifth example is escaped to prevent it from being read as a number.
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507 This is not necessary in the sixth example because the rest of the name
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508 makes it invalid as a number.
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509
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510 @example
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511 @group
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512 foo ; @r{A symbol named @samp{foo}.}
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513 FOO ; @r{A symbol named @samp{FOO}, different from @samp{foo}.}
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514 char-to-string ; @r{A symbol named @samp{char-to-string}.}
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515 @end group
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516 @group
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517 1+ ; @r{A symbol named @samp{1+}}
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518 ; @r{(not @samp{+1}, which is an integer).}
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519 @end group
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520 @group
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521 \+1 ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+1}}
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522 ; @r{(not a very readable name).}
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523 @end group
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524 @group
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525 \(*\ 1\ 2\) ; @r{A symbol named @samp{(* 1 2)} (a worse name).}
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526 @c the @'s in this next line use up three characters, hence the
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527 @c apparent misalignment of the comment.
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528 +-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@} ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@}}.}
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529 ; @r{These characters need not be escaped.}
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530 @end group
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531 @end example
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532
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533 @ifinfo
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534 @c This uses ``colon'' instead of a literal `:' because Info cannot
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535 @c cope with a `:' in a menu
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536 @cindex @samp{#@var{colon}} read syntax
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537 @end ifinfo
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538 @ifnotinfo
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539 @cindex @samp{#:} read syntax
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540 @end ifnotinfo
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541 Normally the Lisp reader interns all symbols (@pxref{Creating
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542 Symbols}). To prevent interning, you can write @samp{#:} before the
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543 name of the symbol.
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544
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545 @node Sequence Type
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546 @subsection Sequence Types
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547
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548 A @dfn{sequence} is a Lisp object that represents an ordered set of
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549 elements. There are two kinds of sequence in Emacs Lisp, lists and
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550 arrays. Thus, an object of type list or of type array is also
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551 considered a sequence.
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552
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553 Arrays are further subdivided into strings, vectors, char-tables and
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554 bool-vectors. Vectors can hold elements of any type, but string
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555 elements must be characters, and bool-vector elements must be @code{t}
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556 or @code{nil}. Char-tables are like vectors except that they are
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557 indexed by any valid character code. The characters in a string can
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558 have text properties like characters in a buffer (@pxref{Text
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559 Properties}), but vectors do not support text properties, even when
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560 their elements happen to be characters.
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561
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562 Lists, strings and the other array types are different, but they have
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563 important similarities. For example, all have a length @var{l}, and all
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564 have elements which can be indexed from zero to @var{l} minus one.
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565 Several functions, called sequence functions, accept any kind of
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566 sequence. For example, the function @code{elt} can be used to extract
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567 an element of a sequence, given its index. @xref{Sequences Arrays
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568 Vectors}.
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569
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570 It is generally impossible to read the same sequence twice, since
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571 sequences are always created anew upon reading. If you read the read
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572 syntax for a sequence twice, you get two sequences with equal contents.
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573 There is one exception: the empty list @code{()} always stands for the
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574 same object, @code{nil}.
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575
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576 @node Cons Cell Type
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577 @subsection Cons Cell and List Types
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578 @cindex address field of register
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579 @cindex decrement field of register
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580 @cindex pointers
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581
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582 A @dfn{cons cell} is an object that consists of two slots, called the
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583 @sc{car} slot and the @sc{cdr} slot. Each slot can @dfn{hold} or
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584 @dfn{refer to} any Lisp object. We also say that ``the @sc{car} of
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585 this cons cell is'' whatever object its @sc{car} slot currently holds,
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586 and likewise for the @sc{cdr}.
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587
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588 @quotation
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589 A note to C programmers: in Lisp, we do not distinguish between
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590 ``holding'' a value and ``pointing to'' the value, because pointers in
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591 Lisp are implicit.
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592 @end quotation
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593
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594 A @dfn{list} is a series of cons cells, linked together so that the
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595 @sc{cdr} slot of each cons cell holds either the next cons cell or the
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596 empty list. @xref{Lists}, for functions that work on lists. Because
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597 most cons cells are used as part of lists, the phrase @dfn{list
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598 structure} has come to refer to any structure made out of cons cells.
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599
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600 The names @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} derive from the history of Lisp. The
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601 original Lisp implementation ran on an @w{IBM 704} computer which
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602 divided words into two parts, called the ``address'' part and the
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603 ``decrement''; @sc{car} was an instruction to extract the contents of
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604 the address part of a register, and @sc{cdr} an instruction to extract
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605 the contents of the decrement. By contrast, ``cons cells'' are named
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606 for the function @code{cons} that creates them, which in turn was named
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607 for its purpose, the construction of cells.
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608
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609 @cindex atom
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610 Because cons cells are so central to Lisp, we also have a word for
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611 ``an object which is not a cons cell''. These objects are called
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612 @dfn{atoms}.
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613
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614 @cindex parenthesis
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615 The read syntax and printed representation for lists are identical, and
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616 consist of a left parenthesis, an arbitrary number of elements, and a
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617 right parenthesis.
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618
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619 Upon reading, each object inside the parentheses becomes an element
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620 of the list. That is, a cons cell is made for each element. The
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621 @sc{car} slot of the cons cell holds the element, and its @sc{cdr}
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622 slot refers to the next cons cell of the list, which holds the next
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623 element in the list. The @sc{cdr} slot of the last cons cell is set to
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624 hold @code{nil}.
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625
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626 @cindex box diagrams, for lists
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627 @cindex diagrams, boxed, for lists
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628 A list can be illustrated by a diagram in which the cons cells are
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629 shown as pairs of boxes, like dominoes. (The Lisp reader cannot read
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630 such an illustration; unlike the textual notation, which can be
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631 understood by both humans and computers, the box illustrations can be
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632 understood only by humans.) This picture represents the three-element
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633 list @code{(rose violet buttercup)}:
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634
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635 @example
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636 @group
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637 --- --- --- --- --- ---
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638 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil
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639 --- --- --- --- --- ---
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640 | | |
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641 | | |
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642 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup
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643 @end group
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644 @end example
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645
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646 In this diagram, each box represents a slot that can hold or refer to
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647 any Lisp object. Each pair of boxes represents a cons cell. Each arrow
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648 represents a reference to a Lisp object, either an atom or another cons
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649 cell.
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650
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651 In this example, the first box, which holds the @sc{car} of the first
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652 cons cell, refers to or ``holds'' @code{rose} (a symbol). The second
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653 box, holding the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell, refers to the next
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654 pair of boxes, the second cons cell. The @sc{car} of the second cons
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655 cell is @code{violet}, and its @sc{cdr} is the third cons cell. The
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656 @sc{cdr} of the third (and last) cons cell is @code{nil}.
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657
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658 Here is another diagram of the same list, @code{(rose violet
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659 buttercup)}, sketched in a different manner:
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660
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661 @smallexample
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662 @group
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663 --------------- ---------------- -------------------
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664 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr |
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665 | rose | o-------->| violet | o-------->| buttercup | nil |
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666 | | | | | | | | |
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667 --------------- ---------------- -------------------
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668 @end group
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669 @end smallexample
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670
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671 @cindex @samp{(@dots{})} in lists
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672 @cindex @code{nil} in lists
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673 @cindex empty list
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674 A list with no elements in it is the @dfn{empty list}; it is identical
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675 to the symbol @code{nil}. In other words, @code{nil} is both a symbol
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676 and a list.
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677
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678 Here are examples of lists written in Lisp syntax:
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679
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680 @example
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681 (A 2 "A") ; @r{A list of three elements.}
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682 () ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).}
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683 nil ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).}
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684 ("A ()") ; @r{A list of one element: the string @code{"A ()"}.}
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685 (A ()) ; @r{A list of two elements: @code{A} and the empty list.}
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686 (A nil) ; @r{Equivalent to the previous.}
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687 ((A B C)) ; @r{A list of one element}
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688 ; @r{(which is a list of three elements).}
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689 @end example
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690
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691 Here is the list @code{(A ())}, or equivalently @code{(A nil)},
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692 depicted with boxes and arrows:
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693
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694 @example
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695 @group
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696 --- --- --- ---
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697 | | |--> | | |--> nil
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698 --- --- --- ---
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699 | |
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700 | |
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701 --> A --> nil
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702 @end group
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703 @end example
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704
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705 @menu
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706 * Dotted Pair Notation:: An alternative syntax for lists.
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707 * Association List Type:: A specially constructed list.
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708 @end menu
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709
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710 @node Dotted Pair Notation
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711 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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712 @subsubsection Dotted Pair Notation
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713 @cindex dotted pair notation
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714 @cindex @samp{.} in lists
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715
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716 @dfn{Dotted pair notation} is an alternative syntax for cons cells
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717 that represents the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} explicitly. In this syntax,
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718 @code{(@var{a} .@: @var{b})} stands for a cons cell whose @sc{car} is
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719 the object @var{a}, and whose @sc{cdr} is the object @var{b}. Dotted
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720 pair notation is therefore more general than list syntax. In the dotted
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721 pair notation, the list @samp{(1 2 3)} is written as @samp{(1 . (2 . (3
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722 . nil)))}. For @code{nil}-terminated lists, you can use either
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723 notation, but list notation is usually clearer and more convenient.
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724 When printing a list, the dotted pair notation is only used if the
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725 @sc{cdr} of a cons cell is not a list.
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726
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727 Here's an example using boxes to illustrate dotted pair notation.
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728 This example shows the pair @code{(rose . violet)}:
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729
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730 @example
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731 @group
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732 --- ---
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733 | | |--> violet
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734 --- ---
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735 |
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736 |
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737 --> rose
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738 @end group
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739 @end example
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740
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741 You can combine dotted pair notation with list notation to represent
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742 conveniently a chain of cons cells with a non-@code{nil} final @sc{cdr}.
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743 You write a dot after the last element of the list, followed by the
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744 @sc{cdr} of the final cons cell. For example, @code{(rose violet
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745 . buttercup)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . buttercup))}.
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diff changeset
746 The object looks like this:
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747
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748 @example
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749 @group
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750 --- --- --- ---
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751 | | |--> | | |--> buttercup
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752 --- --- --- ---
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753 | |
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754 | |
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755 --> rose --> violet
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756 @end group
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757 @end example
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758
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759 The syntax @code{(rose .@: violet .@: buttercup)} is invalid because
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760 there is nothing that it could mean. If anything, it would say to put
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761 @code{buttercup} in the @sc{cdr} of a cons cell whose @sc{cdr} is already
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762 used for @code{violet}.
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763
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764 The list @code{(rose violet)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet))},
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765 and looks like this:
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766
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767 @example
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768 @group
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769 --- --- --- ---
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770 | | |--> | | |--> nil
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771 --- --- --- ---
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parents:
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772 | |
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parents:
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773 | |
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774 --> rose --> violet
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parents:
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775 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
776 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
777
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parents:
diff changeset
778 Similarly, the three-element list @code{(rose violet buttercup)}
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
779 is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . (buttercup)))}.
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
780 @ifnottex
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781 It looks like this:
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parents:
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782
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783 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
784 @group
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785 --- --- --- --- --- ---
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
786 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
787 --- --- --- --- --- ---
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parents:
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788 | | |
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parents:
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789 | | |
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790 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup
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parents:
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791 @end group
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parents:
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792 @end example
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89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
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793 @end ifnottex
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parents:
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794
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parents:
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795 @node Association List Type
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parents:
diff changeset
796 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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parents:
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797 @subsubsection Association List Type
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parents:
diff changeset
798
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parents:
diff changeset
799 An @dfn{association list} or @dfn{alist} is a specially-constructed
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parents:
diff changeset
800 list whose elements are cons cells. In each element, the @sc{car} is
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parents:
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801 considered a @dfn{key}, and the @sc{cdr} is considered an
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parents:
diff changeset
802 @dfn{associated value}. (In some cases, the associated value is stored
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
803 in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr}.) Association lists are often used as
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parents:
diff changeset
804 stacks, since it is easy to add or remove associations at the front of
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
805 the list.
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parents:
diff changeset
806
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parents:
diff changeset
807 For example,
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parents:
diff changeset
808
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parents:
diff changeset
809 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
810 (setq alist-of-colors
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848626a721b2 Remove two excess spaces.
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parents: 38788
diff changeset
811 '((rose . red) (lily . white) (buttercup . yellow)))
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812 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
813
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parents:
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814 @noindent
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parents:
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815 sets the variable @code{alist-of-colors} to an alist of three elements. In the
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parents:
diff changeset
816 first element, @code{rose} is the key and @code{red} is the value.
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parents:
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817
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parents:
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818 @xref{Association Lists}, for a further explanation of alists and for
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
819 functions that work on alists. @xref{Hash Tables}, for another kind of
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
820 lookup table, which is much faster for handling a large number of keys.
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parents:
diff changeset
821
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parents:
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822 @node Array Type
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parents:
diff changeset
823 @subsection Array Type
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parents:
diff changeset
824
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825 An @dfn{array} is composed of an arbitrary number of slots for
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parents: 22274
diff changeset
826 holding or referring to other Lisp objects, arranged in a contiguous block of
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
827 memory. Accessing any element of an array takes approximately the same
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
828 amount of time. In contrast, accessing an element of a list requires
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
829 time proportional to the position of the element in the list. (Elements
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
830 at the end of a list take longer to access than elements at the
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
831 beginning of a list.)
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
832
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
833 Emacs defines four types of array: strings, vectors, bool-vectors, and
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
834 char-tables.
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835
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diff changeset
836 A string is an array of characters and a vector is an array of
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
837 arbitrary objects. A bool-vector can hold only @code{t} or @code{nil}.
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
838 These kinds of array may have any length up to the largest integer.
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
839 Char-tables are sparse arrays indexed by any valid character code; they
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
840 can hold arbitrary objects.
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parents:
diff changeset
841
21682
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diff changeset
842 The first element of an array has index zero, the second element has
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
843 index 1, and so on. This is called @dfn{zero-origin} indexing. For
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
844 example, an array of four elements has indices 0, 1, 2, @w{and 3}. The
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
845 largest possible index value is one less than the length of the array.
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diff changeset
846 Once an array is created, its length is fixed.
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parents:
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847
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diff changeset
848 All Emacs Lisp arrays are one-dimensional. (Most other programming
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
849 languages support multidimensional arrays, but they are not essential;
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
850 you can get the same effect with an array of arrays.) Each type of
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
851 array has its own read syntax; see the following sections for details.
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parents:
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852
21682
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853 The array type is contained in the sequence type and
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
854 contains the string type, the vector type, the bool-vector type, and the
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
855 char-table type.
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parents:
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856
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parents:
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857 @node String Type
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parents:
diff changeset
858 @subsection String Type
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parents:
diff changeset
859
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parents:
diff changeset
860 A @dfn{string} is an array of characters. Strings are used for many
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
861 purposes in Emacs, as can be expected in a text editor; for example, as
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
862 the names of Lisp symbols, as messages for the user, and to represent
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
863 text extracted from buffers. Strings in Lisp are constants: evaluation
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
864 of a string returns the same string.
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parents:
diff changeset
865
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diff changeset
866 @xref{Strings and Characters}, for functions that operate on strings.
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
867
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
868 @menu
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diff changeset
869 * Syntax for Strings::
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
870 * Non-ASCII in Strings::
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
871 * Nonprinting Characters::
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
872 * Text Props and Strings::
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
873 @end menu
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
874
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diff changeset
875 @node Syntax for Strings
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
876 @subsubsection Syntax for Strings
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
877
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diff changeset
878 @cindex @samp{"} in strings
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parents:
diff changeset
879 @cindex double-quote in strings
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parents:
diff changeset
880 @cindex @samp{\} in strings
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parents:
diff changeset
881 @cindex backslash in strings
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parents:
diff changeset
882 The read syntax for strings is a double-quote, an arbitrary number of
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
883 characters, and another double-quote, @code{"like this"}. To include a
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
884 double-quote in a string, precede it with a backslash; thus, @code{"\""}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 16736
diff changeset
885 is a string containing just a single double-quote character. Likewise,
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
886 you can include a backslash by preceding it with another backslash, like
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
887 this: @code{"this \\ is a single embedded backslash"}.
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parents:
diff changeset
888
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889 @cindex newline in strings
7118
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
890 The newline character is not special in the read syntax for strings;
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
891 if you write a new line between the double-quotes, it becomes a
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
892 character in the string. But an escaped newline---one that is preceded
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
893 by @samp{\}---does not become part of the string; i.e., the Lisp reader
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
894 ignores an escaped newline while reading a string. An escaped space
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
895 @w{@samp{\ }} is likewise ignored.
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parents:
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896
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parents:
diff changeset
897 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
898 "It is useful to include newlines
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
899 in documentation strings,
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
900 but the newline is \
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parents:
diff changeset
901 ignored if escaped."
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parents:
diff changeset
902 @result{} "It is useful to include newlines
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parents:
diff changeset
903 in documentation strings,
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
904 but the newline is ignored if escaped."
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parents:
diff changeset
905 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
906
21007
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diff changeset
907 @node Non-ASCII in Strings
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diff changeset
908 @subsubsection Non-@sc{ascii} Characters in Strings
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
909
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diff changeset
910 You can include a non-@sc{ascii} international character in a string
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
911 constant by writing it literally. There are two text representations
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
912 for non-@sc{ascii} characters in Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte
21007
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
913 and multibyte. If the string constant is read from a multibyte source,
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
914 such as a multibyte buffer or string, or a file that would be visited as
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
915 multibyte, then the character is read as a multibyte character, and that
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
916 makes the string multibyte. If the string constant is read from a
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
917 unibyte source, then the character is read as unibyte and that makes the
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
918 string unibyte.
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diff changeset
919
26783
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parents: 26188
diff changeset
920 You can also represent a multibyte non-@sc{ascii} character with its
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
921 character code: use a hex escape, @samp{\x@var{nnnnnnn}}, with as many
26783
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parents: 26188
diff changeset
922 digits as necessary. (Multibyte non-@sc{ascii} character codes are all
21007
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diff changeset
923 greater than 256.) Any character which is not a valid hex digit
24951
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parents: 22274
diff changeset
924 terminates this construct. If the next character in the string could be
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parents: 22274
diff changeset
925 interpreted as a hex digit, write @w{@samp{\ }} (backslash and space) to
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parents: 22274
diff changeset
926 terminate the hex escape---for example, @w{@samp{\x8e0\ }} represents
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parents: 22274
diff changeset
927 one character, @samp{a} with grave accent. @w{@samp{\ }} in a string
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928 constant is just like backslash-newline; it does not contribute any
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929 character to the string, but it does terminate the preceding hex escape.
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930
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931 Using a multibyte hex escape forces the string to multibyte. You can
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932 represent a unibyte non-@sc{ascii} character with its character code,
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933 which must be in the range from 128 (0200 octal) to 255 (0377 octal).
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934 This forces a unibyte string.
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935
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936 @xref{Text Representations}, for more information about the two
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937 text representations.
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938
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939 @node Nonprinting Characters
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940 @subsubsection Nonprinting Characters in Strings
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941
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942 You can use the same backslash escape-sequences in a string constant
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943 as in character literals (but do not use the question mark that begins a
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944 character constant). For example, you can write a string containing the
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945 nonprinting characters tab and @kbd{C-a}, with commas and spaces between
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parents: 21682
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946 them, like this: @code{"\t, \C-a"}. @xref{Character Type}, for a
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947 description of the read syntax for characters.
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948
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949 However, not all of the characters you can write with backslash
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950 escape-sequences are valid in strings. The only control characters that
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951 a string can hold are the @sc{ascii} control characters. Strings do not
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952 distinguish case in @sc{ascii} control characters.
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953
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954 Properly speaking, strings cannot hold meta characters; but when a
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955 string is to be used as a key sequence, there is a special convention
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956 that provides a way to represent meta versions of @sc{ascii} characters in a
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957 string. If you use the @samp{\M-} syntax to indicate a meta character
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958 in a string constant, this sets the
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959 @tex
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960 @math{2^{7}}
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961 @end tex
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
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diff changeset
962 @ifnottex
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963 2**7
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
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964 @end ifnottex
22138
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965 bit of the character in the string. If the string is used in
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966 @code{define-key} or @code{lookup-key}, this numeric code is translated
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967 into the equivalent meta character. @xref{Character Type}.
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968
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969 Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super, or alt
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970 modifiers.
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971
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972 @node Text Props and Strings
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973 @subsubsection Text Properties in Strings
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974
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975 A string can hold properties for the characters it contains, in
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976 addition to the characters themselves. This enables programs that copy
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977 text between strings and buffers to copy the text's properties with no
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978 special effort. @xref{Text Properties}, for an explanation of what text
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979 properties mean. Strings with text properties use a special read and
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980 print syntax:
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981
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982 @example
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983 #("@var{characters}" @var{property-data}...)
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diff changeset
984 @end example
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985
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986 @noindent
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987 where @var{property-data} consists of zero or more elements, in groups
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988 of three as follows:
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989
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990 @example
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991 @var{beg} @var{end} @var{plist}
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992 @end example
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993
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994 @noindent
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diff changeset
995 The elements @var{beg} and @var{end} are integers, and together specify
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996 a range of indices in the string; @var{plist} is the property list for
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997 that range. For example,
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998
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999 @example
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1000 #("foo bar" 0 3 (face bold) 3 4 nil 4 7 (face italic))
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1001 @end example
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1002
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1003 @noindent
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1004 represents a string whose textual contents are @samp{foo bar}, in which
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1005 the first three characters have a @code{face} property with value
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1006 @code{bold}, and the last three have a @code{face} property with value
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1007 @code{italic}. (The fourth character has no text properties, so its
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1008 property list is @code{nil}. It is not actually necessary to mention
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1009 ranges with @code{nil} as the property list, since any characters not
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1010 mentioned in any range will default to having no properties.)
6447
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1011
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1012 @node Vector Type
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1013 @subsection Vector Type
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1014
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1015 A @dfn{vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type. It
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parents:
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1016 takes a constant amount of time to access any element of a vector. (In
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parents:
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1017 a list, the access time of an element is proportional to the distance of
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1018 the element from the beginning of the list.)
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1019
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1020 The printed representation of a vector consists of a left square
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1021 bracket, the elements, and a right square bracket. This is also the
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parents:
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1022 read syntax. Like numbers and strings, vectors are considered constants
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diff changeset
1023 for evaluation.
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parents:
diff changeset
1024
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diff changeset
1025 @example
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diff changeset
1026 [1 "two" (three)] ; @r{A vector of three elements.}
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diff changeset
1027 @result{} [1 "two" (three)]
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diff changeset
1028 @end example
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diff changeset
1029
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diff changeset
1030 @xref{Vectors}, for functions that work with vectors.
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1031
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1032 @node Char-Table Type
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1033 @subsection Char-Table Type
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1034
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1035 A @dfn{char-table} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type,
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
1036 indexed by character codes. Char-tables have certain extra features to
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1037 make them more useful for many jobs that involve assigning information
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diff changeset
1038 to character codes---for example, a char-table can have a parent to
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
1039 inherit from, a default value, and a small number of extra slots to use for
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
1040 special purposes. A char-table can also specify a single value for
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diff changeset
1041 a whole character set.
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1042
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1043 The printed representation of a char-table is like a vector
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1044 except that there is an extra @samp{#^} at the beginning.
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1045
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diff changeset
1046 @xref{Char-Tables}, for special functions to operate on char-tables.
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diff changeset
1047 Uses of char-tables include:
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1048
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diff changeset
1049 @itemize @bullet
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1050 @item
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diff changeset
1051 Case tables (@pxref{Case Tables}).
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diff changeset
1052
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diff changeset
1053 @item
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1054 Character category tables (@pxref{Categories}).
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diff changeset
1055
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diff changeset
1056 @item
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diff changeset
1057 Display tables (@pxref{Display Tables}).
21682
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1058
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1059 @item
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1060 Syntax tables (@pxref{Syntax Tables}).
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diff changeset
1061 @end itemize
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1062
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1063 @node Bool-Vector Type
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diff changeset
1064 @subsection Bool-Vector Type
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1065
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diff changeset
1066 A @dfn{bool-vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements that
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diff changeset
1067 must be @code{t} or @code{nil}.
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1068
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1069 The printed representation of a bool-vector is like a string, except
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diff changeset
1070 that it begins with @samp{#&} followed by the length. The string
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diff changeset
1071 constant that follows actually specifies the contents of the bool-vector
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1072 as a bitmap---each ``character'' in the string contains 8 bits, which
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1073 specify the next 8 elements of the bool-vector (1 stands for @code{t},
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diff changeset
1074 and 0 for @code{nil}). The least significant bits of the character
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diff changeset
1075 correspond to the lowest indices in the bool-vector. If the length is not a
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diff changeset
1076 multiple of 8, the printed representation shows extra elements, but
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1077 these extras really make no difference.
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1078
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1079 @example
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1080 (make-bool-vector 3 t)
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1081 @result{} #&3"\007"
21007
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1082 (make-bool-vector 3 nil)
22138
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1083 @result{} #&3"\0"
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1084 ;; @r{These are equal since only the first 3 bits are used.}
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1085 (equal #&3"\377" #&3"\007")
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1086 @result{} t
21007
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1087 @end example
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1088
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1089 @node Hash Table Type
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1090 @subsection Hash Table Type
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1091
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diff changeset
1092 A hash table is a very fast kind of lookup table, somewhat like an
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diff changeset
1093 alist in that it maps keys to corresponding values, but much faster.
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diff changeset
1094 Hash tables are a new feature in Emacs 21; they have no read syntax, and
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diff changeset
1095 print using hash notation. @xref{Hash Tables}.
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1096
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diff changeset
1097 @example
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diff changeset
1098 (make-hash-table)
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1099 @result{} #<hash-table 'eql nil 0/65 0x83af980>
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1100 @end example
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1101
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1102 @node Function Type
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1103 @subsection Function Type
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1104
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1105 Just as functions in other programming languages are executable,
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1106 @dfn{Lisp function} objects are pieces of executable code. However,
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1107 functions in Lisp are primarily Lisp objects, and only secondarily the
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1108 text which represents them. These Lisp objects are lambda expressions:
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1109 lists whose first element is the symbol @code{lambda} (@pxref{Lambda
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diff changeset
1110 Expressions}).
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1111
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1112 In most programming languages, it is impossible to have a function
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1113 without a name. In Lisp, a function has no intrinsic name. A lambda
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1114 expression is also called an @dfn{anonymous function} (@pxref{Anonymous
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1115 Functions}). A named function in Lisp is actually a symbol with a valid
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1116 function in its function cell (@pxref{Defining Functions}).
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1117
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1118 Most of the time, functions are called when their names are written in
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1119 Lisp expressions in Lisp programs. However, you can construct or obtain
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1120 a function object at run time and then call it with the primitive
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1121 functions @code{funcall} and @code{apply}. @xref{Calling Functions}.
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1122
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1123 @node Macro Type
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1124 @subsection Macro Type
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1125
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1126 A @dfn{Lisp macro} is a user-defined construct that extends the Lisp
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1127 language. It is represented as an object much like a function, but with
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1128 different argument-passing semantics. A Lisp macro has the form of a
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1129 list whose first element is the symbol @code{macro} and whose @sc{cdr}
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1130 is a Lisp function object, including the @code{lambda} symbol.
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1131
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1132 Lisp macro objects are usually defined with the built-in
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1133 @code{defmacro} function, but any list that begins with @code{macro} is
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1134 a macro as far as Emacs is concerned. @xref{Macros}, for an explanation
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1135 of how to write a macro.
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1136
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1137 @strong{Warning}: Lisp macros and keyboard macros (@pxref{Keyboard
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diff changeset
1138 Macros}) are entirely different things. When we use the word ``macro''
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1139 without qualification, we mean a Lisp macro, not a keyboard macro.
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1140
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1141 @node Primitive Function Type
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1142 @subsection Primitive Function Type
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1143 @cindex special forms
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1144
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1145 A @dfn{primitive function} is a function callable from Lisp but
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1146 written in the C programming language. Primitive functions are also
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1147 called @dfn{subrs} or @dfn{built-in functions}. (The word ``subr'' is
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diff changeset
1148 derived from ``subroutine''.) Most primitive functions evaluate all
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1149 their arguments when they are called. A primitive function that does
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parents:
diff changeset
1150 not evaluate all its arguments is called a @dfn{special form}
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diff changeset
1151 (@pxref{Special Forms}).@refill
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1152
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1153 It does not matter to the caller of a function whether the function is
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1154 primitive. However, this does matter if you try to redefine a primitive
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1155 with a function written in Lisp. The reason is that the primitive
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1156 function may be called directly from C code. Calls to the redefined
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1157 function from Lisp will use the new definition, but calls from C code
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1158 may still use the built-in definition. Therefore, @strong{we discourage
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1159 redefinition of primitive functions}.
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1160
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1161 The term @dfn{function} refers to all Emacs functions, whether written
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diff changeset
1162 in Lisp or C. @xref{Function Type}, for information about the
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1163 functions written in Lisp.
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1164
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1165 Primitive functions have no read syntax and print in hash notation
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1166 with the name of the subroutine.
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1167
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1168 @example
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1169 @group
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diff changeset
1170 (symbol-function 'car) ; @r{Access the function cell}
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parents:
diff changeset
1171 ; @r{of the symbol.}
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diff changeset
1172 @result{} #<subr car>
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diff changeset
1173 (subrp (symbol-function 'car)) ; @r{Is this a primitive function?}
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diff changeset
1174 @result{} t ; @r{Yes.}
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1175 @end group
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diff changeset
1176 @end example
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diff changeset
1177
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diff changeset
1178 @node Byte-Code Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1179 @subsection Byte-Code Function Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1180
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diff changeset
1181 The byte compiler produces @dfn{byte-code function objects}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1182 Internally, a byte-code function object is much like a vector; however,
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parents:
diff changeset
1183 the evaluator handles this data type specially when it appears as a
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diff changeset
1184 function to be called. @xref{Byte Compilation}, for information about
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diff changeset
1185 the byte compiler.
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diff changeset
1186
12098
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1187 The printed representation and read syntax for a byte-code function
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1188 object is like that for a vector, with an additional @samp{#} before the
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diff changeset
1189 opening @samp{[}.
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1190
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1191 @node Autoload Type
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diff changeset
1192 @subsection Autoload Type
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1193
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diff changeset
1194 An @dfn{autoload object} is a list whose first element is the symbol
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diff changeset
1195 @code{autoload}. It is stored as the function definition of a symbol,
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diff changeset
1196 where it serves as a placeholder for the real definition. The autoload
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diff changeset
1197 object says that the real definition is found in a file of Lisp code
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diff changeset
1198 that should be loaded when necessary. It contains the name of the file,
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1199 plus some other information about the real definition.
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parents:
diff changeset
1200
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diff changeset
1201 After the file has been loaded, the symbol should have a new function
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diff changeset
1202 definition that is not an autoload object. The new definition is then
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diff changeset
1203 called as if it had been there to begin with. From the user's point of
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diff changeset
1204 view, the function call works as expected, using the function definition
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1205 in the loaded file.
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parents:
diff changeset
1206
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diff changeset
1207 An autoload object is usually created with the function
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parents:
diff changeset
1208 @code{autoload}, which stores the object in the function cell of a
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parents:
diff changeset
1209 symbol. @xref{Autoload}, for more details.
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diff changeset
1210
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diff changeset
1211 @node Editing Types
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diff changeset
1212 @section Editing Types
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diff changeset
1213 @cindex editing types
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diff changeset
1214
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diff changeset
1215 The types in the previous section are used for general programming
21682
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diff changeset
1216 purposes, and most of them are common to most Lisp dialects. Emacs Lisp
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diff changeset
1217 provides several additional data types for purposes connected with
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diff changeset
1218 editing.
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1219
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diff changeset
1220 @menu
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diff changeset
1221 * Buffer Type:: The basic object of editing.
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1222 * Marker Type:: A position in a buffer.
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1223 * Window Type:: Buffers are displayed in windows.
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1224 * Frame Type:: Windows subdivide frames.
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parents:
diff changeset
1225 * Window Configuration Type:: Recording the way a frame is subdivided.
21682
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1226 * Frame Configuration Type:: Recording the status of all frames.
6447
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1227 * Process Type:: A process running on the underlying OS.
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diff changeset
1228 * Stream Type:: Receive or send characters.
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parents:
diff changeset
1229 * Keymap Type:: What function a keystroke invokes.
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diff changeset
1230 * Overlay Type:: How an overlay is represented.
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diff changeset
1231 @end menu
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diff changeset
1232
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diff changeset
1233 @node Buffer Type
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diff changeset
1234 @subsection Buffer Type
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diff changeset
1235
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diff changeset
1236 A @dfn{buffer} is an object that holds text that can be edited
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diff changeset
1237 (@pxref{Buffers}). Most buffers hold the contents of a disk file
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parents:
diff changeset
1238 (@pxref{Files}) so they can be edited, but some are used for other
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parents:
diff changeset
1239 purposes. Most buffers are also meant to be seen by the user, and
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parents:
diff changeset
1240 therefore displayed, at some time, in a window (@pxref{Windows}). But a
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parents:
diff changeset
1241 buffer need not be displayed in any window.
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parents:
diff changeset
1242
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parents:
diff changeset
1243 The contents of a buffer are much like a string, but buffers are not
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1244 used like strings in Emacs Lisp, and the available operations are
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1245 different. For example, you can insert text efficiently into an
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1246 existing buffer, altering the buffer's contents, whereas ``inserting''
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1247 text into a string requires concatenating substrings, and the result is
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1248 an entirely new string object.
6447
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diff changeset
1249
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diff changeset
1250 Each buffer has a designated position called @dfn{point}
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parents:
diff changeset
1251 (@pxref{Positions}). At any time, one buffer is the @dfn{current
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1252 buffer}. Most editing commands act on the contents of the current
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
1253 buffer in the neighborhood of point. Many of the standard Emacs
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
1254 functions manipulate or test the characters in the current buffer; a
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
1255 whole chapter in this manual is devoted to describing these functions
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
1256 (@pxref{Text}).
6447
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1257
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diff changeset
1258 Several other data structures are associated with each buffer:
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parents:
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1259
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diff changeset
1260 @itemize @bullet
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parents:
diff changeset
1261 @item
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1262 a local syntax table (@pxref{Syntax Tables});
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parents:
diff changeset
1263
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diff changeset
1264 @item
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parents:
diff changeset
1265 a local keymap (@pxref{Keymaps}); and,
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parents:
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1266
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diff changeset
1267 @item
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diff changeset
1268 a list of buffer-local variable bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local Variables}).
12098
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parents: 12067
diff changeset
1269
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parents: 12067
diff changeset
1270 @item
21682
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diff changeset
1271 overlays (@pxref{Overlays}).
12098
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1272
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1273 @item
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parents: 12067
diff changeset
1274 text properties for the text in the buffer (@pxref{Text Properties}).
6447
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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diff changeset
1275 @end itemize
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parents:
diff changeset
1276
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diff changeset
1277 @noindent
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diff changeset
1278 The local keymap and variable list contain entries that individually
6447
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1279 override global bindings or values. These are used to customize the
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1280 behavior of programs in different buffers, without actually changing the
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parents:
diff changeset
1281 programs.
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diff changeset
1282
12098
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diff changeset
1283 A buffer may be @dfn{indirect}, which means it shares the text
21682
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1284 of another buffer, but presents it differently. @xref{Indirect Buffers}.
12098
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diff changeset
1285
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parents: 12067
diff changeset
1286 Buffers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, showing the
6447
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parents:
diff changeset
1287 buffer name.
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parents:
diff changeset
1288
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1289 @example
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1290 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1291 (current-buffer)
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1292 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi>
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1293 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1294 @end example
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1295
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1296 @node Marker Type
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1297 @subsection Marker Type
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1298
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1299 A @dfn{marker} denotes a position in a specific buffer. Markers
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1300 therefore have two components: one for the buffer, and one for the
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1301 position. Changes in the buffer's text automatically relocate the
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1302 position value as necessary to ensure that the marker always points
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1303 between the same two characters in the buffer.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1304
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1305 Markers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1306 current character position and the name of the buffer.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1307
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1308 @example
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1309 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1310 (point-marker)
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1311 @result{} #<marker at 10779 in objects.texi>
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1312 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1313 @end example
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1314
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1315 @xref{Markers}, for information on how to test, create, copy, and move
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1316 markers.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1317
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1318 @node Window Type
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1319 @subsection Window Type
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1320
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1321 A @dfn{window} describes the portion of the terminal screen that Emacs
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1322 uses to display a buffer. Every window has one associated buffer, whose
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1323 contents appear in the window. By contrast, a given buffer may appear
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1324 in one window, no window, or several windows.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1325
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1326 Though many windows may exist simultaneously, at any time one window
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1327 is designated the @dfn{selected window}. This is the window where the
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1328 cursor is (usually) displayed when Emacs is ready for a command. The
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1329 selected window usually displays the current buffer, but this is not
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1330 necessarily the case.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1331
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1332 Windows are grouped on the screen into frames; each window belongs to
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1333 one and only one frame. @xref{Frame Type}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1334
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1335 Windows have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1336 window number and the name of the buffer being displayed. The window
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1337 numbers exist to identify windows uniquely, since the buffer displayed
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1338 in any given window can change frequently.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1339
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1340 @example
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1341 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1342 (selected-window)
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1343 @result{} #<window 1 on objects.texi>
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1344 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1345 @end example
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1346
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1347 @xref{Windows}, for a description of the functions that work on windows.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1348
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1349 @node Frame Type
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1350 @subsection Frame Type
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1351
22138
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1352 A @dfn{frame} is a rectangle on the screen that contains one or more
6447
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1353 Emacs windows. A frame initially contains a single main window (plus
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1354 perhaps a minibuffer window) which you can subdivide vertically or
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1355 horizontally into smaller windows.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1356
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1357 Frames have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1358 frame's title, plus its address in core (useful to identify the frame
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1359 uniquely).
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1360
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1361 @example
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1362 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1363 (selected-frame)
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1364 @result{} #<frame emacs@@psilocin.gnu.org 0xdac80>
6447
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diff changeset
1365 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1366 @end example
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1367
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1368 @xref{Frames}, for a description of the functions that work on frames.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1369
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1370 @node Window Configuration Type
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1371 @subsection Window Configuration Type
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1372 @cindex screen layout
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1373
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1374 A @dfn{window configuration} stores information about the positions,
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1375 sizes, and contents of the windows in a frame, so you can recreate the
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1376 same arrangement of windows later.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1377
16736
981e116b4ac6 Minor cleanups for overfull hboxes.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 12282
diff changeset
1378 Window configurations do not have a read syntax; their print syntax
981e116b4ac6 Minor cleanups for overfull hboxes.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 12282
diff changeset
1379 looks like @samp{#<window-configuration>}. @xref{Window
981e116b4ac6 Minor cleanups for overfull hboxes.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 12282
diff changeset
1380 Configurations}, for a description of several functions related to
981e116b4ac6 Minor cleanups for overfull hboxes.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 12282
diff changeset
1381 window configurations.
6447
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parents:
diff changeset
1382
21682
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diff changeset
1383 @node Frame Configuration Type
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1384 @subsection Frame Configuration Type
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1385 @cindex screen layout
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1386
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1387 A @dfn{frame configuration} stores information about the positions,
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1388 sizes, and contents of the windows in all frames. It is actually
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1389 a list whose @sc{car} is @code{frame-configuration} and whose
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
1390 @sc{cdr} is an alist. Each alist element describes one frame,
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
1391 which appears as the @sc{car} of that element.
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1392
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1393 @xref{Frame Configurations}, for a description of several functions
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1394 related to frame configurations.
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1395
6447
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parents:
diff changeset
1396 @node Process Type
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1397 @subsection Process Type
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1398
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1399 The word @dfn{process} usually means a running program. Emacs itself
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1400 runs in a process of this sort. However, in Emacs Lisp, a process is a
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1401 Lisp object that designates a subprocess created by the Emacs process.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1402 Programs such as shells, GDB, ftp, and compilers, running in
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1403 subprocesses of Emacs, extend the capabilities of Emacs.
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1404
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1405 An Emacs subprocess takes textual input from Emacs and returns textual
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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diff changeset
1406 output to Emacs for further manipulation. Emacs can also send signals
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1407 to the subprocess.
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parents:
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1408
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1409 Process objects have no read syntax. They print in hash notation,
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parents:
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1410 giving the name of the process:
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1411
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1412 @example
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1413 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1414 (process-list)
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1415 @result{} (#<process shell>)
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1416 @end group
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1417 @end example
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1418
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1419 @xref{Processes}, for information about functions that create, delete,
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1420 return information about, send input or signals to, and receive output
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
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1421 from processes.
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parents:
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1422
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1423 @node Stream Type
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1424 @subsection Stream Type
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1425
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1426 A @dfn{stream} is an object that can be used as a source or sink for
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
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1427 characters---either to supply characters for input or to accept them as
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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1428 output. Many different types can be used this way: markers, buffers,
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1429 strings, and functions. Most often, input streams (character sources)
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1430 obtain characters from the keyboard, a buffer, or a file, and output
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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diff changeset
1431 streams (character sinks) send characters to a buffer, such as a
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1432 @file{*Help*} buffer, or to the echo area.
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1433
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1434 The object @code{nil}, in addition to its other meanings, may be used
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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1435 as a stream. It stands for the value of the variable
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diff changeset
1436 @code{standard-input} or @code{standard-output}. Also, the object
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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diff changeset
1437 @code{t} as a stream specifies input using the minibuffer
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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1438 (@pxref{Minibuffers}) or output in the echo area (@pxref{The Echo
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diff changeset
1439 Area}).
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1440
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1441 Streams have no special printed representation or read syntax, and
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1442 print as whatever primitive type they are.
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1443
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1444 @xref{Read and Print}, for a description of functions
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1445 related to streams, including parsing and printing functions.
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1446
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1447 @node Keymap Type
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diff changeset
1448 @subsection Keymap Type
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1449
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1450 A @dfn{keymap} maps keys typed by the user to commands. This mapping
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parents:
diff changeset
1451 controls how the user's command input is executed. A keymap is actually
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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diff changeset
1452 a list whose @sc{car} is the symbol @code{keymap}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1453
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diff changeset
1454 @xref{Keymaps}, for information about creating keymaps, handling prefix
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parents:
diff changeset
1455 keys, local as well as global keymaps, and changing key bindings.
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parents:
diff changeset
1456
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diff changeset
1457 @node Overlay Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1458 @subsection Overlay Type
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1459
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
1460 An @dfn{overlay} specifies properties that apply to a part of a
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
1461 buffer. Each overlay applies to a specified range of the buffer, and
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
1462 contains a property list (a list whose elements are alternating property
66d807bdc5b4 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
1463 names and values). Overlay properties are used to present parts of the
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
1464 buffer temporarily in a different display style. Overlays have no read
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
1465 syntax, and print in hash notation, giving the buffer name and range of
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
1466 positions.
6447
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diff changeset
1467
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parents: 12067
diff changeset
1468 @xref{Overlays}, for how to create and use overlays.
6447
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parents:
diff changeset
1469
25751
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diff changeset
1470 @node Circular Objects
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1471 @section Read Syntax for Circular Objects
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1472 @cindex circular structure, read syntax
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1473 @cindex shared structure, read syntax
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1474 @cindex @samp{#@var{n}=} read syntax
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1475 @cindex @samp{#@var{n}#} read syntax
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1476
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1477 In Emacs 21, to represent shared or circular structure within a
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1478 complex of Lisp objects, you can use the reader constructs
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1479 @samp{#@var{n}=} and @samp{#@var{n}#}.
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1480
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1481 Use @code{#@var{n}=} before an object to label it for later reference;
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1482 subsequently, you can use @code{#@var{n}#} to refer the same object in
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1483 another place. Here, @var{n} is some integer. For example, here is how
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1484 to make a list in which the first element recurs as the third element:
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1485
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1486 @example
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1487 (#1=(a) b #1#)
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1488 @end example
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1489
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1490 @noindent
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1491 This differs from ordinary syntax such as this
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1492
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1493 @example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1494 ((a) b (a))
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1495 @end example
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1496
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1497 @noindent
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1498 which would result in a list whose first and third elements
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1499 look alike but are not the same Lisp object. This shows the difference:
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1500
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1501 @example
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1502 (prog1 nil
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1503 (setq x '(#1=(a) b #1#)))
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1504 (eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x))
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1505 @result{} t
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1506 (setq x '((a) b (a)))
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1507 (eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x))
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1508 @result{} nil
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1509 @end example
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1510
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1511 You can also use the same syntax to make a circular structure, which
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1512 appears as an ``element'' within itself. Here is an example:
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1513
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1514 @example
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1515 #1=(a #1#)
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1516 @end example
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parents: 24951
diff changeset
1517
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1518 @noindent
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1519 This makes a list whose second element is the list itself.
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1520 Here's how you can see that it really works:
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1521
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1522 @example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1523 (prog1 nil
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1524 (setq x '#1=(a #1#)))
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1525 (eq x (cadr x))
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1526 @result{} t
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1527 @end example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1528
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1529 The Lisp printer can produce this syntax to record circular and shared
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1530 structure in a Lisp object, if you bind the variable @code{print-circle}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1531 to a non-@code{nil} value. @xref{Output Variables}.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1532
6447
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parents:
diff changeset
1533 @node Type Predicates
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1534 @section Type Predicates
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1535 @cindex predicates
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1536 @cindex type checking
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1537 @kindex wrong-type-argument
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1538
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1539 The Emacs Lisp interpreter itself does not perform type checking on
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1540 the actual arguments passed to functions when they are called. It could
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1541 not do so, since function arguments in Lisp do not have declared data
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1542 types, as they do in other programming languages. It is therefore up to
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1543 the individual function to test whether each actual argument belongs to
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1544 a type that the function can use.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1545
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1546 All built-in functions do check the types of their actual arguments
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1547 when appropriate, and signal a @code{wrong-type-argument} error if an
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1548 argument is of the wrong type. For example, here is what happens if you
7118
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6447
diff changeset
1549 pass an argument to @code{+} that it cannot handle:
6447
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parents:
diff changeset
1550
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1551 @example
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1552 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1553 (+ 2 'a)
21007
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
1554 @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, a
6447
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1555 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1556 @end example
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1557
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1558 @cindex type predicates
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1559 @cindex testing types
12067
73dc8205d259 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 10559
diff changeset
1560 If you want your program to handle different types differently, you
73dc8205d259 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1561 must do explicit type checking. The most common way to check the type
73dc8205d259 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 10559
diff changeset
1562 of an object is to call a @dfn{type predicate} function. Emacs has a
73dc8205d259 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 10559
diff changeset
1563 type predicate for each type, as well as some predicates for
73dc8205d259 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 10559
diff changeset
1564 combinations of types.
73dc8205d259 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 10559
diff changeset
1565
73dc8205d259 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 10559
diff changeset
1566 A type predicate function takes one argument; it returns @code{t} if
73dc8205d259 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1567 the argument belongs to the appropriate type, and @code{nil} otherwise.
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1568 Following a general Lisp convention for predicate functions, most type
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1569 predicates' names end with @samp{p}.
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1570
73dc8205d259 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1571 Here is an example which uses the predicates @code{listp} to check for
73dc8205d259 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1572 a list and @code{symbolp} to check for a symbol.
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parents:
diff changeset
1573
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1574 @example
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diff changeset
1575 (defun add-on (x)
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1576 (cond ((symbolp x)
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1577 ;; If X is a symbol, put it on LIST.
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1578 (setq list (cons x list)))
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1579 ((listp x)
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1580 ;; If X is a list, add its elements to LIST.
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1581 (setq list (append x list)))
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1582 (t
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1583 ;; We handle only symbols and lists.
12067
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1584 (error "Invalid argument %s in add-on" x))))
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1585 @end example
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1586
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1587 Here is a table of predefined type predicates, in alphabetical order,
6447
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parents:
diff changeset
1588 with references to further information.
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parents:
diff changeset
1589
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parents:
diff changeset
1590 @table @code
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parents:
diff changeset
1591 @item atom
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parents:
diff changeset
1592 @xref{List-related Predicates, atom}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1593
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parents:
diff changeset
1594 @item arrayp
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parents:
diff changeset
1595 @xref{Array Functions, arrayp}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1596
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1597 @item bool-vector-p
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1598 @xref{Bool-Vectors, bool-vector-p}.
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1599
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1600 @item bufferp
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parents:
diff changeset
1601 @xref{Buffer Basics, bufferp}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1602
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parents:
diff changeset
1603 @item byte-code-function-p
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1604 @xref{Byte-Code Type, byte-code-function-p}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1605
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parents:
diff changeset
1606 @item case-table-p
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1607 @xref{Case Tables, case-table-p}.
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parents:
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1608
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parents:
diff changeset
1609 @item char-or-string-p
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parents:
diff changeset
1610 @xref{Predicates for Strings, char-or-string-p}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1611
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diff changeset
1612 @item char-table-p
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1613 @xref{Char-Tables, char-table-p}.
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1614
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parents:
diff changeset
1615 @item commandp
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parents:
diff changeset
1616 @xref{Interactive Call, commandp}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1617
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1618 @item consp
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1619 @xref{List-related Predicates, consp}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1620
21682
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diff changeset
1621 @item display-table-p
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1622 @xref{Display Tables, display-table-p}.
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1623
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1624 @item floatp
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parents:
diff changeset
1625 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, floatp}.
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parents:
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1626
21682
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diff changeset
1627 @item frame-configuration-p
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1628 @xref{Frame Configurations, frame-configuration-p}.
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
1629
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parents:
diff changeset
1630 @item frame-live-p
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parents:
diff changeset
1631 @xref{Deleting Frames, frame-live-p}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
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1632
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
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1633 @item framep
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parents:
diff changeset
1634 @xref{Frames, framep}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1635
21007
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diff changeset
1636 @item functionp
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
1637 @xref{Functions, functionp}.
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parents: 16736
diff changeset
1638
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parents:
diff changeset
1639 @item integer-or-marker-p
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parents:
diff changeset
1640 @xref{Predicates on Markers, integer-or-marker-p}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1641
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1642 @item integerp
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1643 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, integerp}.
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parents:
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1644
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1645 @item keymapp
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1646 @xref{Creating Keymaps, keymapp}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1647
27528
5b4130fa5ab6 keywordp, user-variable-p change.
Dave Love <fx@gnu.org>
parents: 27374
diff changeset
1648 @item keywordp
5b4130fa5ab6 keywordp, user-variable-p change.
Dave Love <fx@gnu.org>
parents: 27374
diff changeset
1649 @xref{Constant Variables}.
5b4130fa5ab6 keywordp, user-variable-p change.
Dave Love <fx@gnu.org>
parents: 27374
diff changeset
1650
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parents:
diff changeset
1651 @item listp
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parents:
diff changeset
1652 @xref{List-related Predicates, listp}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1653
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1654 @item markerp
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1655 @xref{Predicates on Markers, markerp}.
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parents:
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1656
7118
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diff changeset
1657 @item wholenump
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1658 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, wholenump}.
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1659
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parents:
diff changeset
1660 @item nlistp
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parents:
diff changeset
1661 @xref{List-related Predicates, nlistp}.
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parents:
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1662
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parents:
diff changeset
1663 @item numberp
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parents:
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1664 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, numberp}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1665
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parents:
diff changeset
1666 @item number-or-marker-p
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parents:
diff changeset
1667 @xref{Predicates on Markers, number-or-marker-p}.
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parents:
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1668
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parents:
diff changeset
1669 @item overlayp
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parents:
diff changeset
1670 @xref{Overlays, overlayp}.
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parents:
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1671
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parents:
diff changeset
1672 @item processp
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parents:
diff changeset
1673 @xref{Processes, processp}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1674
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parents:
diff changeset
1675 @item sequencep
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parents:
diff changeset
1676 @xref{Sequence Functions, sequencep}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1677
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1678 @item stringp
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1679 @xref{Predicates for Strings, stringp}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1680
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1681 @item subrp
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parents:
diff changeset
1682 @xref{Function Cells, subrp}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1683
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parents:
diff changeset
1684 @item symbolp
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parents:
diff changeset
1685 @xref{Symbols, symbolp}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1686
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1687 @item syntax-table-p
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1688 @xref{Syntax Tables, syntax-table-p}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1689
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1690 @item user-variable-p
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1691 @xref{Defining Variables, user-variable-p}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1692
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parents:
diff changeset
1693 @item vectorp
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1694 @xref{Vectors, vectorp}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1695
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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diff changeset
1696 @item window-configuration-p
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parents:
diff changeset
1697 @xref{Window Configurations, window-configuration-p}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1698
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parents:
diff changeset
1699 @item window-live-p
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parents:
diff changeset
1700 @xref{Deleting Windows, window-live-p}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1701
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parents:
diff changeset
1702 @item windowp
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parents:
diff changeset
1703 @xref{Basic Windows, windowp}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1704 @end table
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parents:
diff changeset
1705
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diff changeset
1706 The most general way to check the type of an object is to call the
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1707 function @code{type-of}. Recall that each object belongs to one and
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diff changeset
1708 only one primitive type; @code{type-of} tells you which one (@pxref{Lisp
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diff changeset
1709 Data Types}). But @code{type-of} knows nothing about non-primitive
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diff changeset
1710 types. In most cases, it is more convenient to use type predicates than
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diff changeset
1711 @code{type-of}.
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diff changeset
1712
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diff changeset
1713 @defun type-of object
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diff changeset
1714 This function returns a symbol naming the primitive type of
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parents: 12282
diff changeset
1715 @var{object}. The value is one of the symbols @code{symbol},
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diff changeset
1716 @code{integer}, @code{float}, @code{string}, @code{cons}, @code{vector},
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diff changeset
1717 @code{char-table}, @code{bool-vector}, @code{hash-table}, @code{subr},
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1718 @code{compiled-function}, @code{marker}, @code{overlay}, @code{window},
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diff changeset
1719 @code{buffer}, @code{frame}, @code{process}, or
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parents: 12282
diff changeset
1720 @code{window-configuration}.
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diff changeset
1721
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diff changeset
1722 @example
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diff changeset
1723 (type-of 1)
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1724 @result{} integer
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1725 (type-of 'nil)
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1726 @result{} symbol
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diff changeset
1727 (type-of '()) ; @r{@code{()} is @code{nil}.}
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parents: 10559
diff changeset
1728 @result{} symbol
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diff changeset
1729 (type-of '(x))
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diff changeset
1730 @result{} cons
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diff changeset
1731 @end example
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Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 10559
diff changeset
1732 @end defun
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Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 10559
diff changeset
1733
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parents:
diff changeset
1734 @node Equality Predicates
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1735 @section Equality Predicates
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1736 @cindex equality
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1737
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1738 Here we describe two functions that test for equality between any two
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parents:
diff changeset
1739 objects. Other functions test equality between objects of specific
7118
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6447
diff changeset
1740 types, e.g., strings. For these predicates, see the appropriate chapter
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6447
diff changeset
1741 describing the data type.
6447
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parents:
diff changeset
1742
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1743 @defun eq object1 object2
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1744 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1745 the same object, @code{nil} otherwise. The ``same object'' means that a
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1746 change in one will be reflected by the same change in the other.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1747
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parents:
diff changeset
1748 @code{eq} returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1749 integers with the same value. Also, since symbol names are normally
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1750 unique, if the arguments are symbols with the same name, they are
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1751 @code{eq}. For other types (e.g., lists, vectors, strings), two
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1752 arguments with the same contents or elements are not necessarily
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1753 @code{eq} to each other: they are @code{eq} only if they are the same
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1754 object.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1755
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1756 @example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1757 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1758 (eq 'foo 'foo)
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1759 @result{} t
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1760 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1761
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parents:
diff changeset
1762 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1763 (eq 456 456)
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1764 @result{} t
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1765 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1766
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parents:
diff changeset
1767 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1768 (eq "asdf" "asdf")
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1769 @result{} nil
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1770 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1771
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1772 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1773 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3))))
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1774 @result{} nil
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1775 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1776
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1777 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1778 (setq foo '(1 (2 (3))))
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1779 @result{} (1 (2 (3)))
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1780 (eq foo foo)
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1781 @result{} t
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1782 (eq foo '(1 (2 (3))))
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1783 @result{} nil
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1784 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1785
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1786 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1787 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3])
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1788 @result{} nil
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1789 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1790
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1791 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1792 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker))
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1793 @result{} nil
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1794 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1795 @end example
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1796
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1797 The @code{make-symbol} function returns an uninterned symbol, distinct
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1798 from the symbol that is used if you write the name in a Lisp expression.
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1799 Distinct symbols with the same name are not @code{eq}. @xref{Creating
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1800 Symbols}.
21682
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
1801
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
1802 @example
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
1803 @group
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
1804 (eq (make-symbol "foo") 'foo)
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
1805 @result{} nil
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
1806 @end group
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
1807 @end example
6447
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1808 @end defun
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1809
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1810 @defun equal object1 object2
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1811 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} have
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1812 equal components, @code{nil} otherwise. Whereas @code{eq} tests if its
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1813 arguments are the same object, @code{equal} looks inside nonidentical
26188
d3cc464b9e87 Patch from rms.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 25751
diff changeset
1814 arguments to see if their elements or contents are the same. So, if two
d3cc464b9e87 Patch from rms.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 25751
diff changeset
1815 objects are @code{eq}, they are @code{equal}, but the converse is not
d3cc464b9e87 Patch from rms.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 25751
diff changeset
1816 always true.
6447
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1817
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1818 @example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1819 @group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1820 (equal 'foo 'foo)
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1821 @result{} t
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1822 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1823
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1824 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1825 (equal 456 456)
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1826 @result{} t
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1827 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1828
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1829 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1830 (equal "asdf" "asdf")
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1831 @result{} t
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1832 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1833 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1834 (eq "asdf" "asdf")
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1835 @result{} nil
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1836 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1837
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1838 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1839 (equal '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3))))
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1840 @result{} t
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1841 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1842 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1843 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3))))
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1844 @result{} nil
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1845 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1846
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1847 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1848 (equal [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3])
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1849 @result{} t
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1850 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1851 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1852 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3])
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1853 @result{} nil
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1854 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1855
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1856 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1857 (equal (point-marker) (point-marker))
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1858 @result{} t
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1859 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1860
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1861 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1862 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker))
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1863 @result{} nil
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1864 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1865 @end example
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1866
21007
66d807bdc5b4 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 16736
diff changeset
1867 Comparison of strings is case-sensitive, but does not take account of
66d807bdc5b4 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 16736
diff changeset
1868 text properties---it compares only the characters in the strings.
66d807bdc5b4 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 16736
diff changeset
1869 A unibyte string never equals a multibyte string unless the
25751
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1870 contents are entirely @sc{ascii} (@pxref{Text Representations}).
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parents:
diff changeset
1871
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diff changeset
1872 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
1873 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1874 (equal "asdf" "ASDF")
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1875 @result{} nil
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1876 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1877 @end example
12098
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
1878
26188
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parents: 25751
diff changeset
1879 However, two distinct buffers are never considered @code{equal}, even if
d3cc464b9e87 Patch from rms.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 25751
diff changeset
1880 their textual contents are the same.
6447
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parents:
diff changeset
1881 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
1882
26188
d3cc464b9e87 Patch from rms.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 25751
diff changeset
1883 The test for equality is implemented recursively; for example, given
d3cc464b9e87 Patch from rms.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 25751
diff changeset
1884 two cons cells @var{x} and @var{y}, @code{(equal @var{x} @var{y})}
d3cc464b9e87 Patch from rms.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 25751
diff changeset
1885 returns @code{t} if and only if both the expressions below return
d3cc464b9e87 Patch from rms.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 25751
diff changeset
1886 @code{t}:
d3cc464b9e87 Patch from rms.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 25751
diff changeset
1887
d3cc464b9e87 Patch from rms.
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parents: 25751
diff changeset
1888 @example
d3cc464b9e87 Patch from rms.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 25751
diff changeset
1889 (equal (car @var{x}) (car @var{y}))
d3cc464b9e87 Patch from rms.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 25751
diff changeset
1890 (equal (cdr @var{x}) (cdr @var{y}))
d3cc464b9e87 Patch from rms.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 25751
diff changeset
1891 @end example
d3cc464b9e87 Patch from rms.
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parents: 25751
diff changeset
1892
d3cc464b9e87 Patch from rms.
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parents: 25751
diff changeset
1893 Because of this recursive method, circular lists may therefore cause
d3cc464b9e87 Patch from rms.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 25751
diff changeset
1894 infinite recursion (leading to an error).