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annotate lispref/intro.texi @ 22133:543e41494c45
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author | Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org> |
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date | Tue, 19 May 1998 00:15:22 +0000 |
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6453 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc. | |
4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. | |
5 @setfilename ../info/intro | |
6 | |
7 @node Copying, Introduction, Top, Top | |
8 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
9 @unnumbered GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE | |
10 @center Version 2, June 1991 | |
11 | |
12 @display | |
13 Copyright @copyright{} 1989, 1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc. | |
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14 675 Mass Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA |
6453 | 15 |
16 Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies | |
17 of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. | |
18 @end display | |
19 | |
20 @unnumberedsec Preamble | |
21 | |
22 The licenses for most software are designed to take away your | |
23 freedom to share and change it. By contrast, the GNU General Public | |
24 License is intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change free | |
25 software---to make sure the software is free for all its users. This | |
26 General Public License applies to most of the Free Software | |
27 Foundation's software and to any other program whose authors commit to | |
28 using it. (Some other Free Software Foundation software is covered by | |
29 the GNU Library General Public License instead.) You can apply it to | |
30 your programs, too. | |
31 | |
32 When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not | |
33 price. Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you | |
34 have the freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge for | |
35 this service if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it | |
36 if you want it, that you can change the software or use pieces of it | |
37 in new free programs; and that you know you can do these things. | |
38 | |
39 To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid | |
40 anyone to deny you these rights or to ask you to surrender the rights. | |
41 These restrictions translate to certain responsibilities for you if you | |
42 distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it. | |
43 | |
44 For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether | |
45 gratis or for a fee, you must give the recipients all the rights that | |
46 you have. You must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the | |
47 source code. And you must show them these terms so they know their | |
48 rights. | |
49 | |
50 We protect your rights with two steps: (1) copyright the software, and | |
51 (2) offer you this license which gives you legal permission to copy, | |
52 distribute and/or modify the software. | |
53 | |
54 Also, for each author's protection and ours, we want to make certain | |
55 that everyone understands that there is no warranty for this free | |
56 software. If the software is modified by someone else and passed on, we | |
57 want its recipients to know that what they have is not the original, so | |
58 that any problems introduced by others will not reflect on the original | |
59 authors' reputations. | |
60 | |
61 Finally, any free program is threatened constantly by software | |
62 patents. We wish to avoid the danger that redistributors of a free | |
63 program will individually obtain patent licenses, in effect making the | |
64 program proprietary. To prevent this, we have made it clear that any | |
65 patent must be licensed for everyone's free use or not licensed at all. | |
66 | |
67 The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and | |
68 modification follow. | |
69 | |
70 @iftex | |
71 @unnumberedsec TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR COPYING, DISTRIBUTION AND MODIFICATION | |
72 @end iftex | |
73 @ifinfo | |
74 @center TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR COPYING, DISTRIBUTION AND MODIFICATION | |
75 @end ifinfo | |
76 | |
77 @enumerate 0 | |
78 @item | |
79 This License applies to any program or other work which contains | |
80 a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it may be distributed | |
81 under the terms of this General Public License. The ``Program'', below, | |
82 refers to any such program or work, and a ``work based on the Program'' | |
83 means either the Program or any derivative work under copyright law: | |
84 that is to say, a work containing the Program or a portion of it, | |
85 either verbatim or with modifications and/or translated into another | |
86 language. (Hereinafter, translation is included without limitation in | |
87 the term ``modification''.) Each licensee is addressed as ``you''. | |
88 | |
89 Activities other than copying, distribution and modification are not | |
90 covered by this License; they are outside its scope. The act of | |
91 running the Program is not restricted, and the output from the Program | |
92 is covered only if its contents constitute a work based on the | |
93 Program (independent of having been made by running the Program). | |
94 Whether that is true depends on what the Program does. | |
95 | |
96 @item | |
97 You may copy and distribute verbatim copies of the Program's | |
98 source code as you receive it, in any medium, provided that you | |
99 conspicuously and appropriately publish on each copy an appropriate | |
100 copyright notice and disclaimer of warranty; keep intact all the | |
101 notices that refer to this License and to the absence of any warranty; | |
102 and give any other recipients of the Program a copy of this License | |
103 along with the Program. | |
104 | |
105 You may charge a fee for the physical act of transferring a copy, and | |
106 you may at your option offer warranty protection in exchange for a fee. | |
107 | |
108 @item | |
109 You may modify your copy or copies of the Program or any portion | |
110 of it, thus forming a work based on the Program, and copy and | |
111 distribute such modifications or work under the terms of Section 1 | |
112 above, provided that you also meet all of these conditions: | |
113 | |
114 @enumerate a | |
115 @item | |
116 You must cause the modified files to carry prominent notices | |
117 stating that you changed the files and the date of any change. | |
118 | |
119 @item | |
120 You must cause any work that you distribute or publish, that in | |
121 whole or in part contains or is derived from the Program or any | |
122 part thereof, to be licensed as a whole at no charge to all third | |
123 parties under the terms of this License. | |
124 | |
125 @item | |
126 If the modified program normally reads commands interactively | |
127 when run, you must cause it, when started running for such | |
128 interactive use in the most ordinary way, to print or display an | |
129 announcement including an appropriate copyright notice and a | |
130 notice that there is no warranty (or else, saying that you provide | |
131 a warranty) and that users may redistribute the program under | |
132 these conditions, and telling the user how to view a copy of this | |
133 License. (Exception: if the Program itself is interactive but | |
134 does not normally print such an announcement, your work based on | |
135 the Program is not required to print an announcement.) | |
136 @end enumerate | |
137 | |
138 These requirements apply to the modified work as a whole. If | |
139 identifiable sections of that work are not derived from the Program, | |
140 and can be reasonably considered independent and separate works in | |
141 themselves, then this License, and its terms, do not apply to those | |
142 sections when you distribute them as separate works. But when you | |
143 distribute the same sections as part of a whole which is a work based | |
144 on the Program, the distribution of the whole must be on the terms of | |
145 this License, whose permissions for other licensees extend to the | |
146 entire whole, and thus to each and every part regardless of who wrote it. | |
147 | |
148 Thus, it is not the intent of this section to claim rights or contest | |
149 your rights to work written entirely by you; rather, the intent is to | |
150 exercise the right to control the distribution of derivative or | |
151 collective works based on the Program. | |
152 | |
153 In addition, mere aggregation of another work not based on the Program | |
154 with the Program (or with a work based on the Program) on a volume of | |
155 a storage or distribution medium does not bring the other work under | |
156 the scope of this License. | |
157 | |
158 @item | |
159 You may copy and distribute the Program (or a work based on it, | |
160 under Section 2) in object code or executable form under the terms of | |
161 Sections 1 and 2 above provided that you also do one of the following: | |
162 | |
163 @enumerate a | |
164 @item | |
165 Accompany it with the complete corresponding machine-readable | |
166 source code, which must be distributed under the terms of Sections | |
167 1 and 2 above on a medium customarily used for software interchange; or, | |
168 | |
169 @item | |
170 Accompany it with a written offer, valid for at least three | |
171 years, to give any third party, for a charge no more than your | |
172 cost of physically performing source distribution, a complete | |
173 machine-readable copy of the corresponding source code, to be | |
174 distributed under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above on a medium | |
175 customarily used for software interchange; or, | |
176 | |
177 @item | |
178 Accompany it with the information you received as to the offer | |
179 to distribute corresponding source code. (This alternative is | |
180 allowed only for noncommercial distribution and only if you | |
181 received the program in object code or executable form with such | |
182 an offer, in accord with Subsection b above.) | |
183 @end enumerate | |
184 | |
185 The source code for a work means the preferred form of the work for | |
186 making modifications to it. For an executable work, complete source | |
187 code means all the source code for all modules it contains, plus any | |
188 associated interface definition files, plus the scripts used to | |
189 control compilation and installation of the executable. However, as a | |
190 special exception, the source code distributed need not include | |
191 anything that is normally distributed (in either source or binary | |
192 form) with the major components (compiler, kernel, and so on) of the | |
193 operating system on which the executable runs, unless that component | |
194 itself accompanies the executable. | |
195 | |
196 If distribution of executable or object code is made by offering | |
197 access to copy from a designated place, then offering equivalent | |
198 access to copy the source code from the same place counts as | |
199 distribution of the source code, even though third parties are not | |
200 compelled to copy the source along with the object code. | |
201 | |
202 @item | |
203 You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Program | |
204 except as expressly provided under this License. Any attempt | |
205 otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Program is | |
206 void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License. | |
207 However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under | |
208 this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such | |
209 parties remain in full compliance. | |
210 | |
211 @item | |
212 You are not required to accept this License, since you have not | |
213 signed it. However, nothing else grants you permission to modify or | |
214 distribute the Program or its derivative works. These actions are | |
215 prohibited by law if you do not accept this License. Therefore, by | |
216 modifying or distributing the Program (or any work based on the | |
217 Program), you indicate your acceptance of this License to do so, and | |
218 all its terms and conditions for copying, distributing or modifying | |
219 the Program or works based on it. | |
220 | |
221 @item | |
222 Each time you redistribute the Program (or any work based on the | |
223 Program), the recipient automatically receives a license from the | |
224 original licensor to copy, distribute or modify the Program subject to | |
225 these terms and conditions. You may not impose any further | |
226 restrictions on the recipients' exercise of the rights granted herein. | |
227 You are not responsible for enforcing compliance by third parties to | |
228 this License. | |
229 | |
230 @item | |
231 If, as a consequence of a court judgment or allegation of patent | |
232 infringement or for any other reason (not limited to patent issues), | |
233 conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or | |
234 otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do not | |
235 excuse you from the conditions of this License. If you cannot | |
236 distribute so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under this | |
237 License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a consequence you | |
238 may not distribute the Program at all. For example, if a patent | |
239 license would not permit royalty-free redistribution of the Program by | |
240 all those who receive copies directly or indirectly through you, then | |
241 the only way you could satisfy both it and this License would be to | |
242 refrain entirely from distribution of the Program. | |
243 | |
244 If any portion of this section is held invalid or unenforceable under | |
245 any particular circumstance, the balance of the section is intended to | |
246 apply and the section as a whole is intended to apply in other | |
247 circumstances. | |
248 | |
249 It is not the purpose of this section to induce you to infringe any | |
250 patents or other property right claims or to contest validity of any | |
251 such claims; this section has the sole purpose of protecting the | |
252 integrity of the free software distribution system, which is | |
253 implemented by public license practices. Many people have made | |
254 generous contributions to the wide range of software distributed | |
255 through that system in reliance on consistent application of that | |
256 system; it is up to the author/donor to decide if he or she is willing | |
257 to distribute software through any other system and a licensee cannot | |
258 impose that choice. | |
259 | |
260 This section is intended to make thoroughly clear what is believed to | |
261 be a consequence of the rest of this License. | |
262 | |
263 @item | |
264 If the distribution and/or use of the Program is restricted in | |
265 certain countries either by patents or by copyrighted interfaces, the | |
266 original copyright holder who places the Program under this License | |
267 may add an explicit geographical distribution limitation excluding | |
268 those countries, so that distribution is permitted only in or among | |
269 countries not thus excluded. In such case, this License incorporates | |
270 the limitation as if written in the body of this License. | |
271 | |
272 @item | |
273 The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions | |
274 of the General Public License from time to time. Such new versions will | |
275 be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to | |
276 address new problems or concerns. | |
277 | |
278 Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program | |
279 specifies a version number of this License which applies to it and ``any | |
280 later version'', you have the option of following the terms and conditions | |
281 either of that version or of any later version published by the Free | |
282 Software Foundation. If the Program does not specify a version number of | |
283 this License, you may choose any version ever published by the Free Software | |
284 Foundation. | |
285 | |
286 @item | |
287 If you wish to incorporate parts of the Program into other free | |
288 programs whose distribution conditions are different, write to the author | |
289 to ask for permission. For software which is copyrighted by the Free | |
290 Software Foundation, write to the Free Software Foundation; we sometimes | |
291 make exceptions for this. Our decision will be guided by the two goals | |
292 of preserving the free status of all derivatives of our free software and | |
293 of promoting the sharing and reuse of software generally. | |
294 | |
295 @iftex | |
296 @heading NO WARRANTY | |
297 @end iftex | |
298 @ifinfo | |
299 @center NO WARRANTY | |
300 @end ifinfo | |
301 | |
302 @item | |
303 BECAUSE THE PROGRAM IS LICENSED FREE OF CHARGE, THERE IS NO WARRANTY | |
304 FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW@. EXCEPT WHEN | |
305 OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES | |
306 PROVIDE THE PROGRAM ``AS IS'' WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED | |
307 OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF | |
308 MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE@. THE ENTIRE RISK AS | |
309 TO THE QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH YOU@. SHOULD THE | |
310 PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING, | |
311 REPAIR OR CORRECTION. | |
312 | |
313 @item | |
314 IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN WRITING | |
315 WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MAY MODIFY AND/OR | |
316 REDISTRIBUTE THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, | |
317 INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING | |
318 OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED | |
319 TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY | |
320 YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER | |
321 PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE | |
322 POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. | |
323 @end enumerate | |
324 | |
325 @iftex | |
326 @heading END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS | |
327 @end iftex | |
328 @ifinfo | |
329 @center END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS | |
330 @end ifinfo | |
331 | |
332 @page | |
333 @unnumberedsec How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs | |
334 | |
335 If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest | |
336 possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it | |
337 free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these terms. | |
338 | |
339 To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest | |
340 to attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively | |
341 convey the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least | |
342 the ``copyright'' line and a pointer to where the full notice is found. | |
343 | |
344 @smallexample | |
345 @var{one line to give the program's name and an idea of what it does.} | |
346 Copyright (C) 19@var{yy} @var{name of author} | |
347 | |
348 This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or | |
349 modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License | |
350 as published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 | |
351 of the License, or (at your option) any later version. | |
352 | |
353 This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, | |
354 but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of | |
355 MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE@. See the | |
356 GNU General Public License for more details. | |
357 | |
358 You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License | |
359 along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software | |
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360 Foundation, Inc., 675 Mass Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA. |
6453 | 361 @end smallexample |
362 | |
363 Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail. | |
364 | |
365 If the program is interactive, make it output a short notice like this | |
366 when it starts in an interactive mode: | |
367 | |
368 @smallexample | |
369 Gnomovision version 69, Copyright (C) 19@var{yy} @var{name of author} | |
370 Gnomovision comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details | |
371 type `show w'. This is free software, and you are welcome | |
372 to redistribute it under certain conditions; type `show c' | |
373 for details. | |
374 @end smallexample | |
375 | |
376 The hypothetical commands @samp{show w} and @samp{show c} should show | |
377 the appropriate parts of the General Public License. Of course, the | |
378 commands you use may be called something other than @samp{show w} and | |
379 @samp{show c}; they could even be mouse-clicks or menu items---whatever | |
380 suits your program. | |
381 | |
382 You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or your | |
383 school, if any, to sign a ``copyright disclaimer'' for the program, if | |
384 necessary. Here is a sample; alter the names: | |
385 | |
386 @smallexample | |
387 @group | |
388 Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright | |
389 interest in the program `Gnomovision' | |
390 (which makes passes at compilers) written | |
391 by James Hacker. | |
392 | |
393 @var{signature of Ty Coon}, 1 April 1989 | |
394 Ty Coon, President of Vice | |
395 @end group | |
396 @end smallexample | |
397 | |
398 This General Public License does not permit incorporating your program into | |
399 proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine library, you may | |
400 consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary applications with the | |
401 library. If this is what you want to do, use the GNU Library General | |
402 Public License instead of this License. | |
403 | |
7114 | 404 @node Introduction, Lisp Data Types, Copying, Top |
6453 | 405 @chapter Introduction |
406 | |
407 Most of the GNU Emacs text editor is written in the programming | |
408 language called Emacs Lisp. You can write new code in Emacs Lisp and | |
409 install it as an extension to the editor. However, Emacs Lisp is more | |
410 than a mere ``extension language''; it is a full computer programming | |
411 language in its own right. You can use it as you would any other | |
412 programming language. | |
413 | |
414 Because Emacs Lisp is designed for use in an editor, it has special | |
415 features for scanning and parsing text as well as features for handling | |
416 files, buffers, displays, subprocesses, and so on. Emacs Lisp is | |
417 closely integrated with the editing facilities; thus, editing commands | |
418 are functions that can also conveniently be called from Lisp programs, | |
419 and parameters for customization are ordinary Lisp variables. | |
420 | |
421 This manual describes Emacs Lisp, presuming considerable familiarity | |
7114 | 422 with the use of Emacs for editing. (See @cite{The GNU Emacs Manual} |
6453 | 423 for this basic information.) Generally speaking, the earlier chapters |
424 describe features of Emacs Lisp that have counterparts in many | |
425 programming languages, and later chapters describe features that are | |
426 peculiar to Emacs Lisp or relate specifically to editing. | |
427 | |
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428 This is edition 2.5. |
6453 | 429 |
430 @menu | |
431 * Caveats:: Flaws and a request for help. | |
432 * Lisp History:: Emacs Lisp is descended from Maclisp. | |
433 * Conventions:: How the manual is formatted. | |
434 * Acknowledgements:: The authors, editors, and sponsors of this manual. | |
435 @end menu | |
436 | |
437 @node Caveats | |
438 @section Caveats | |
439 | |
440 This manual has gone through numerous drafts. It is nearly complete | |
7114 | 441 but not flawless. There are a few topics that are not covered, either |
442 because we consider them secondary (such as most of the individual | |
443 modes) or because they are yet to be written. Because we are not able | |
444 to deal with them completely, we have left out several parts | |
445 intentionally. This includes most information about usage on VMS. | |
6453 | 446 |
447 The manual should be fully correct in what it does cover, and it is | |
448 therefore open to criticism on anything it says---from specific examples | |
449 and descriptive text, to the ordering of chapters and sections. If | |
450 something is confusing, or you find that you have to look at the sources | |
451 or experiment to learn something not covered in the manual, then perhaps | |
452 the manual should be fixed. Please let us know. | |
453 | |
454 @iftex | |
455 As you use the manual, we ask that you mark pages with corrections so | |
456 you can later look them up and send them in. If you think of a simple, | |
7114 | 457 real-life example for a function or group of functions, please make an |
6453 | 458 effort to write it up and send it in. Please reference any comments to |
459 the chapter name, section name, and function name, as appropriate, since | |
7114 | 460 page numbers and chapter and section numbers will change and we may have |
461 trouble finding the text you are talking about. Also state the number | |
462 of the edition you are criticizing. | |
6453 | 463 @end iftex |
464 @ifinfo | |
465 | |
466 As you use this manual, we ask that you send corrections as soon as you | |
467 find them. If you think of a simple, real life example for a function | |
468 or group of functions, please make an effort to write it up and send it | |
469 in. Please reference any comments to the node name and function or | |
470 variable name, as appropriate. Also state the number of the edition | |
471 which you are criticizing. | |
472 @end ifinfo | |
473 | |
474 Please mail comments and corrections to | |
475 | |
476 @example | |
477 bug-lisp-manual@@prep.ai.mit.edu | |
478 @end example | |
479 | |
480 @noindent | |
481 We let mail to this list accumulate unread until someone decides to | |
482 apply the corrections. Months, and sometimes years, go by between | |
483 updates. So please attach no significance to the lack of a reply---your | |
484 mail @emph{will} be acted on in due time. If you want to contact the | |
485 Emacs maintainers more quickly, send mail to | |
486 @code{bug-gnu-emacs@@prep.ai.mit.edu}. | |
487 | |
488 @display | |
489 --Bil Lewis, Dan LaLiberte, Richard Stallman | |
490 @end display | |
491 | |
492 @node Lisp History | |
493 @section Lisp History | |
494 @cindex Lisp history | |
495 | |
7114 | 496 Lisp (LISt Processing language) was first developed in the late 1950's |
6453 | 497 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for research in artificial |
498 intelligence. The great power of the Lisp language makes it superior | |
499 for other purposes as well, such as writing editing commands. | |
500 | |
501 @cindex Maclisp | |
502 @cindex Common Lisp | |
503 Dozens of Lisp implementations have been built over the years, each | |
504 with its own idiosyncrasies. Many of them were inspired by Maclisp, | |
505 which was written in the 1960's at MIT's Project MAC. Eventually the | |
7114 | 506 implementors of the descendants of Maclisp came together and developed a |
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507 standard for Lisp systems, called Common Lisp. In the mean time, Gerry |
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508 Sussman and Guy Steele at MIT developed a simplified but very powerful |
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509 dialect of Lisp, called Scheme. |
6453 | 510 |
511 GNU Emacs Lisp is largely inspired by Maclisp, and a little by Common | |
512 Lisp. If you know Common Lisp, you will notice many similarities. | |
513 However, many of the features of Common Lisp have been omitted or | |
514 simplified in order to reduce the memory requirements of GNU Emacs. | |
515 Sometimes the simplifications are so drastic that a Common Lisp user | |
516 might be very confused. We will occasionally point out how GNU Emacs | |
517 Lisp differs from Common Lisp. If you don't know Common Lisp, don't | |
518 worry about it; this manual is self-contained. | |
519 | |
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520 Emacs Lisp is not at all influenced by Scheme; but the GNU project has |
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521 an implementation of Scheme, called Guile. We use Guile for |
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522 extensibility in all new GNU software that calls for extensibility. |
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523 |
6453 | 524 @node Conventions |
525 @section Conventions | |
526 | |
527 This section explains the notational conventions that are used in this | |
528 manual. You may want to skip this section and refer back to it later. | |
529 | |
530 @menu | |
531 * Some Terms:: Explanation of terms we use in this manual. | |
532 * nil and t:: How the symbols @code{nil} and @code{t} are used. | |
533 * Evaluation Notation:: The format we use for examples of evaluation. | |
534 * Printing Notation:: The format we use for examples that print output. | |
535 * Error Messages:: The format we use for examples of errors. | |
536 * Buffer Text Notation:: The format we use for buffer contents in examples. | |
537 * Format of Descriptions:: Notation for describing functions, variables, etc. | |
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538 * Version Info:: Which Emacs version is running? |
6453 | 539 @end menu |
540 | |
541 @node Some Terms | |
542 @subsection Some Terms | |
543 | |
544 Throughout this manual, the phrases ``the Lisp reader'' and ``the Lisp | |
545 printer'' are used to refer to those routines in Lisp that convert | |
12098 | 546 textual representations of Lisp objects into actual Lisp objects, and vice |
6453 | 547 versa. @xref{Printed Representation}, for more details. You, the |
548 person reading this manual, are thought of as ``the programmer'' and are | |
7114 | 549 addressed as ``you''. ``The user'' is the person who uses Lisp programs, |
6453 | 550 including those you write. |
551 | |
552 @cindex fonts | |
553 Examples of Lisp code appear in this font or form: @code{(list 1 2 | |
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554 3)}. Names that represent metasyntactic variables, or arguments to a |
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555 function being described, appear in this font or form: |
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556 @var{first-number}. |
6453 | 557 |
558 @node nil and t | |
559 @subsection @code{nil} and @code{t} | |
560 @cindex @code{nil}, uses of | |
561 @cindex truth value | |
562 @cindex boolean | |
563 @cindex false | |
564 | |
12098 | 565 In Lisp, the symbol @code{nil} has three separate meanings: it |
6453 | 566 is a symbol with the name @samp{nil}; it is the logical truth value |
567 @var{false}; and it is the empty list---the list of zero elements. | |
568 When used as a variable, @code{nil} always has the value @code{nil}. | |
569 | |
570 As far as the Lisp reader is concerned, @samp{()} and @samp{nil} are | |
571 identical: they stand for the same object, the symbol @code{nil}. The | |
572 different ways of writing the symbol are intended entirely for human | |
573 readers. After the Lisp reader has read either @samp{()} or @samp{nil}, | |
574 there is no way to determine which representation was actually written | |
575 by the programmer. | |
576 | |
577 In this manual, we use @code{()} when we wish to emphasize that it | |
578 means the empty list, and we use @code{nil} when we wish to emphasize | |
579 that it means the truth value @var{false}. That is a good convention to use | |
580 in Lisp programs also. | |
581 | |
582 @example | |
583 (cons 'foo ()) ; @r{Emphasize the empty list} | |
584 (not nil) ; @r{Emphasize the truth value @var{false}} | |
585 @end example | |
586 | |
587 @cindex @code{t} and truth | |
588 @cindex true | |
589 In contexts where a truth value is expected, any non-@code{nil} value | |
590 is considered to be @var{true}. However, @code{t} is the preferred way | |
591 to represent the truth value @var{true}. When you need to choose a | |
592 value which represents @var{true}, and there is no other basis for | |
593 choosing, use @code{t}. The symbol @code{t} always has value @code{t}. | |
594 | |
595 In Emacs Lisp, @code{nil} and @code{t} are special symbols that always | |
596 evaluate to themselves. This is so that you do not need to quote them | |
597 to use them as constants in a program. An attempt to change their | |
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598 values results in a @code{setting-constant} error. The same is true of |
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599 any symbol whose name starts with a colon (@samp{:}). @xref{Constant |
6453 | 600 Variables}. |
601 | |
602 @node Evaluation Notation | |
603 @subsection Evaluation Notation | |
604 @cindex evaluation notation | |
605 @cindex documentation notation | |
606 | |
607 A Lisp expression that you can evaluate is called a @dfn{form}. | |
608 Evaluating a form always produces a result, which is a Lisp object. In | |
609 the examples in this manual, this is indicated with @samp{@result{}}: | |
610 | |
611 @example | |
612 (car '(1 2)) | |
613 @result{} 1 | |
614 @end example | |
615 | |
616 @noindent | |
617 You can read this as ``@code{(car '(1 2))} evaluates to 1''. | |
618 | |
619 When a form is a macro call, it expands into a new form for Lisp to | |
620 evaluate. We show the result of the expansion with | |
621 @samp{@expansion{}}. We may or may not show the actual result of the | |
622 evaluation of the expanded form. | |
623 | |
624 @example | |
625 (third '(a b c)) | |
626 @expansion{} (car (cdr (cdr '(a b c)))) | |
627 @result{} c | |
628 @end example | |
629 | |
7114 | 630 Sometimes to help describe one form we show another form that |
6453 | 631 produces identical results. The exact equivalence of two forms is |
632 indicated with @samp{@equiv{}}. | |
633 | |
634 @example | |
635 (make-sparse-keymap) @equiv{} (list 'keymap) | |
636 @end example | |
637 | |
638 @node Printing Notation | |
639 @subsection Printing Notation | |
640 @cindex printing notation | |
641 | |
642 Many of the examples in this manual print text when they are | |
7114 | 643 evaluated. If you execute example code in a Lisp Interaction buffer |
644 (such as the buffer @samp{*scratch*}), the printed text is inserted into | |
645 the buffer. If you execute the example by other means (such as by | |
646 evaluating the function @code{eval-region}), the printed text is | |
647 displayed in the echo area. You should be aware that text displayed in | |
648 the echo area is truncated to a single line. | |
6453 | 649 |
650 Examples in this manual indicate printed text with @samp{@print{}}, | |
651 irrespective of where that text goes. The value returned by evaluating | |
652 the form (here @code{bar}) follows on a separate line. | |
653 | |
654 @example | |
655 @group | |
656 (progn (print 'foo) (print 'bar)) | |
657 @print{} foo | |
658 @print{} bar | |
659 @result{} bar | |
660 @end group | |
661 @end example | |
662 | |
663 @node Error Messages | |
664 @subsection Error Messages | |
665 @cindex error message notation | |
666 | |
667 Some examples signal errors. This normally displays an error message | |
668 in the echo area. We show the error message on a line starting with | |
669 @samp{@error{}}. Note that @samp{@error{}} itself does not appear in | |
670 the echo area. | |
671 | |
672 @example | |
673 (+ 23 'x) | |
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674 @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, x |
6453 | 675 @end example |
676 | |
677 @node Buffer Text Notation | |
678 @subsection Buffer Text Notation | |
679 @cindex buffer text notation | |
680 | |
681 Some examples show modifications to text in a buffer, with ``before'' | |
682 and ``after'' versions of the text. These examples show the contents of | |
683 the buffer in question between two lines of dashes containing the buffer | |
684 name. In addition, @samp{@point{}} indicates the location of point. | |
685 (The symbol for point, of course, is not part of the text in the buffer; | |
686 it indicates the place @emph{between} two characters where point is | |
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687 currently located.) |
6453 | 688 |
689 @example | |
690 ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- | |
691 This is the @point{}contents of foo. | |
692 ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- | |
693 | |
694 (insert "changed ") | |
695 @result{} nil | |
696 ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- | |
697 This is the changed @point{}contents of foo. | |
698 ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- | |
699 @end example | |
700 | |
701 @node Format of Descriptions | |
702 @subsection Format of Descriptions | |
703 @cindex description format | |
704 | |
705 Functions, variables, macros, commands, user options, and special | |
706 forms are described in this manual in a uniform format. The first | |
707 line of a description contains the name of the item followed by its | |
708 arguments, if any. | |
709 @ifinfo | |
710 The category---function, variable, or whatever---appears at the | |
711 beginning of the line. | |
712 @end ifinfo | |
713 @iftex | |
714 The category---function, variable, or whatever---is printed next to the | |
715 right margin. | |
716 @end iftex | |
717 The description follows on succeeding lines, sometimes with examples. | |
718 | |
719 @menu | |
720 * A Sample Function Description:: A description of an imaginary | |
721 function, @code{foo}. | |
722 * A Sample Variable Description:: A description of an imaginary | |
723 variable, | |
724 @code{electric-future-map}. | |
725 @end menu | |
726 | |
727 @node A Sample Function Description | |
728 @subsubsection A Sample Function Description | |
729 @cindex function descriptions | |
730 @cindex command descriptions | |
731 @cindex macro descriptions | |
732 @cindex special form descriptions | |
733 | |
734 In a function description, the name of the function being described | |
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735 appears first. It is followed on the same line by a list of argument |
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736 names. These names are also used in the body of the description, to |
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737 stand for the values of the arguments. |
6453 | 738 |
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739 The appearance of the keyword @code{&optional} in the argument list |
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740 indicates that the subsequent arguments may be omitted (omitted |
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741 arguments default to @code{nil}). Do not write @code{&optional} when |
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742 you call the function. |
6453 | 743 |
744 The keyword @code{&rest} (which will always be followed by a single | |
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745 argument name) indicates that any number of arguments can follow. The value |
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746 of the single following arguments name will be a list of all these arguments. |
6453 | 747 Do not write @code{&rest} when you call the function. |
748 | |
749 Here is a description of an imaginary function @code{foo}: | |
750 | |
751 @defun foo integer1 &optional integer2 &rest integers | |
752 The function @code{foo} subtracts @var{integer1} from @var{integer2}, | |
753 then adds all the rest of the arguments to the result. If @var{integer2} | |
754 is not supplied, then the number 19 is used by default. | |
755 | |
756 @example | |
757 (foo 1 5 3 9) | |
758 @result{} 16 | |
759 (foo 5) | |
760 @result{} 14 | |
761 @end example | |
762 | |
763 More generally, | |
764 | |
765 @example | |
766 (foo @var{w} @var{x} @var{y}@dots{}) | |
767 @equiv{} | |
768 (+ (- @var{x} @var{w}) @var{y}@dots{}) | |
769 @end example | |
770 @end defun | |
771 | |
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772 Any argument whose name contains the name of a type (e.g., |
6453 | 773 @var{integer}, @var{integer1} or @var{buffer}) is expected to be of that |
774 type. A plural of a type (such as @var{buffers}) often means a list of | |
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775 objects of that type. Arguments named @var{object} may be of any type. |
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776 (@xref{Lisp Data Types}, for a list of Emacs object types.) Arguments |
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777 with other sorts of names (e.g., @var{new-file}) are discussed |
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778 specifically in the description of the function. In some sections, |
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779 features common to the arguments of several functions are described at |
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780 the beginning. |
6453 | 781 |
782 @xref{Lambda Expressions}, for a more complete description of optional | |
783 and rest arguments. | |
784 | |
785 Command, macro, and special form descriptions have the same format, | |
786 but the word `Function' is replaced by `Command', `Macro', or `Special | |
787 Form', respectively. Commands are simply functions that may be called | |
788 interactively; macros process their arguments differently from functions | |
789 (the arguments are not evaluated), but are presented the same way. | |
790 | |
791 Special form descriptions use a more complex notation to specify | |
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792 optional and repeated arguments because they can break the argument |
6453 | 793 list down into separate arguments in more complicated ways. |
794 @samp{@code{@r{[}@var{optional-arg}@r{]}}} means that @var{optional-arg} is | |
795 optional and @samp{@var{repeated-args}@dots{}} stands for zero or more | |
796 arguments. Parentheses are used when several arguments are grouped into | |
797 additional levels of list structure. Here is an example: | |
798 | |
799 @defspec count-loop (@var{var} [@var{from} @var{to} [@var{inc}]]) @var{body}@dots{} | |
800 This imaginary special form implements a loop that executes the | |
801 @var{body} forms and then increments the variable @var{var} on each | |
802 iteration. On the first iteration, the variable has the value | |
803 @var{from}; on subsequent iterations, it is incremented by 1 (or by | |
804 @var{inc} if that is given). The loop exits before executing @var{body} | |
805 if @var{var} equals @var{to}. Here is an example: | |
806 | |
807 @example | |
808 (count-loop (i 0 10) | |
809 (prin1 i) (princ " ") | |
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810 (prin1 (aref vector i)) |
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811 (terpri)) |
6453 | 812 @end example |
813 | |
814 If @var{from} and @var{to} are omitted, then @var{var} is bound to | |
815 @code{nil} before the loop begins, and the loop exits if @var{var} is | |
816 non-@code{nil} at the beginning of an iteration. Here is an example: | |
817 | |
818 @example | |
819 (count-loop (done) | |
820 (if (pending) | |
821 (fixit) | |
822 (setq done t))) | |
823 @end example | |
824 | |
825 In this special form, the arguments @var{from} and @var{to} are | |
826 optional, but must both be present or both absent. If they are present, | |
827 @var{inc} may optionally be specified as well. These arguments are | |
828 grouped with the argument @var{var} into a list, to distinguish them | |
829 from @var{body}, which includes all remaining elements of the form. | |
830 @end defspec | |
831 | |
832 @node A Sample Variable Description | |
833 @subsubsection A Sample Variable Description | |
834 @cindex variable descriptions | |
835 @cindex option descriptions | |
836 | |
837 A @dfn{variable} is a name that can hold a value. Although any | |
838 variable can be set by the user, certain variables that exist | |
839 specifically so that users can change them are called @dfn{user | |
840 options}. Ordinary variables and user options are described using a | |
841 format like that for functions except that there are no arguments. | |
842 | |
843 Here is a description of the imaginary @code{electric-future-map} | |
844 variable.@refill | |
845 | |
846 @defvar electric-future-map | |
847 The value of this variable is a full keymap used by Electric Command | |
848 Future mode. The functions in this map allow you to edit commands you | |
849 have not yet thought about executing. | |
850 @end defvar | |
851 | |
852 User option descriptions have the same format, but `Variable' is | |
853 replaced by `User Option'. | |
854 | |
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855 @node Version Info |
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856 @section Version Information |
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857 |
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858 These functions and variables provide information about which |
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859 version of Emacs is in use. |
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860 |
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861 @deffn Command emacs-version |
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862 This function returns a string describing the version of Emacs that is |
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863 running. It is useful to include this string in bug reports. |
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864 |
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865 @example |
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866 @group |
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867 (emacs-version) |
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868 @result{} "GNU Emacs 20.3.5 (i486-pc-linux-gnulibc1, X toolkit) |
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869 of Sat Feb 14 1998 on psilocin.gnu.org" |
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870 @end group |
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871 @end example |
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872 |
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873 Called interactively, the function prints the same information in the |
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874 echo area. |
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875 @end deffn |
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876 |
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877 @defvar emacs-build-time |
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878 The value of this variable is the time at which Emacs was built at the |
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879 local site. |
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880 |
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881 @example |
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882 @group |
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883 emacs-build-time |
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884 @result{} "Tue Jun 6 14:55:57 1995" |
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885 @end group |
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886 @end example |
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887 @end defvar |
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888 |
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889 @defvar emacs-version |
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890 The value of this variable is the version of Emacs being run. It is a |
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891 string such as @code{"20.3.1"}. The last number in this string is not |
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892 really part of the Emacs release version number; it is incremented each |
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893 time you build Emacs in any given directory. |
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894 @end defvar |
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895 |
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896 The following two variables have existed since Emacs version 19.23, |
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897 |
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898 @defvar emacs-major-version |
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899 The major version number of Emacs, as an integer. For Emacs version |
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900 20.3, the value is 20. |
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901 @end defvar |
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902 |
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903 @defvar emacs-minor-version |
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904 The minor version number of Emacs, as an integer. For Emacs version |
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905 20.3, the value is 3. |
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906 @end defvar |
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907 |
6453 | 908 @node Acknowledgements |
909 @section Acknowledgements | |
910 | |
911 This manual was written by Robert Krawitz, Bil Lewis, Dan LaLiberte, | |
912 Richard M. Stallman and Chris Welty, the volunteers of the GNU manual | |
913 group, in an effort extending over several years. Robert J. Chassell | |
914 helped to review and edit the manual, with the support of the Defense | |
915 Advanced Research Projects Agency, ARPA Order 6082, arranged by Warren | |
916 A. Hunt, Jr. of Computational Logic, Inc. | |
917 | |
918 Corrections were supplied by Karl Berry, Jim Blandy, Bard Bloom, | |
919 Stephane Boucher, David Boyes, Alan Carroll, Richard Davis, Lawrence | |
920 R. Dodd, Peter Doornbosch, David A. Duff, Chris Eich, Beverly | |
921 Erlebacher, David Eckelkamp, Ralf Fassel, Eirik Fuller, Stephen Gildea, | |
922 Bob Glickstein, Eric Hanchrow, George Hartzell, Nathan Hess, Masayuki | |
923 Ida, Dan Jacobson, Jak Kirman, Bob Knighten, Frederick M. Korz, Joe | |
924 Lammens, Glenn M. Lewis, K. Richard Magill, Brian Marick, Roland | |
925 McGrath, Skip Montanaro, John Gardiner Myers, Thomas A. Peterson, | |
926 Francesco Potorti, Friedrich Pukelsheim, Arnold D. Robbins, Raul | |
927 Rockwell, Per Starback, Shinichirou Sugou, Kimmo Suominen, Edward Tharp, | |
928 Bill Trost, Rickard Westman, Jean White, Matthew Wilding, Carl Witty, | |
929 Dale Worley, Rusty Wright, and David D. Zuhn. |