annotate lispref/numbers.texi @ 29053:565418f2e425

Update side-effect free function lists.
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999
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4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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6 @setfilename ../info/numbers
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7 @node Numbers, Strings and Characters, Lisp Data Types, Top
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8 @chapter Numbers
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9 @cindex integers
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10 @cindex numbers
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11
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12 GNU Emacs supports two numeric data types: @dfn{integers} and
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13 @dfn{floating point numbers}. Integers are whole numbers such as
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14 @minus{}3, 0, 7, 13, and 511. Their values are exact. Floating point
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15 numbers are numbers with fractional parts, such as @minus{}4.5, 0.0, or
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16 2.71828. They can also be expressed in exponential notation: 1.5e2
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17 equals 150; in this example, @samp{e2} stands for ten to the second
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18 power, and that is multiplied by 1.5. Floating point values are not
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19 exact; they have a fixed, limited amount of precision.
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20
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21 @menu
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22 * Integer Basics:: Representation and range of integers.
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23 * Float Basics:: Representation and range of floating point.
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24 * Predicates on Numbers:: Testing for numbers.
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25 * Comparison of Numbers:: Equality and inequality predicates.
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26 * Numeric Conversions:: Converting float to integer and vice versa.
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27 * Arithmetic Operations:: How to add, subtract, multiply and divide.
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28 * Rounding Operations:: Explicitly rounding floating point numbers.
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29 * Bitwise Operations:: Logical and, or, not, shifting.
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30 * Math Functions:: Trig, exponential and logarithmic functions.
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31 * Random Numbers:: Obtaining random integers, predictable or not.
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32 @end menu
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33
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34 @node Integer Basics
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35 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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36 @section Integer Basics
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37
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38 The range of values for an integer depends on the machine. The
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39 minimum range is @minus{}134217728 to 134217727 (28 bits; i.e.,
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40 @ifnottex
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41 -2**27
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42 @end ifnottex
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43 @tex
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44 @math{-2^{27}}
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45 @end tex
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46 to
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47 @ifnottex
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48 2**27 - 1),
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49 @end ifnottex
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50 @tex
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51 @math{2^{27}-1}),
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52 @end tex
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53 but some machines may provide a wider range. Many examples in this
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54 chapter assume an integer has 28 bits.
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55 @cindex overflow
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56
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57 The Lisp reader reads an integer as a sequence of digits with optional
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58 initial sign and optional final period.
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59
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60 @example
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61 1 ; @r{The integer 1.}
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62 1. ; @r{The integer 1.}
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63 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.}
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64 -1 ; @r{The integer @minus{}1.}
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65 268435457 ; @r{Also the integer 1, due to overflow.}
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66 0 ; @r{The integer 0.}
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67 -0 ; @r{The integer 0.}
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68 @end example
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69
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70 To understand how various functions work on integers, especially the
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71 bitwise operators (@pxref{Bitwise Operations}), it is often helpful to
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72 view the numbers in their binary form.
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73
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74 In 28-bit binary, the decimal integer 5 looks like this:
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75
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76 @example
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77 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101
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78 @end example
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79
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80 @noindent
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81 (We have inserted spaces between groups of 4 bits, and two spaces
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82 between groups of 8 bits, to make the binary integer easier to read.)
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83
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84 The integer @minus{}1 looks like this:
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85
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86 @example
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87 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
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88 @end example
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89
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90 @noindent
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91 @cindex two's complement
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92 @minus{}1 is represented as 28 ones. (This is called @dfn{two's
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93 complement} notation.)
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94
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95 The negative integer, @minus{}5, is creating by subtracting 4 from
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96 @minus{}1. In binary, the decimal integer 4 is 100. Consequently,
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97 @minus{}5 looks like this:
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98
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99 @example
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100 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011
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101 @end example
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102
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103 In this implementation, the largest 28-bit binary integer value is
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104 134,217,727 in decimal. In binary, it looks like this:
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105
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106 @example
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107 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
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108 @end example
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109
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110 Since the arithmetic functions do not check whether integers go
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111 outside their range, when you add 1 to 134,217,727, the value is the
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112 negative integer @minus{}134,217,728:
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113
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114 @example
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115 (+ 1 134217727)
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116 @result{} -134217728
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117 @result{} 1000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000
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118 @end example
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119
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120 Many of the functions described in this chapter accept markers for
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121 arguments in place of numbers. (@xref{Markers}.) Since the actual
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122 arguments to such functions may be either numbers or markers, we often
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123 give these arguments the name @var{number-or-marker}. When the argument
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124 value is a marker, its position value is used and its buffer is ignored.
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125
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126 @node Float Basics
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127 @section Floating Point Basics
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128
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129 Floating point numbers are useful for representing numbers that are
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130 not integral. The precise range of floating point numbers is
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131 machine-specific; it is the same as the range of the C data type
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132 @code{double} on the machine you are using.
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133
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134 The read-syntax for floating point numbers requires either a decimal
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135 point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or both. For
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136 example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, @samp{1.5e3}, and
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137 @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point number whose
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138 value is 1500. They are all equivalent. You can also use a minus sign
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139 to write negative floating point numbers, as in @samp{-1.0}.
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140
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141 @cindex IEEE floating point
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142 @cindex positive infinity
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143 @cindex negative infinity
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144 @cindex infinity
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145 @cindex NaN
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146 Most modern computers support the IEEE floating point standard, which
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147 provides for positive infinity and negative infinity as floating point
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148 values. It also provides for a class of values called NaN or
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149 ``not-a-number''; numerical functions return such values in cases where
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150 there is no correct answer. For example, @code{(sqrt -1.0)} returns a
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151 NaN. For practical purposes, there's no significant difference between
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152 different NaN values in Emacs Lisp, and there's no rule for precisely
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153 which NaN value should be used in a particular case, so Emacs Lisp
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154 doesn't try to distinguish them. Here are the read syntaxes for
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155 these special floating point values:
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156
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157 @table @asis
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158 @item positive infinity
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159 @samp{1.0e+INF}
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160 @item negative infinity
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161 @samp{-1.0e+INF}
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162 @item Not-a-number
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163 @samp{0.0e+NaN}.
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164 @end table
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165
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166 In addition, the value @code{-0.0} is distinguishable from ordinary
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167 zero in IEEE floating point (although @code{equal} and @code{=} consider
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168 them equal values).
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169
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170 You can use @code{logb} to extract the binary exponent of a floating
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171 point number (or estimate the logarithm of an integer):
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172
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173 @defun logb number
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174 This function returns the binary exponent of @var{number}. More
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175 precisely, the value is the logarithm of @var{number} base 2, rounded
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176 down to an integer.
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177
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178 @example
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179 (logb 10)
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180 @result{} 3
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181 (logb 10.0e20)
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182 @result{} 69
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183 @end example
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184 @end defun
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185
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186 @node Predicates on Numbers
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187 @section Type Predicates for Numbers
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188
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189 The functions in this section test whether the argument is a number or
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190 whether it is a certain sort of number. The functions @code{integerp}
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191 and @code{floatp} can take any type of Lisp object as argument (the
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192 predicates would not be of much use otherwise); but the @code{zerop}
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193 predicate requires a number as its argument. See also
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194 @code{integer-or-marker-p} and @code{number-or-marker-p}, in
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195 @ref{Predicates on Markers}.
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196
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197 @defun floatp object
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198 This predicate tests whether its argument is a floating point
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199 number and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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200
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201 @code{floatp} does not exist in Emacs versions 18 and earlier.
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202 @end defun
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203
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204 @defun integerp object
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205 This predicate tests whether its argument is an integer, and returns
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206 @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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207 @end defun
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208
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209 @defun numberp object
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210 This predicate tests whether its argument is a number (either integer or
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211 floating point), and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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212 @end defun
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213
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214 @defun wholenump object
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215 @cindex natural numbers
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216 The @code{wholenump} predicate (whose name comes from the phrase
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217 ``whole-number-p'') tests to see whether its argument is a nonnegative
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218 integer, and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. 0 is
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219 considered non-negative.
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220
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221 @findex natnump
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222 @code{natnump} is an obsolete synonym for @code{wholenump}.
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223 @end defun
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224
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225 @defun zerop number
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226 This predicate tests whether its argument is zero, and returns @code{t}
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227 if so, @code{nil} otherwise. The argument must be a number.
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228
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229 These two forms are equivalent: @code{(zerop x)} @equiv{} @code{(= x 0)}.
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230 @end defun
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231
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232 @node Comparison of Numbers
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233 @section Comparison of Numbers
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234 @cindex number equality
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235
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236 To test numbers for numerical equality, you should normally use
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237 @code{=}, not @code{eq}. There can be many distinct floating point
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238 number objects with the same numeric value. If you use @code{eq} to
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239 compare them, then you test whether two values are the same
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240 @emph{object}. By contrast, @code{=} compares only the numeric values
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241 of the objects.
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242
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243 At present, each integer value has a unique Lisp object in Emacs Lisp.
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244 Therefore, @code{eq} is equivalent to @code{=} where integers are
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245 concerned. It is sometimes convenient to use @code{eq} for comparing an
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246 unknown value with an integer, because @code{eq} does not report an
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247 error if the unknown value is not a number---it accepts arguments of any
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248 type. By contrast, @code{=} signals an error if the arguments are not
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249 numbers or markers. However, it is a good idea to use @code{=} if you
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250 can, even for comparing integers, just in case we change the
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251 representation of integers in a future Emacs version.
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252
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253 Sometimes it is useful to compare numbers with @code{equal}; it treats
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254 two numbers as equal if they have the same data type (both integers, or
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255 both floating point) and the same value. By contrast, @code{=} can
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256 treat an integer and a floating point number as equal.
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257
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258 There is another wrinkle: because floating point arithmetic is not
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259 exact, it is often a bad idea to check for equality of two floating
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260 point values. Usually it is better to test for approximate equality.
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261 Here's a function to do this:
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262
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263 @example
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264 (defvar fuzz-factor 1.0e-6)
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265 (defun approx-equal (x y)
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266 (or (and (= x 0) (= y 0))
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267 (< (/ (abs (- x y))
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268 (max (abs x) (abs y)))
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269 fuzz-factor)))
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270 @end example
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271
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272 @cindex CL note---integers vrs @code{eq}
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273 @quotation
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274 @b{Common Lisp note:} Comparing numbers in Common Lisp always requires
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275 @code{=} because Common Lisp implements multi-word integers, and two
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276 distinct integer objects can have the same numeric value. Emacs Lisp
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277 can have just one integer object for any given value because it has a
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278 limited range of integer values.
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279 @end quotation
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280
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281 @defun = number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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282 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and
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283 returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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284 @end defun
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285
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286 @defun /= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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287 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and
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288 returns @code{t} if they are not, and @code{nil} if they are.
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289 @end defun
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290
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291 @defun < number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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292 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly less than
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293 its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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294 @end defun
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295
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296 @defun <= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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297 This function tests whether its first argument is less than or equal
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298 to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil}
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299 otherwise.
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300 @end defun
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301
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302 @defun > number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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303 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly greater
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304 than its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil}
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305 otherwise.
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306 @end defun
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307
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308 @defun >= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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309 This function tests whether its first argument is greater than or
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310 equal to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil}
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311 otherwise.
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312 @end defun
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313
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314 @defun max number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers
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315 This function returns the largest of its arguments.
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316 If any of the argument is floating-point, the value is returned
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317 as floating point, even if it was given as an integer.
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318
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319 @example
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320 (max 20)
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321 @result{} 20
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322 (max 1 2.5)
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323 @result{} 2.5
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324 (max 1 3 2.5)
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325 @result{} 3.0
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326 @end example
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327 @end defun
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328
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329 @defun min number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers
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330 This function returns the smallest of its arguments.
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331 If any of the argument is floating-point, the value is returned
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332 as floating point, even if it was given as an integer.
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333
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334 @example
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335 (min -4 1)
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336 @result{} -4
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337 @end example
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338 @end defun
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339
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340 @defun abs number
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341 This function returns the absolute value of @var{number}.
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342 @end defun
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343
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344 @node Numeric Conversions
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345 @section Numeric Conversions
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346 @cindex rounding in conversions
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347
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348 To convert an integer to floating point, use the function @code{float}.
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349
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350 @defun float number
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351 This returns @var{number} converted to floating point.
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352 If @var{number} is already a floating point number, @code{float} returns
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353 it unchanged.
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354 @end defun
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355
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356 There are four functions to convert floating point numbers to integers;
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357 they differ in how they round. These functions accept integer arguments
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358 also, and return such arguments unchanged.
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359
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360 @defun truncate number
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361 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards
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362 zero.
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363 @end defun
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364
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365 @defun floor number &optional divisor
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366 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding downward
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367 (towards negative infinity).
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368
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369 If @var{divisor} is specified, @var{number} is divided by @var{divisor}
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370 before the floor is taken; this uses the kind of division operation that
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371 corresponds to @code{mod}, rounding downward. An @code{arith-error}
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372 results if @var{divisor} is 0.
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373 @end defun
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374
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375 @defun ceiling number
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376 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding upward
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377 (towards positive infinity).
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378 @end defun
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379
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380 @defun round number
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381 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards the
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382 nearest integer. Rounding a value equidistant between two integers
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383 may choose the integer closer to zero, or it may prefer an even integer,
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384 depending on your machine.
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385 @end defun
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386
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387 @node Arithmetic Operations
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388 @section Arithmetic Operations
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389
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390 Emacs Lisp provides the traditional four arithmetic operations:
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391 addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Remainder and modulus
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392 functions supplement the division functions. The functions to
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393 add or subtract 1 are provided because they are traditional in Lisp and
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394 commonly used.
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395
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396 All of these functions except @code{%} return a floating point value
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397 if any argument is floating.
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398
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399 It is important to note that in Emacs Lisp, arithmetic functions
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400 do not check for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 134217727)} may evaluate to
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401 @minus{}134217728, depending on your hardware.
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402
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403 @defun 1+ number-or-marker
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404 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} plus 1.
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405 For example,
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406
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407 @example
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408 (setq foo 4)
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409 @result{} 4
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410 (1+ foo)
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411 @result{} 5
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412 @end example
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413
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414 This function is not analogous to the C operator @code{++}---it does not
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415 increment a variable. It just computes a sum. Thus, if we continue,
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416
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417 @example
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418 foo
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419 @result{} 4
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420 @end example
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421
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422 If you want to increment the variable, you must use @code{setq},
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423 like this:
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424
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425 @example
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426 (setq foo (1+ foo))
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427 @result{} 5
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428 @end example
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429 @end defun
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430
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431 @defun 1- number-or-marker
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432 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} minus 1.
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433 @end defun
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434
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435 @defun + &rest numbers-or-markers
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436 This function adds its arguments together. When given no arguments,
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437 @code{+} returns 0.
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438
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439 @example
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440 (+)
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441 @result{} 0
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442 (+ 1)
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443 @result{} 1
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444 (+ 1 2 3 4)
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445 @result{} 10
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446 @end example
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447 @end defun
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448
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449 @defun - &optional number-or-marker &rest more-numbers-or-markers
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450 The @code{-} function serves two purposes: negation and subtraction.
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451 When @code{-} has a single argument, the value is the negative of the
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452 argument. When there are multiple arguments, @code{-} subtracts each of
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453 the @var{more-numbers-or-markers} from @var{number-or-marker},
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454 cumulatively. If there are no arguments, the result is 0.
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455
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456 @example
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457 (- 10 1 2 3 4)
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458 @result{} 0
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459 (- 10)
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460 @result{} -10
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461 (-)
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462 @result{} 0
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463 @end example
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464 @end defun
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465
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466 @defun * &rest numbers-or-markers
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467 This function multiplies its arguments together, and returns the
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468 product. When given no arguments, @code{*} returns 1.
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469
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470 @example
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471 (*)
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472 @result{} 1
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473 (* 1)
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474 @result{} 1
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475 (* 1 2 3 4)
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476 @result{} 24
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477 @end example
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478 @end defun
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479
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480 @defun / dividend divisor &rest divisors
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481 This function divides @var{dividend} by @var{divisor} and returns the
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482 quotient. If there are additional arguments @var{divisors}, then it
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483 divides @var{dividend} by each divisor in turn. Each argument may be a
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484 number or a marker.
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485
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486 If all the arguments are integers, then the result is an integer too.
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487 This means the result has to be rounded. On most machines, the result
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488 is rounded towards zero after each division, but some machines may round
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489 differently with negative arguments. This is because the Lisp function
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490 @code{/} is implemented using the C division operator, which also
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491 permits machine-dependent rounding. As a practical matter, all known
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492 machines round in the standard fashion.
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493
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494 @cindex @code{arith-error} in division
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495 If you divide an integer by 0, an @code{arith-error} error is signaled.
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496 (@xref{Errors}.) Floating point division by zero returns either
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497 infinity or a NaN if your machine supports IEEE floating point;
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498 otherwise, it signals an @code{arith-error} error.
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499
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500 @example
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501 @group
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502 (/ 6 2)
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503 @result{} 3
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504 @end group
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505 (/ 5 2)
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506 @result{} 2
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507 (/ 5.0 2)
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
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508 @result{} 2.5
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509 (/ 5 2.0)
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510 @result{} 2.5
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
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511 (/ 5.0 2.0)
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512 @result{} 2.5
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513 (/ 25 3 2)
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514 @result{} 4
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515 (/ -17 6)
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516 @result{} -2
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517 @end example
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518
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519 The result of @code{(/ -17 6)} could in principle be -3 on some
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520 machines.
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521 @end defun
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522
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523 @defun % dividend divisor
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524 @cindex remainder
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525 This function returns the integer remainder after division of @var{dividend}
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526 by @var{divisor}. The arguments must be integers or markers.
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527
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528 For negative arguments, the remainder is in principle machine-dependent
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529 since the quotient is; but in practice, all known machines behave alike.
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530
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531 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0.
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532
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533 @example
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534 (% 9 4)
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535 @result{} 1
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536 (% -9 4)
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537 @result{} -1
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538 (% 9 -4)
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539 @result{} 1
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540 (% -9 -4)
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541 @result{} -1
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542 @end example
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543
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544 For any two integers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor},
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545
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546 @example
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547 @group
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548 (+ (% @var{dividend} @var{divisor})
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549 (* (/ @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor}))
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550 @end group
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551 @end example
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552
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553 @noindent
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554 always equals @var{dividend}.
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555 @end defun
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556
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557 @defun mod dividend divisor
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558 @cindex modulus
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559 This function returns the value of @var{dividend} modulo @var{divisor};
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560 in other words, the remainder after division of @var{dividend}
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561 by @var{divisor}, but with the same sign as @var{divisor}.
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562 The arguments must be numbers or markers.
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563
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564 Unlike @code{%}, @code{mod} returns a well-defined result for negative
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565 arguments. It also permits floating point arguments; it rounds the
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566 quotient downward (towards minus infinity) to an integer, and uses that
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567 quotient to compute the remainder.
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568
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569 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0.
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570
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571 @example
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572 @group
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573 (mod 9 4)
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574 @result{} 1
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575 @end group
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576 @group
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577 (mod -9 4)
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578 @result{} 3
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579 @end group
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580 @group
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581 (mod 9 -4)
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582 @result{} -3
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583 @end group
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584 @group
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585 (mod -9 -4)
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586 @result{} -1
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587 @end group
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588 @group
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589 (mod 5.5 2.5)
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590 @result{} .5
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591 @end group
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592 @end example
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593
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594 For any two numbers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor},
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595
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596 @example
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597 @group
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598 (+ (mod @var{dividend} @var{divisor})
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parents:
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599 (* (floor @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor}))
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600 @end group
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601 @end example
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602
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603 @noindent
12098
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 12067
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604 always equals @var{dividend}, subject to rounding error if either
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 12067
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605 argument is floating point. For @code{floor}, see @ref{Numeric
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
606 Conversions}.
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607 @end defun
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608
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609 @node Rounding Operations
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diff changeset
610 @section Rounding Operations
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611 @cindex rounding without conversion
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diff changeset
612
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
613 The functions @code{ffloor}, @code{fceiling}, @code{fround}, and
6510
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614 @code{ftruncate} take a floating point argument and return a floating
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615 point result whose value is a nearby integer. @code{ffloor} returns the
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diff changeset
616 nearest integer below; @code{fceiling}, the nearest integer above;
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617 @code{ftruncate}, the nearest integer in the direction towards zero;
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618 @code{fround}, the nearest integer.
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619
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620 @defun ffloor float
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diff changeset
621 This function rounds @var{float} to the next lower integral value, and
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diff changeset
622 returns that value as a floating point number.
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623 @end defun
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624
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diff changeset
625 @defun fceiling float
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diff changeset
626 This function rounds @var{float} to the next higher integral value, and
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parents:
diff changeset
627 returns that value as a floating point number.
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628 @end defun
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diff changeset
629
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diff changeset
630 @defun ftruncate float
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parents:
diff changeset
631 This function rounds @var{float} towards zero to an integral value, and
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632 returns that value as a floating point number.
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633 @end defun
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634
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parents:
diff changeset
635 @defun fround float
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parents:
diff changeset
636 This function rounds @var{float} to the nearest integral value,
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diff changeset
637 and returns that value as a floating point number.
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diff changeset
638 @end defun
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diff changeset
639
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diff changeset
640 @node Bitwise Operations
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diff changeset
641 @section Bitwise Operations on Integers
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parents:
diff changeset
642
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diff changeset
643 In a computer, an integer is represented as a binary number, a
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parents:
diff changeset
644 sequence of @dfn{bits} (digits which are either zero or one). A bitwise
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diff changeset
645 operation acts on the individual bits of such a sequence. For example,
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parents:
diff changeset
646 @dfn{shifting} moves the whole sequence left or right one or more places,
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parents:
diff changeset
647 reproducing the same pattern ``moved over''.
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648
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diff changeset
649 The bitwise operations in Emacs Lisp apply only to integers.
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parents:
diff changeset
650
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diff changeset
651 @defun lsh integer1 count
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parents:
diff changeset
652 @cindex logical shift
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653 @code{lsh}, which is an abbreviation for @dfn{logical shift}, shifts the
7115
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diff changeset
654 bits in @var{integer1} to the left @var{count} places, or to the right
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
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diff changeset
655 if @var{count} is negative, bringing zeros into the vacated bits. If
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
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diff changeset
656 @var{count} is negative, @code{lsh} shifts zeros into the leftmost
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
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diff changeset
657 (most-significant) bit, producing a positive result even if
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diff changeset
658 @var{integer1} is negative. Contrast this with @code{ash}, below.
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diff changeset
659
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diff changeset
660 Here are two examples of @code{lsh}, shifting a pattern of bits one
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
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diff changeset
661 place to the left. We show only the low-order eight bits of the binary
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diff changeset
662 pattern; the rest are all zero.
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663
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diff changeset
664 @example
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diff changeset
665 @group
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diff changeset
666 (lsh 5 1)
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parents:
diff changeset
667 @result{} 10
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diff changeset
668 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 10.}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
669 00000101 @result{} 00001010
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
670
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
671 (lsh 7 1)
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
672 @result{} 14
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
673 ;; @r{Decimal 7 becomes decimal 14.}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
674 00000111 @result{} 00001110
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
675 @end group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
676 @end example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
677
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
678 @noindent
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
679 As the examples illustrate, shifting the pattern of bits one place to
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
680 the left produces a number that is twice the value of the previous
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
681 number.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
682
12098
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
683 Shifting a pattern of bits two places to the left produces results
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
684 like this (with 8-bit binary numbers):
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
685
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
686 @example
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
687 @group
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
688 (lsh 3 2)
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
689 @result{} 12
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
690 ;; @r{Decimal 3 becomes decimal 12.}
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
691 00000011 @result{} 00001100
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
692 @end group
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
693 @end example
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
694
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
695 On the other hand, shifting one place to the right looks like this:
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
696
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
697 @example
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
698 @group
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
699 (lsh 6 -1)
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
700 @result{} 3
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
701 ;; @r{Decimal 6 becomes decimal 3.}
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
702 00000110 @result{} 00000011
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
703 @end group
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
704
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
705 @group
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
706 (lsh 5 -1)
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
707 @result{} 2
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
708 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 2.}
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
709 00000101 @result{} 00000010
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
710 @end group
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
711 @end example
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
712
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
713 @noindent
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
714 As the example illustrates, shifting one place to the right divides the
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
715 value of a positive integer by two, rounding downward.
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
716
7115
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
717 The function @code{lsh}, like all Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions, does
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
718 not check for overflow, so shifting left can discard significant bits
12067
73dc8205d259 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 11230
diff changeset
719 and change the sign of the number. For example, left shifting
73dc8205d259 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 11230
diff changeset
720 134,217,727 produces @minus{}2 on a 28-bit machine:
6510
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
721
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
722 @example
12067
73dc8205d259 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 11230
diff changeset
723 (lsh 134217727 1) ; @r{left shift}
6510
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
724 @result{} -2
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
725 @end example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
726
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
727 In binary, in the 28-bit implementation, the argument looks like this:
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
728
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
729 @example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
730 @group
12128
27144f55d1c6 fixed errors that appeared during update to 19.29.
Melissa Weisshaus <melissa@gnu.org>
parents: 12098
diff changeset
731 ;; @r{Decimal 134,217,727}
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
732 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
733 @end group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
734 @end example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
735
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
736 @noindent
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
737 which becomes the following when left shifted:
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
738
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
739 @example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
740 @group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
741 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}2}
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
742 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
743 @end group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
744 @end example
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
745 @end defun
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
746
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
747 @defun ash integer1 count
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
748 @cindex arithmetic shift
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
749 @code{ash} (@dfn{arithmetic shift}) shifts the bits in @var{integer1}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
750 to the left @var{count} places, or to the right if @var{count}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
751 is negative.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
752
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
753 @code{ash} gives the same results as @code{lsh} except when
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
754 @var{integer1} and @var{count} are both negative. In that case,
12098
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
755 @code{ash} puts ones in the empty bit positions on the left, while
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
756 @code{lsh} puts zeros in those bit positions.
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
757
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
758 Thus, with @code{ash}, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
759 looks like this:
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
760
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
761 @example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
762 @group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
763 (ash -6 -1) @result{} -3
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
764 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal @minus{}3.}
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
765 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
766 @result{}
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
767 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
768 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
769 @end example
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
770
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
771 In contrast, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right with
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
772 @code{lsh} looks like this:
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
773
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
774 @example
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
775 @group
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
776 (lsh -6 -1) @result{} 134217725
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
777 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal 134,217,725.}
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
778 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
779 @result{}
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
780 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
781 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
782 @end example
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
783
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
784 Here are other examples:
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
785
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
786 @c !!! Check if lined up in smallbook format! XDVI shows problem
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
787 @c with smallbook but not with regular book! --rjc 16mar92
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
788 @smallexample
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
789 @group
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
790 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
791
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
792 (lsh 5 2) ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
793 @result{} 20 ; = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001 0100}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
794 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
795 @group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
796 (ash 5 2)
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
797 @result{} 20
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
798 (lsh -5 2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011}
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
799 @result{} -20 ; = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 1100}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
800 (ash -5 2)
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
801 @result{} -20
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
802 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
803 @group
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
804 (lsh 5 -2) ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
805 @result{} 1 ; = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
806 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
807 @group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
808 (ash 5 -2)
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
809 @result{} 1
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
810 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
811 @group
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
812 (lsh -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011}
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
813 @result{} 4194302 ; = @r{0011 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
814 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
815 @group
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
816 (ash -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011}
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
817 @result{} -2 ; = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
818 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
819 @end smallexample
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
820 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
821
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
822 @defun logand &rest ints-or-markers
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
823 @cindex logical and
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
824 @cindex bitwise and
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
825 This function returns the ``logical and'' of the arguments: the
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
826 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
827 set in all the arguments. (``Set'' means that the value of the bit is 1
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
828 rather than 0.)
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
829
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
830 For example, using 4-bit binary numbers, the ``logical and'' of 13 and
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
831 12 is 12: 1101 combined with 1100 produces 1100.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
832 In both the binary numbers, the leftmost two bits are set (i.e., they
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
833 are 1's), so the leftmost two bits of the returned value are set.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
834 However, for the rightmost two bits, each is zero in at least one of
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
835 the arguments, so the rightmost two bits of the returned value are 0's.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
836
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parents:
diff changeset
837 @noindent
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parents:
diff changeset
838 Therefore,
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
839
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parents:
diff changeset
840 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
841 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
842 (logand 13 12)
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
843 @result{} 12
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parents:
diff changeset
844 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
845 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
846
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parents:
diff changeset
847 If @code{logand} is not passed any argument, it returns a value of
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
848 @minus{}1. This number is an identity element for @code{logand}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
849 because its binary representation consists entirely of ones. If
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
850 @code{logand} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
851
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parents:
diff changeset
852 @smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
853 @group
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89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
854 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values}
6510
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
855
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
856 (logand 14 13) ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110}
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
857 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101}
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
858 @result{} 12 ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
859 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
860
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parents:
diff changeset
861 @group
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
862 (logand 14 13 4) ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110}
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
863 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101}
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
864 ; 4 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100}
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
865 @result{} 4 ; 4 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
866 @end group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
867
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
868 @group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
869 (logand)
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
870 @result{} -1 ; -1 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
871 @end group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
872 @end smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
873 @end defun
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
874
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parents:
diff changeset
875 @defun logior &rest ints-or-markers
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
876 @cindex logical inclusive or
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
877 @cindex bitwise or
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
878 This function returns the ``inclusive or'' of its arguments: the @var{n}th bit
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
879 is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is set in at least
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
880 one of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the result is zero,
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
881 which is an identity element for this operation. If @code{logior} is
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
882 passed just one argument, it returns that argument.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
883
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
884 @smallexample
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
885 @group
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
886 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
887
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
888 (logior 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
889 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
890 @result{} 13 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
891 @end group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
892
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
893 @group
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
894 (logior 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
895 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
896 ; 7 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111}
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
897 @result{} 15 ; 15 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
898 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
899 @end smallexample
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
900 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
901
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
902 @defun logxor &rest ints-or-markers
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
903 @cindex bitwise exclusive or
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
904 @cindex logical exclusive or
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
905 This function returns the ``exclusive or'' of its arguments: the
7115
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
906 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
907 set in an odd number of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
908 result is 0, which is an identity element for this operation. If
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
909 @code{logxor} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument.
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
910
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
911 @smallexample
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
912 @group
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
913 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
914
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
915 (logxor 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
916 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
917 @result{} 9 ; 9 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1001}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
918 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
919
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
920 @group
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
921 (logxor 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
922 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
923 ; 7 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111}
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
924 @result{} 14 ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
925 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
926 @end smallexample
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
927 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
928
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
929 @defun lognot integer
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
930 @cindex logical not
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
931 @cindex bitwise not
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
932 This function returns the logical complement of its argument: the @var{n}th
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
933 bit is one in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is zero in
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
934 @var{integer}, and vice-versa.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
935
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
936 @example
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
937 (lognot 5)
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
938 @result{} -6
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
939 ;; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
940 ;; @r{becomes}
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
941 ;; -6 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
942 @end example
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
943 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
944
11230
c6b70cdf844e Don't call the special math functions "transcendental".
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 10558
diff changeset
945 @node Math Functions
c6b70cdf844e Don't call the special math functions "transcendental".
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 10558
diff changeset
946 @section Standard Mathematical Functions
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
947 @cindex transcendental functions
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
948 @cindex mathematical functions
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
949
21682
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
950 These mathematical functions allow integers as well as floating point
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
951 numbers as arguments.
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
952
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
953 @defun sin arg
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
954 @defunx cos arg
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
955 @defunx tan arg
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
956 These are the ordinary trigonometric functions, with argument measured
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
957 in radians.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
958 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
959
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
960 @defun asin arg
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
961 The value of @code{(asin @var{arg})} is a number between
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
962 @ifnottex
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
963 @minus{}pi/2
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
964 @end ifnottex
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
965 @tex
25751
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25454
diff changeset
966 @math{-\pi/2}
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
967 @end tex
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
968 and
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
969 @ifnottex
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
970 pi/2
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
971 @end ifnottex
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
972 @tex
25751
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25454
diff changeset
973 @math{\pi/2}
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
974 @end tex
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
975 (inclusive) whose sine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
976 is out of range (outside [-1, 1]), then the result is a NaN.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
977 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
978
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
979 @defun acos arg
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
980 The value of @code{(acos @var{arg})} is a number between 0 and
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
981 @ifnottex
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
982 pi
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
983 @end ifnottex
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
984 @tex
25751
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25454
diff changeset
985 @math{\pi}
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
986 @end tex
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
987 (inclusive) whose cosine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
988 is out of range (outside [-1, 1]), then the result is a NaN.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
989 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
990
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
991 @defun atan arg
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
992 The value of @code{(atan @var{arg})} is a number between
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parents: 27189
diff changeset
993 @ifnottex
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994 @minus{}pi/2
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parents: 27189
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995 @end ifnottex
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996 @tex
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997 @math{-\pi/2}
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998 @end tex
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999 and
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89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
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parents: 27189
diff changeset
1000 @ifnottex
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1001 pi/2
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parents: 27189
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1002 @end ifnottex
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1003 @tex
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1004 @math{\pi/2}
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1005 @end tex
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1006 (exclusive) whose tangent is @var{arg}.
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1007 @end defun
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1008
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diff changeset
1009 @defun exp arg
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parents: 21682
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1010 This is the exponential function; it returns
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1011 @tex
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1012 @math{e}
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1013 @end tex
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1014 @ifnottex
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1015 @i{e}
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1016 @end ifnottex
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1017 to the power @var{arg}.
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1018 @tex
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1019 @math{e}
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1020 @end tex
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1021 @ifnottex
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1022 @i{e}
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1023 @end ifnottex
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1024 is a fundamental mathematical constant also called the base of natural
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1025 logarithms.
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1026 @end defun
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1027
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1028 @defun log arg &optional base
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1029 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base @var{base}.
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1030 If you don't specify @var{base}, the base
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1031 @tex
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1032 @math{e}
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1033 @end tex
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1034 @ifnottex
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1035 @i{e}
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1036 @end ifnottex
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1037 is used. If @var{arg}
6510
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1038 is negative, the result is a NaN.
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1039 @end defun
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1040
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1041 @ignore
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1042 @defun expm1 arg
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parents:
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1043 This function returns @code{(1- (exp @var{arg}))}, but it is more
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diff changeset
1044 accurate than that when @var{arg} is negative and @code{(exp @var{arg})}
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1045 is close to 1.
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1046 @end defun
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1047
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1048 @defun log1p arg
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parents:
diff changeset
1049 This function returns @code{(log (1+ @var{arg}))}, but it is more
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parents:
diff changeset
1050 accurate than that when @var{arg} is so small that adding 1 to it would
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parents:
diff changeset
1051 lose accuracy.
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diff changeset
1052 @end defun
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diff changeset
1053 @end ignore
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1054
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1055 @defun log10 arg
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1056 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base 10. If
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1057 @var{arg} is negative, the result is a NaN. @code{(log10 @var{x})}
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1058 @equiv{} @code{(log @var{x} 10)}, at least approximately.
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1059 @end defun
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1060
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1061 @defun expt x y
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parents: 8017
diff changeset
1062 This function returns @var{x} raised to power @var{y}. If both
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
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1063 arguments are integers and @var{y} is positive, the result is an
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parents: 8017
diff changeset
1064 integer; in this case, it is truncated to fit the range of possible
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
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diff changeset
1065 integer values.
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1066 @end defun
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1067
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1068 @defun sqrt arg
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diff changeset
1069 This returns the square root of @var{arg}. If @var{arg} is negative,
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parents:
diff changeset
1070 the value is a NaN.
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1071 @end defun
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1072
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1073 @node Random Numbers
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parents:
diff changeset
1074 @section Random Numbers
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parents:
diff changeset
1075 @cindex random numbers
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parents:
diff changeset
1076
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diff changeset
1077 A deterministic computer program cannot generate true random numbers.
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parents:
diff changeset
1078 For most purposes, @dfn{pseudo-random numbers} suffice. A series of
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parents:
diff changeset
1079 pseudo-random numbers is generated in a deterministic fashion. The
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parents:
diff changeset
1080 numbers are not truly random, but they have certain properties that
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parents:
diff changeset
1081 mimic a random series. For example, all possible values occur equally
e18202af3602 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1082 often in a pseudo-random series.
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parents:
diff changeset
1083
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diff changeset
1084 In Emacs, pseudo-random numbers are generated from a ``seed'' number.
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diff changeset
1085 Starting from any given seed, the @code{random} function always
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parents:
diff changeset
1086 generates the same sequence of numbers. Emacs always starts with the
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parents:
diff changeset
1087 same seed value, so the sequence of values of @code{random} is actually
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parents:
diff changeset
1088 the same in each Emacs run! For example, in one operating system, the
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parents:
diff changeset
1089 first call to @code{(random)} after you start Emacs always returns
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parents:
diff changeset
1090 -1457731, and the second one always returns -7692030. This
e18202af3602 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1091 repeatability is helpful for debugging.
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parents:
diff changeset
1092
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1093 If you want random numbers that don't always come out the same, execute
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diff changeset
1094 @code{(random t)}. This chooses a new seed based on the current time of
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diff changeset
1095 day and on Emacs's process @sc{id} number.
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diff changeset
1096
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parents:
diff changeset
1097 @defun random &optional limit
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parents:
diff changeset
1098 This function returns a pseudo-random integer. Repeated calls return a
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parents:
diff changeset
1099 series of pseudo-random integers.
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diff changeset
1100
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1101 If @var{limit} is a positive integer, the value is chosen to be
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a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 12067
diff changeset
1102 nonnegative and less than @var{limit}.
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diff changeset
1103
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1104 If @var{limit} is @code{t}, it means to choose a new seed based on the
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1105 current time of day and on Emacs's process @sc{id} number.
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diff changeset
1106 @c "Emacs'" is incorrect usage!
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parents:
diff changeset
1107
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1108 On some machines, any integer representable in Lisp may be the result
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diff changeset
1109 of @code{random}. On other machines, the result can never be larger
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parents:
diff changeset
1110 than a certain maximum or less than a certain (negative) minimum.
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diff changeset
1111 @end defun