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annotate lispref/lists.texi @ 66232:56ef756519f4
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author | Kim F. Storm <storm@cua.dk> |
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date | Thu, 20 Oct 2005 15:02:42 +0000 |
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6558 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2003, |
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4 @c 2004, 2005 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6558 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/lists | |
7 @node Lists, Sequences Arrays Vectors, Strings and Characters, Top | |
8 @chapter Lists | |
9 @cindex list | |
10 @cindex element (of list) | |
11 | |
12 A @dfn{list} represents a sequence of zero or more elements (which may | |
13 be any Lisp objects). The important difference between lists and | |
14 vectors is that two or more lists can share part of their structure; in | |
15 addition, you can insert or delete elements in a list without copying | |
16 the whole list. | |
17 | |
18 @menu | |
19 * Cons Cells:: How lists are made out of cons cells. | |
20 * List-related Predicates:: Is this object a list? Comparing two lists. | |
21 * List Elements:: Extracting the pieces of a list. | |
22 * Building Lists:: Creating list structure. | |
23 * Modifying Lists:: Storing new pieces into an existing list. | |
24 * Sets And Lists:: A list can represent a finite mathematical set. | |
25 * Association Lists:: A list can represent a finite relation or mapping. | |
63541 | 26 * Rings:: Managing a fixed-size ring of objects. |
6558 | 27 @end menu |
28 | |
29 @node Cons Cells | |
30 @section Lists and Cons Cells | |
31 @cindex lists and cons cells | |
32 @cindex @code{nil} and lists | |
33 | |
34 Lists in Lisp are not a primitive data type; they are built up from | |
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35 @dfn{cons cells}. A cons cell is a data object that represents an |
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36 ordered pair. That is, it has two slots, and each slot @dfn{holds}, or |
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37 @dfn{refers to}, some Lisp object. One slot is known as the @sc{car}, |
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38 and the other is known as the @sc{cdr}. (These names are traditional; |
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39 see @ref{Cons Cell Type}.) @sc{cdr} is pronounced ``could-er.'' |
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40 |
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41 We say that ``the @sc{car} of this cons cell is'' whatever object |
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42 its @sc{car} slot currently holds, and likewise for the @sc{cdr}. |
6558 | 43 |
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44 A list is a series of cons cells ``chained together,'' so that each |
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45 cell refers to the next one. There is one cons cell for each element of |
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46 the list. By convention, the @sc{car}s of the cons cells hold the |
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47 elements of the list, and the @sc{cdr}s are used to chain the list: the |
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48 @sc{cdr} slot of each cons cell refers to the following cons cell. The |
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49 @sc{cdr} of the last cons cell is @code{nil}. This asymmetry between |
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50 the @sc{car} and the @sc{cdr} is entirely a matter of convention; at the |
6558 | 51 level of cons cells, the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} slots have the same |
52 characteristics. | |
53 | |
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54 @cindex true list |
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55 Since @code{nil} is the conventional value to put in the @sc{cdr} of |
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56 the last cons cell in the list, we call that case a @dfn{true list}. |
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57 |
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58 In Lisp, we consider the symbol @code{nil} a list as well as a |
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59 symbol; it is the list with no elements. For convenience, the symbol |
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60 @code{nil} is considered to have @code{nil} as its @sc{cdr} (and also |
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61 as its @sc{car}). Therefore, the @sc{cdr} of a true list is always a |
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62 true list. |
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63 |
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64 @cindex dotted list |
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65 @cindex circular list |
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66 If the @sc{cdr} of a list's last cons cell is some other value, |
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67 neither @code{nil} nor another cons cell, we call the structure a |
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68 @dfn{dotted list}, since its printed representation would use |
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69 @samp{.}. There is one other possibility: some cons cell's @sc{cdr} |
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70 could point to one of the previous cons cells in the list. We call |
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71 that structure a @dfn{circular list}. |
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72 |
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73 For some purposes, it does not matter whether a list is true, |
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74 circular or dotted. If the program doesn't look far enough down the |
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75 list to see the @sc{cdr} of the final cons cell, it won't care. |
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76 However, some functions that operate on lists demand true lists and |
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77 signal errors if given a dotted list. Most functions that try to find |
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78 the end of a list enter infinite loops if given a circular list. |
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79 |
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80 @cindex list structure |
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81 Because most cons cells are used as part of lists, the phrase |
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82 @dfn{list structure} has come to mean any structure made out of cons |
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83 cells. |
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84 |
6558 | 85 The @sc{cdr} of any nonempty list @var{l} is a list containing all the |
86 elements of @var{l} except the first. | |
87 | |
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88 @xref{Cons Cell Type}, for the read and print syntax of cons cells and |
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89 lists, and for ``box and arrow'' illustrations of lists. |
6558 | 90 |
91 @node List-related Predicates | |
92 @section Predicates on Lists | |
93 | |
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94 The following predicates test whether a Lisp object is an atom, |
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95 whether it is a cons cell or is a list, or whether it is the |
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96 distinguished object @code{nil}. (Many of these predicates can be |
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97 defined in terms of the others, but they are used so often that it is |
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98 worth having all of them.) |
6558 | 99 |
100 @defun consp object | |
101 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} | |
102 otherwise. @code{nil} is not a cons cell, although it @emph{is} a list. | |
103 @end defun | |
104 | |
105 @defun atom object | |
106 @cindex atoms | |
107 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is an atom, @code{nil} | |
108 otherwise. All objects except cons cells are atoms. The symbol | |
109 @code{nil} is an atom and is also a list; it is the only Lisp object | |
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110 that is both. |
6558 | 111 |
112 @example | |
113 (atom @var{object}) @equiv{} (not (consp @var{object})) | |
114 @end example | |
115 @end defun | |
116 | |
117 @defun listp object | |
118 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a cons cell or | |
119 @code{nil}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
120 | |
121 @example | |
122 @group | |
123 (listp '(1)) | |
124 @result{} t | |
125 @end group | |
126 @group | |
127 (listp '()) | |
128 @result{} t | |
129 @end group | |
130 @end example | |
131 @end defun | |
132 | |
133 @defun nlistp object | |
134 This function is the opposite of @code{listp}: it returns @code{t} if | |
135 @var{object} is not a list. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
136 | |
137 @example | |
138 (listp @var{object}) @equiv{} (not (nlistp @var{object})) | |
139 @end example | |
140 @end defun | |
141 | |
142 @defun null object | |
143 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is @code{nil}, and | |
144 returns @code{nil} otherwise. This function is identical to @code{not}, | |
145 but as a matter of clarity we use @code{null} when @var{object} is | |
146 considered a list and @code{not} when it is considered a truth value | |
147 (see @code{not} in @ref{Combining Conditions}). | |
148 | |
149 @example | |
150 @group | |
151 (null '(1)) | |
152 @result{} nil | |
153 @end group | |
154 @group | |
155 (null '()) | |
156 @result{} t | |
157 @end group | |
158 @end example | |
159 @end defun | |
160 | |
7734 | 161 @need 2000 |
6558 | 162 |
163 @node List Elements | |
164 @section Accessing Elements of Lists | |
165 @cindex list elements | |
166 | |
167 @defun car cons-cell | |
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168 This function returns the value referred to by the first slot of the |
6558 | 169 cons cell @var{cons-cell}. Expressed another way, this function |
170 returns the @sc{car} of @var{cons-cell}. | |
171 | |
172 As a special case, if @var{cons-cell} is @code{nil}, then @code{car} | |
173 is defined to return @code{nil}; therefore, any list is a valid argument | |
174 for @code{car}. An error is signaled if the argument is not a cons cell | |
175 or @code{nil}. | |
176 | |
177 @example | |
178 @group | |
179 (car '(a b c)) | |
180 @result{} a | |
181 @end group | |
182 @group | |
183 (car '()) | |
184 @result{} nil | |
185 @end group | |
186 @end example | |
187 @end defun | |
188 | |
189 @defun cdr cons-cell | |
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190 This function returns the value referred to by the second slot of |
6558 | 191 the cons cell @var{cons-cell}. Expressed another way, this function |
192 returns the @sc{cdr} of @var{cons-cell}. | |
193 | |
194 As a special case, if @var{cons-cell} is @code{nil}, then @code{cdr} | |
195 is defined to return @code{nil}; therefore, any list is a valid argument | |
196 for @code{cdr}. An error is signaled if the argument is not a cons cell | |
197 or @code{nil}. | |
198 | |
199 @example | |
200 @group | |
201 (cdr '(a b c)) | |
202 @result{} (b c) | |
203 @end group | |
204 @group | |
205 (cdr '()) | |
206 @result{} nil | |
207 @end group | |
208 @end example | |
209 @end defun | |
210 | |
211 @defun car-safe object | |
212 This function lets you take the @sc{car} of a cons cell while avoiding | |
213 errors for other data types. It returns the @sc{car} of @var{object} if | |
214 @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} otherwise. This is in contrast | |
215 to @code{car}, which signals an error if @var{object} is not a list. | |
216 | |
217 @example | |
218 @group | |
219 (car-safe @var{object}) | |
220 @equiv{} | |
221 (let ((x @var{object})) | |
222 (if (consp x) | |
223 (car x) | |
224 nil)) | |
225 @end group | |
226 @end example | |
227 @end defun | |
228 | |
229 @defun cdr-safe object | |
230 This function lets you take the @sc{cdr} of a cons cell while | |
231 avoiding errors for other data types. It returns the @sc{cdr} of | |
232 @var{object} if @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
233 This is in contrast to @code{cdr}, which signals an error if | |
234 @var{object} is not a list. | |
235 | |
236 @example | |
237 @group | |
238 (cdr-safe @var{object}) | |
239 @equiv{} | |
240 (let ((x @var{object})) | |
241 (if (consp x) | |
242 (cdr x) | |
243 nil)) | |
244 @end group | |
245 @end example | |
246 @end defun | |
247 | |
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248 @tindex pop |
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249 @defmac pop listname |
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250 This macro is a way of examining the @sc{car} of a list, |
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251 and taking it off the list, all at once. |
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252 |
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253 It operates on the list which is stored in the symbol @var{listname}. |
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254 It removes this element from the list by setting @var{listname} |
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255 to the @sc{cdr} of its old value---but it also returns the @sc{car} |
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256 of that list, which is the element being removed. |
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257 |
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258 @example |
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259 x |
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260 @result{} (a b c) |
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261 (pop x) |
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262 @result{} a |
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263 x |
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264 @result{} (b c) |
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265 @end example |
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266 @end defmac |
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267 |
56215 | 268 @defun nth n list |
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269 @anchor{Definition of nth} |
6558 | 270 This function returns the @var{n}th element of @var{list}. Elements |
271 are numbered starting with zero, so the @sc{car} of @var{list} is | |
272 element number zero. If the length of @var{list} is @var{n} or less, | |
273 the value is @code{nil}. | |
274 | |
275 If @var{n} is negative, @code{nth} returns the first element of | |
276 @var{list}. | |
277 | |
278 @example | |
279 @group | |
280 (nth 2 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
281 @result{} 3 | |
282 @end group | |
283 @group | |
284 (nth 10 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
285 @result{} nil | |
286 @end group | |
287 @group | |
288 (nth -3 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
289 @result{} 1 | |
290 | |
291 (nth n x) @equiv{} (car (nthcdr n x)) | |
292 @end group | |
293 @end example | |
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294 |
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295 The function @code{elt} is similar, but applies to any kind of sequence. |
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296 For historical reasons, it takes its arguments in the opposite order. |
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297 @xref{Sequence Functions}. |
6558 | 298 @end defun |
299 | |
300 @defun nthcdr n list | |
301 This function returns the @var{n}th @sc{cdr} of @var{list}. In other | |
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302 words, it skips past the first @var{n} links of @var{list} and returns |
6558 | 303 what follows. |
304 | |
305 If @var{n} is zero or negative, @code{nthcdr} returns all of | |
306 @var{list}. If the length of @var{list} is @var{n} or less, | |
307 @code{nthcdr} returns @code{nil}. | |
308 | |
309 @example | |
310 @group | |
311 (nthcdr 1 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
312 @result{} (2 3 4) | |
313 @end group | |
314 @group | |
315 (nthcdr 10 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
316 @result{} nil | |
317 @end group | |
318 @group | |
319 (nthcdr -3 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
320 @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
321 @end group | |
322 @end example | |
323 @end defun | |
324 | |
31131 | 325 @defun last list &optional n |
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326 This function returns the last link of @var{list}. The @code{car} of |
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327 this link is the list's last element. If @var{list} is null, |
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328 @code{nil} is returned. If @var{n} is non-@code{nil}, the |
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329 @var{n}th-to-last link is returned instead, or the whole of @var{list} |
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330 if @var{n} is bigger than @var{list}'s length. |
31131 | 331 @end defun |
332 | |
56215 | 333 @defun safe-length list |
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334 @anchor{Definition of safe-length} |
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335 This function returns the length of @var{list}, with no risk of either |
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336 an error or an infinite loop. It generally returns the number of |
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337 distinct cons cells in the list. However, for circular lists, |
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338 the value is just an upper bound; it is often too large. |
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339 |
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340 If @var{list} is not @code{nil} or a cons cell, @code{safe-length} |
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341 returns 0. |
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342 @end defun |
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343 |
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344 The most common way to compute the length of a list, when you are not |
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345 worried that it may be circular, is with @code{length}. @xref{Sequence |
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346 Functions}. |
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347 |
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348 @defun caar cons-cell |
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349 This is the same as @code{(car (car @var{cons-cell}))}. |
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350 @end defun |
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351 |
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352 @defun cadr cons-cell |
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353 This is the same as @code{(car (cdr @var{cons-cell}))} |
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354 or @code{(nth 1 @var{cons-cell})}. |
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355 @end defun |
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356 |
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357 @defun cdar cons-cell |
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358 This is the same as @code{(cdr (car @var{cons-cell}))}. |
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359 @end defun |
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360 |
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361 @defun cddr cons-cell |
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362 This is the same as @code{(cdr (cdr @var{cons-cell}))} |
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363 or @code{(nthcdr 2 @var{cons-cell})}. |
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364 @end defun |
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365 |
35090 | 366 @defun butlast x &optional n |
367 This function returns the list @var{x} with the last element, | |
368 or the last @var{n} elements, removed. If @var{n} is greater | |
369 than zero it makes a copy of the list so as not to damage the | |
370 original list. In general, @code{(append (butlast @var{x} @var{n}) | |
371 (last @var{x} @var{n}))} will return a list equal to @var{x}. | |
372 @end defun | |
373 | |
374 @defun nbutlast x &optional n | |
375 This is a version of @code{butlast} that works by destructively | |
376 modifying the @code{cdr} of the appropriate element, rather than | |
377 making a copy of the list. | |
378 @end defun | |
379 | |
6558 | 380 @node Building Lists |
381 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
382 @section Building Cons Cells and Lists | |
383 @cindex cons cells | |
384 @cindex building lists | |
385 | |
386 Many functions build lists, as lists reside at the very heart of Lisp. | |
387 @code{cons} is the fundamental list-building function; however, it is | |
388 interesting to note that @code{list} is used more times in the source | |
389 code for Emacs than @code{cons}. | |
390 | |
391 @defun cons object1 object2 | |
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392 This function is the most basic function for building new list |
6558 | 393 structure. It creates a new cons cell, making @var{object1} the |
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394 @sc{car}, and @var{object2} the @sc{cdr}. It then returns the new |
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395 cons cell. The arguments @var{object1} and @var{object2} may be any |
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396 Lisp objects, but most often @var{object2} is a list. |
6558 | 397 |
398 @example | |
399 @group | |
400 (cons 1 '(2)) | |
401 @result{} (1 2) | |
402 @end group | |
403 @group | |
404 (cons 1 '()) | |
405 @result{} (1) | |
406 @end group | |
407 @group | |
408 (cons 1 2) | |
409 @result{} (1 . 2) | |
410 @end group | |
411 @end example | |
412 | |
413 @cindex consing | |
414 @code{cons} is often used to add a single element to the front of a | |
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415 list. This is called @dfn{consing the element onto the list}. |
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416 @footnote{There is no strictly equivalent way to add an element to |
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417 the end of a list. You can use @code{(append @var{listname} (list |
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418 @var{newelt}))}, which creates a whole new list by copying @var{listname} |
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419 and adding @var{newelt} to its end. Or you can use @code{(nconc |
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420 @var{listname} (list @var{newelt}))}, which modifies @var{listname} |
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421 by following all the @sc{cdr}s and then replacing the terminating |
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422 @code{nil}. Compare this to adding an element to the beginning of a |
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423 list with @code{cons}, which neither copies nor modifies the list.} |
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424 For example: |
6558 | 425 |
426 @example | |
427 (setq list (cons newelt list)) | |
428 @end example | |
429 | |
430 Note that there is no conflict between the variable named @code{list} | |
431 used in this example and the function named @code{list} described below; | |
432 any symbol can serve both purposes. | |
433 @end defun | |
434 | |
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435 @tindex push |
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436 @defmac push newelt listname |
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437 This macro provides an alternative way to write |
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438 @code{(setq @var{listname} (cons @var{newelt} @var{listname}))}. |
38786 | 439 |
440 @example | |
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441 (setq l '(a b)) |
38786 | 442 @result{} (a b) |
443 (push 'c l) | |
444 @result{} (c a b) | |
445 l | |
446 @result{} (c a b) | |
447 @end example | |
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448 @end defmac |
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449 |
6558 | 450 @defun list &rest objects |
451 This function creates a list with @var{objects} as its elements. The | |
452 resulting list is always @code{nil}-terminated. If no @var{objects} | |
453 are given, the empty list is returned. | |
454 | |
455 @example | |
456 @group | |
457 (list 1 2 3 4 5) | |
458 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
459 @end group | |
460 @group | |
461 (list 1 2 '(3 4 5) 'foo) | |
462 @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5) foo) | |
463 @end group | |
464 @group | |
465 (list) | |
466 @result{} nil | |
467 @end group | |
468 @end example | |
469 @end defun | |
470 | |
471 @defun make-list length object | |
38786 | 472 This function creates a list of @var{length} elements, in which each |
473 element is @var{object}. Compare @code{make-list} with | |
474 @code{make-string} (@pxref{Creating Strings}). | |
6558 | 475 |
476 @example | |
477 @group | |
478 (make-list 3 'pigs) | |
479 @result{} (pigs pigs pigs) | |
480 @end group | |
481 @group | |
482 (make-list 0 'pigs) | |
483 @result{} nil | |
484 @end group | |
38786 | 485 @group |
486 (setq l (make-list 3 '(a b)) | |
487 @result{} ((a b) (a b) (a b)) | |
488 (eq (car l) (cadr l)) | |
489 @result{} t | |
490 @end group | |
6558 | 491 @end example |
492 @end defun | |
493 | |
494 @defun append &rest sequences | |
495 @cindex copying lists | |
496 This function returns a list containing all the elements of | |
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497 @var{sequences}. The @var{sequences} may be lists, vectors, |
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498 bool-vectors, or strings, but the last one should usually be a list. |
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499 All arguments except the last one are copied, so none of the arguments |
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500 is altered. (See @code{nconc} in @ref{Rearrangement}, for a way to join |
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501 lists with no copying.) |
6558 | 502 |
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503 More generally, the final argument to @code{append} may be any Lisp |
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504 object. The final argument is not copied or converted; it becomes the |
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505 @sc{cdr} of the last cons cell in the new list. If the final argument |
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506 is itself a list, then its elements become in effect elements of the |
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507 result list. If the final element is not a list, the result is a |
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508 dotted list since its final @sc{cdr} is not @code{nil} as required |
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509 in a true list. |
6558 | 510 |
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511 In Emacs 20 and before, the @code{append} function also allowed |
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512 integers as (non last) arguments. It converted them to strings of |
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513 digits, making up the decimal print representation of the integer, and |
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514 then used the strings instead of the original integers. This obsolete |
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515 usage no longer works. The proper way to convert an integer to a |
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516 decimal number in this way is with @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting |
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517 Strings}) or @code{number-to-string} (@pxref{String Conversion}). |
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518 @end defun |
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519 |
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520 Here is an example of using @code{append}: |
6558 | 521 |
522 @example | |
523 @group | |
524 (setq trees '(pine oak)) | |
525 @result{} (pine oak) | |
526 (setq more-trees (append '(maple birch) trees)) | |
527 @result{} (maple birch pine oak) | |
528 @end group | |
529 | |
530 @group | |
531 trees | |
532 @result{} (pine oak) | |
533 more-trees | |
534 @result{} (maple birch pine oak) | |
535 @end group | |
536 @group | |
537 (eq trees (cdr (cdr more-trees))) | |
538 @result{} t | |
539 @end group | |
540 @end example | |
541 | |
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542 You can see how @code{append} works by looking at a box diagram. The |
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543 variable @code{trees} is set to the list @code{(pine oak)} and then the |
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544 variable @code{more-trees} is set to the list @code{(maple birch pine |
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545 oak)}. However, the variable @code{trees} continues to refer to the |
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546 original list: |
6558 | 547 |
548 @smallexample | |
549 @group | |
550 more-trees trees | |
551 | | | |
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552 | --- --- --- --- -> --- --- --- --- |
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553 --> | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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554 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 555 | | | | |
556 | | | | | |
557 --> maple -->birch --> pine --> oak | |
558 @end group | |
559 @end smallexample | |
560 | |
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561 An empty sequence contributes nothing to the value returned by |
6558 | 562 @code{append}. As a consequence of this, a final @code{nil} argument |
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563 forces a copy of the previous argument: |
6558 | 564 |
565 @example | |
566 @group | |
567 trees | |
568 @result{} (pine oak) | |
569 @end group | |
570 @group | |
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571 (setq wood (append trees nil)) |
6558 | 572 @result{} (pine oak) |
573 @end group | |
574 @group | |
575 wood | |
576 @result{} (pine oak) | |
577 @end group | |
578 @group | |
579 (eq wood trees) | |
580 @result{} nil | |
581 @end group | |
582 @end example | |
583 | |
584 @noindent | |
585 This once was the usual way to copy a list, before the function | |
586 @code{copy-sequence} was invented. @xref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}. | |
587 | |
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588 Here we show the use of vectors and strings as arguments to @code{append}: |
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589 |
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590 @example |
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591 @group |
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592 (append [a b] "cd" nil) |
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593 @result{} (a b 99 100) |
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594 @end group |
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595 @end example |
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596 |
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597 With the help of @code{apply} (@pxref{Calling Functions}), we can append |
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598 all the lists in a list of lists: |
6558 | 599 |
600 @example | |
601 @group | |
602 (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil)) | |
603 @result{} (a b c x y z) | |
604 @end group | |
605 @end example | |
606 | |
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607 If no @var{sequences} are given, @code{nil} is returned: |
6558 | 608 |
609 @example | |
610 @group | |
611 (append) | |
612 @result{} nil | |
613 @end group | |
614 @end example | |
615 | |
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616 Here are some examples where the final argument is not a list: |
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617 |
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618 @example |
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619 (append '(x y) 'z) |
12098 | 620 @result{} (x y . z) |
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621 (append '(x y) [z]) |
12098 | 622 @result{} (x y . [z]) |
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623 @end example |
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624 |
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625 @noindent |
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626 The second example shows that when the final argument is a sequence but |
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627 not a list, the sequence's elements do not become elements of the |
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628 resulting list. Instead, the sequence becomes the final @sc{cdr}, like |
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629 any other non-list final argument. |
6558 | 630 |
631 @defun reverse list | |
632 This function creates a new list whose elements are the elements of | |
633 @var{list}, but in reverse order. The original argument @var{list} is | |
634 @emph{not} altered. | |
635 | |
636 @example | |
637 @group | |
638 (setq x '(1 2 3 4)) | |
639 @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
640 @end group | |
641 @group | |
642 (reverse x) | |
643 @result{} (4 3 2 1) | |
644 x | |
645 @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
646 @end group | |
647 @end example | |
648 @end defun | |
649 | |
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650 @defun copy-tree tree &optional vecp |
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651 This function returns a copy of the tree @code{tree}. If @var{tree} is a |
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652 cons cell, this makes a new cons cell with the same @sc{car} and |
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653 @sc{cdr}, then recursively copies the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} in the |
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654 same way. |
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655 |
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656 Normally, when @var{tree} is anything other than a cons cell, |
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657 @code{copy-tree} simply returns @var{tree}. However, if @var{vecp} is |
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658 non-@code{nil}, it copies vectors too (and operates recursively on |
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659 their elements). |
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660 @end defun |
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661 |
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662 @defun number-sequence from &optional to separation |
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663 This returns a list of numbers starting with @var{from} and |
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664 incrementing by @var{separation}, and ending at or just before |
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665 @var{to}. @var{separation} can be positive or negative and defaults |
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666 to 1. If @var{to} is @code{nil} or numerically equal to @var{from}, |
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667 the value is the one-element list @code{(@var{from})}. If @var{to} is |
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668 less than @var{from} with a positive @var{separation}, or greater than |
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669 @var{from} with a negative @var{separation}, the value is @code{nil} |
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670 because those arguments specify an empty sequence. |
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671 |
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672 If @var{separation} is 0 and @var{to} is neither @code{nil} nor |
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673 numerically equal to @var{from}, @code{number-sequence} signals an |
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674 error, since those arguments specify an infinite sequence. |
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675 |
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676 All arguments can be integers or floating point numbers. However, |
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677 floating point arguments can be tricky, because floating point |
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678 arithmetic is inexact. For instance, depending on the machine, it may |
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679 quite well happen that @code{(number-sequence 0.4 0.6 0.2)} returns |
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680 the one element list @code{(0.4)}, whereas |
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681 @code{(number-sequence 0.4 0.8 0.2)} returns a list with three |
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682 elements. The @var{n}th element of the list is computed by the exact |
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683 formula @code{(+ @var{from} (* @var{n} @var{separation}))}. Thus, if |
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684 one wants to make sure that @var{to} is included in the list, one can |
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685 pass an expression of this exact type for @var{to}. Alternatively, |
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686 one can replace @var{to} with a slightly larger value (or a slightly |
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687 more negative value if @var{separation} is negative). |
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688 |
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689 Some examples: |
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690 |
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691 @example |
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692 (number-sequence 4 9) |
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693 @result{} (4 5 6 7 8 9) |
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694 (number-sequence 9 4 -1) |
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695 @result{} (9 8 7 6 5 4) |
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696 (number-sequence 9 4 -2) |
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697 @result{} (9 7 5) |
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698 (number-sequence 8) |
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699 @result{} (8) |
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700 (number-sequence 8 5) |
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701 @result{} nil |
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702 (number-sequence 5 8 -1) |
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703 @result{} nil |
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704 (number-sequence 1.5 6 2) |
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705 @result{} (1.5 3.5 5.5) |
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706 @end example |
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707 @end defun |
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708 |
6558 | 709 @node Modifying Lists |
710 @section Modifying Existing List Structure | |
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711 @cindex destructive list operations |
6558 | 712 |
713 You can modify the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} contents of a cons cell with the | |
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714 primitives @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr}. We call these ``destructive'' |
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715 operations because they change existing list structure. |
6558 | 716 |
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717 @cindex CL note---@code{rplaca} vs @code{setcar} |
6558 | 718 @quotation |
719 @findex rplaca | |
720 @findex rplacd | |
721 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp uses functions @code{rplaca} and | |
722 @code{rplacd} to alter list structure; they change structure the same | |
723 way as @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr}, but the Common Lisp functions | |
724 return the cons cell while @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr} return the | |
725 new @sc{car} or @sc{cdr}. | |
726 @end quotation | |
727 | |
728 @menu | |
729 * Setcar:: Replacing an element in a list. | |
730 * Setcdr:: Replacing part of the list backbone. | |
731 This can be used to remove or add elements. | |
732 * Rearrangement:: Reordering the elements in a list; combining lists. | |
733 @end menu | |
734 | |
735 @node Setcar | |
736 @subsection Altering List Elements with @code{setcar} | |
737 | |
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738 Changing the @sc{car} of a cons cell is done with @code{setcar}. When |
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739 used on a list, @code{setcar} replaces one element of a list with a |
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740 different element. |
6558 | 741 |
742 @defun setcar cons object | |
743 This function stores @var{object} as the new @sc{car} of @var{cons}, | |
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744 replacing its previous @sc{car}. In other words, it changes the |
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745 @sc{car} slot of @var{cons} to refer to @var{object}. It returns the |
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746 value @var{object}. For example: |
6558 | 747 |
748 @example | |
749 @group | |
750 (setq x '(1 2)) | |
751 @result{} (1 2) | |
752 @end group | |
753 @group | |
754 (setcar x 4) | |
755 @result{} 4 | |
756 @end group | |
757 @group | |
758 x | |
759 @result{} (4 2) | |
760 @end group | |
761 @end example | |
762 @end defun | |
763 | |
764 When a cons cell is part of the shared structure of several lists, | |
765 storing a new @sc{car} into the cons changes one element of each of | |
766 these lists. Here is an example: | |
767 | |
768 @example | |
769 @group | |
770 ;; @r{Create two lists that are partly shared.} | |
771 (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
772 @result{} (a b c) | |
773 (setq x2 (cons 'z (cdr x1))) | |
774 @result{} (z b c) | |
775 @end group | |
776 | |
777 @group | |
778 ;; @r{Replace the @sc{car} of a shared link.} | |
779 (setcar (cdr x1) 'foo) | |
780 @result{} foo | |
781 x1 ; @r{Both lists are changed.} | |
782 @result{} (a foo c) | |
783 x2 | |
784 @result{} (z foo c) | |
785 @end group | |
786 | |
787 @group | |
788 ;; @r{Replace the @sc{car} of a link that is not shared.} | |
789 (setcar x1 'baz) | |
790 @result{} baz | |
791 x1 ; @r{Only one list is changed.} | |
792 @result{} (baz foo c) | |
793 x2 | |
794 @result{} (z foo c) | |
795 @end group | |
796 @end example | |
797 | |
798 Here is a graphical depiction of the shared structure of the two lists | |
799 in the variables @code{x1} and @code{x2}, showing why replacing @code{b} | |
800 changes them both: | |
801 | |
802 @example | |
803 @group | |
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804 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
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805 x1---> | | |----> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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806 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 807 | --> | | |
808 | | | | | |
809 --> a | --> b --> c | |
810 | | |
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811 --- --- | |
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812 x2--> | | |-- |
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813 --- --- |
6558 | 814 | |
815 | | |
816 --> z | |
817 @end group | |
818 @end example | |
819 | |
820 Here is an alternative form of box diagram, showing the same relationship: | |
821 | |
822 @example | |
823 @group | |
824 x1: | |
825 -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
826 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
827 | a | o------->| b | o------->| c | nil | | |
828 | | | -->| | | | | | | |
829 -------------- | -------------- -------------- | |
830 | | |
831 x2: | | |
832 -------------- | | |
833 | car | cdr | | | |
834 | z | o---- | |
835 | | | | |
836 -------------- | |
837 @end group | |
838 @end example | |
839 | |
840 @node Setcdr | |
841 @subsection Altering the CDR of a List | |
842 | |
843 The lowest-level primitive for modifying a @sc{cdr} is @code{setcdr}: | |
844 | |
845 @defun setcdr cons object | |
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846 This function stores @var{object} as the new @sc{cdr} of @var{cons}, |
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847 replacing its previous @sc{cdr}. In other words, it changes the |
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848 @sc{cdr} slot of @var{cons} to refer to @var{object}. It returns the |
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849 value @var{object}. |
6558 | 850 @end defun |
851 | |
852 Here is an example of replacing the @sc{cdr} of a list with a | |
853 different list. All but the first element of the list are removed in | |
854 favor of a different sequence of elements. The first element is | |
855 unchanged, because it resides in the @sc{car} of the list, and is not | |
856 reached via the @sc{cdr}. | |
857 | |
858 @example | |
859 @group | |
860 (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
861 @result{} (1 2 3) | |
862 @end group | |
863 @group | |
864 (setcdr x '(4)) | |
865 @result{} (4) | |
866 @end group | |
867 @group | |
868 x | |
869 @result{} (1 4) | |
870 @end group | |
871 @end example | |
872 | |
873 You can delete elements from the middle of a list by altering the | |
874 @sc{cdr}s of the cons cells in the list. For example, here we delete | |
875 the second element, @code{b}, from the list @code{(a b c)}, by changing | |
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876 the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell: |
6558 | 877 |
878 @example | |
879 @group | |
880 (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
881 @result{} (a b c) | |
882 (setcdr x1 (cdr (cdr x1))) | |
883 @result{} (c) | |
884 x1 | |
885 @result{} (a c) | |
886 @end group | |
887 @end example | |
888 | |
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889 @need 4000 |
6558 | 890 Here is the result in box notation: |
891 | |
892 @example | |
893 @group | |
894 -------------------- | |
895 | | | |
896 -------------- | -------------- | -------------- | |
897 | car | cdr | | | car | cdr | -->| car | cdr | | |
898 | a | o----- | b | o-------->| c | nil | | |
899 | | | | | | | | | | |
900 -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
901 @end group | |
902 @end example | |
903 | |
904 @noindent | |
905 The second cons cell, which previously held the element @code{b}, still | |
906 exists and its @sc{car} is still @code{b}, but it no longer forms part | |
907 of this list. | |
908 | |
909 It is equally easy to insert a new element by changing @sc{cdr}s: | |
910 | |
911 @example | |
912 @group | |
913 (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
914 @result{} (a b c) | |
915 (setcdr x1 (cons 'd (cdr x1))) | |
916 @result{} (d b c) | |
917 x1 | |
918 @result{} (a d b c) | |
919 @end group | |
920 @end example | |
921 | |
922 Here is this result in box notation: | |
923 | |
924 @smallexample | |
925 @group | |
926 -------------- ------------- ------------- | |
927 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
928 | a | o | -->| b | o------->| c | nil | | |
929 | | | | | | | | | | | | |
930 --------- | -- | ------------- ------------- | |
931 | | | |
932 ----- -------- | |
933 | | | |
934 | --------------- | | |
935 | | car | cdr | | | |
936 -->| d | o------ | |
937 | | | | |
938 --------------- | |
939 @end group | |
940 @end smallexample | |
941 | |
942 @node Rearrangement | |
943 @subsection Functions that Rearrange Lists | |
944 @cindex rearrangement of lists | |
945 @cindex modification of lists | |
946 | |
947 Here are some functions that rearrange lists ``destructively'' by | |
948 modifying the @sc{cdr}s of their component cons cells. We call these | |
949 functions ``destructive'' because they chew up the original lists passed | |
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950 to them as arguments, relinking their cons cells to form a new list that |
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951 is the returned value. |
6558 | 952 |
27193 | 953 @ifnottex |
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954 See @code{delq}, in @ref{Sets And Lists}, for another function |
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955 that modifies cons cells. |
27193 | 956 @end ifnottex |
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957 @iftex |
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958 The function @code{delq} in the following section is another example |
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959 of destructive list manipulation. |
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960 @end iftex |
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961 |
6558 | 962 @defun nconc &rest lists |
963 @cindex concatenating lists | |
964 @cindex joining lists | |
965 This function returns a list containing all the elements of @var{lists}. | |
966 Unlike @code{append} (@pxref{Building Lists}), the @var{lists} are | |
967 @emph{not} copied. Instead, the last @sc{cdr} of each of the | |
968 @var{lists} is changed to refer to the following list. The last of the | |
969 @var{lists} is not altered. For example: | |
970 | |
971 @example | |
972 @group | |
973 (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
974 @result{} (1 2 3) | |
975 @end group | |
976 @group | |
977 (nconc x '(4 5)) | |
978 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
979 @end group | |
980 @group | |
981 x | |
982 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
983 @end group | |
984 @end example | |
985 | |
986 Since the last argument of @code{nconc} is not itself modified, it is | |
987 reasonable to use a constant list, such as @code{'(4 5)}, as in the | |
988 above example. For the same reason, the last argument need not be a | |
989 list: | |
990 | |
991 @example | |
992 @group | |
993 (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
994 @result{} (1 2 3) | |
995 @end group | |
996 @group | |
997 (nconc x 'z) | |
998 @result{} (1 2 3 . z) | |
999 @end group | |
1000 @group | |
1001 x | |
1002 @result{} (1 2 3 . z) | |
1003 @end group | |
1004 @end example | |
1005 | |
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1006 However, the other arguments (all but the last) must be lists. |
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1007 |
6558 | 1008 A common pitfall is to use a quoted constant list as a non-last |
1009 argument to @code{nconc}. If you do this, your program will change | |
1010 each time you run it! Here is what happens: | |
1011 | |
1012 @smallexample | |
1013 @group | |
1014 (defun add-foo (x) ; @r{We want this function to add} | |
1015 (nconc '(foo) x)) ; @r{@code{foo} to the front of its arg.} | |
1016 @end group | |
1017 | |
1018 @group | |
1019 (symbol-function 'add-foo) | |
1020 @result{} (lambda (x) (nconc (quote (foo)) x)) | |
1021 @end group | |
1022 | |
1023 @group | |
1024 (setq xx (add-foo '(1 2))) ; @r{It seems to work.} | |
1025 @result{} (foo 1 2) | |
1026 @end group | |
1027 @group | |
1028 (setq xy (add-foo '(3 4))) ; @r{What happened?} | |
1029 @result{} (foo 1 2 3 4) | |
1030 @end group | |
1031 @group | |
1032 (eq xx xy) | |
1033 @result{} t | |
1034 @end group | |
1035 | |
1036 @group | |
1037 (symbol-function 'add-foo) | |
1038 @result{} (lambda (x) (nconc (quote (foo 1 2 3 4) x))) | |
1039 @end group | |
1040 @end smallexample | |
1041 @end defun | |
1042 | |
1043 @defun nreverse list | |
1044 @cindex reversing a list | |
1045 This function reverses the order of the elements of @var{list}. | |
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1046 Unlike @code{reverse}, @code{nreverse} alters its argument by reversing |
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1047 the @sc{cdr}s in the cons cells forming the list. The cons cell that |
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1048 used to be the last one in @var{list} becomes the first cons cell of the |
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1049 value. |
6558 | 1050 |
1051 For example: | |
1052 | |
1053 @example | |
1054 @group | |
38786 | 1055 (setq x '(a b c)) |
1056 @result{} (a b c) | |
6558 | 1057 @end group |
1058 @group | |
1059 x | |
38786 | 1060 @result{} (a b c) |
6558 | 1061 (nreverse x) |
38786 | 1062 @result{} (c b a) |
6558 | 1063 @end group |
1064 @group | |
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1065 ;; @r{The cons cell that was first is now last.} |
6558 | 1066 x |
38786 | 1067 @result{} (a) |
6558 | 1068 @end group |
1069 @end example | |
1070 | |
1071 To avoid confusion, we usually store the result of @code{nreverse} | |
1072 back in the same variable which held the original list: | |
1073 | |
1074 @example | |
1075 (setq x (nreverse x)) | |
1076 @end example | |
1077 | |
1078 Here is the @code{nreverse} of our favorite example, @code{(a b c)}, | |
1079 presented graphically: | |
1080 | |
1081 @smallexample | |
1082 @group | |
1083 @r{Original list head:} @r{Reversed list:} | |
1084 ------------- ------------- ------------ | |
1085 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
1086 | a | nil |<-- | b | o |<-- | c | o | | |
1087 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
1088 ------------- | --------- | - | -------- | - | |
1089 | | | | | |
1090 ------------- ------------ | |
1091 @end group | |
1092 @end smallexample | |
1093 @end defun | |
1094 | |
1095 @defun sort list predicate | |
1096 @cindex stable sort | |
1097 @cindex sorting lists | |
1098 This function sorts @var{list} stably, though destructively, and | |
1099 returns the sorted list. It compares elements using @var{predicate}. A | |
1100 stable sort is one in which elements with equal sort keys maintain their | |
1101 relative order before and after the sort. Stability is important when | |
1102 successive sorts are used to order elements according to different | |
1103 criteria. | |
1104 | |
1105 The argument @var{predicate} must be a function that accepts two | |
1106 arguments. It is called with two elements of @var{list}. To get an | |
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1107 increasing order sort, the @var{predicate} should return non-@code{nil} if the |
6558 | 1108 first element is ``less than'' the second, or @code{nil} if not. |
1109 | |
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1110 The comparison function @var{predicate} must give reliable results for |
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1111 any given pair of arguments, at least within a single call to |
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1112 @code{sort}. It must be @dfn{antisymmetric}; that is, if @var{a} is |
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1113 less than @var{b}, @var{b} must not be less than @var{a}. It must be |
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1114 @dfn{transitive}---that is, if @var{a} is less than @var{b}, and @var{b} |
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1115 is less than @var{c}, then @var{a} must be less than @var{c}. If you |
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1116 use a comparison function which does not meet these requirements, the |
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1117 result of @code{sort} is unpredictable. |
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1118 |
6558 | 1119 The destructive aspect of @code{sort} is that it rearranges the cons |
1120 cells forming @var{list} by changing @sc{cdr}s. A nondestructive sort | |
1121 function would create new cons cells to store the elements in their | |
1122 sorted order. If you wish to make a sorted copy without destroying the | |
1123 original, copy it first with @code{copy-sequence} and then sort. | |
1124 | |
1125 Sorting does not change the @sc{car}s of the cons cells in @var{list}; | |
1126 the cons cell that originally contained the element @code{a} in | |
1127 @var{list} still has @code{a} in its @sc{car} after sorting, but it now | |
1128 appears in a different position in the list due to the change of | |
1129 @sc{cdr}s. For example: | |
1130 | |
1131 @example | |
1132 @group | |
1133 (setq nums '(1 3 2 6 5 4 0)) | |
1134 @result{} (1 3 2 6 5 4 0) | |
1135 @end group | |
1136 @group | |
1137 (sort nums '<) | |
1138 @result{} (0 1 2 3 4 5 6) | |
1139 @end group | |
1140 @group | |
1141 nums | |
1142 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5 6) | |
1143 @end group | |
1144 @end example | |
1145 | |
1146 @noindent | |
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1147 @strong{Warning}: Note that the list in @code{nums} no longer contains |
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1148 0; this is the same cons cell that it was before, but it is no longer |
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1149 the first one in the list. Don't assume a variable that formerly held |
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1150 the argument now holds the entire sorted list! Instead, save the result |
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1151 of @code{sort} and use that. Most often we store the result back into |
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1152 the variable that held the original list: |
6558 | 1153 |
1154 @example | |
1155 (setq nums (sort nums '<)) | |
1156 @end example | |
1157 | |
1158 @xref{Sorting}, for more functions that perform sorting. | |
1159 See @code{documentation} in @ref{Accessing Documentation}, for a | |
1160 useful example of @code{sort}. | |
1161 @end defun | |
1162 | |
1163 @node Sets And Lists | |
1164 @section Using Lists as Sets | |
1165 @cindex lists as sets | |
1166 @cindex sets | |
1167 | |
1168 A list can represent an unordered mathematical set---simply consider a | |
1169 value an element of a set if it appears in the list, and ignore the | |
1170 order of the list. To form the union of two sets, use @code{append} (as | |
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1171 long as you don't mind having duplicate elements). You can remove |
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1172 @code{equal} duplicates using @code{delete-dups}. Other useful |
6558 | 1173 functions for sets include @code{memq} and @code{delq}, and their |
1174 @code{equal} versions, @code{member} and @code{delete}. | |
1175 | |
13229 | 1176 @cindex CL note---lack @code{union}, @code{intersection} |
6558 | 1177 @quotation |
1178 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp has functions @code{union} (which | |
1179 avoids duplicate elements) and @code{intersection} for set operations, | |
1180 but GNU Emacs Lisp does not have them. You can write them in Lisp if | |
1181 you wish. | |
1182 @end quotation | |
1183 | |
1184 @defun memq object list | |
1185 @cindex membership in a list | |
1186 This function tests to see whether @var{object} is a member of | |
1187 @var{list}. If it is, @code{memq} returns a list starting with the | |
1188 first occurrence of @var{object}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
1189 The letter @samp{q} in @code{memq} says that it uses @code{eq} to | |
1190 compare @var{object} against the elements of the list. For example: | |
1191 | |
1192 @example | |
1193 @group | |
7118
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1194 (memq 'b '(a b c b a)) |
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1195 @result{} (b c b a) |
6558 | 1196 @end group |
1197 @group | |
1198 (memq '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are not @code{eq}.} | |
1199 @result{} nil | |
1200 @end group | |
1201 @end example | |
1202 @end defun | |
1203 | |
1204 @defun delq object list | |
1205 @cindex deletion of elements | |
1206 This function destructively removes all elements @code{eq} to | |
1207 @var{object} from @var{list}. The letter @samp{q} in @code{delq} says | |
1208 that it uses @code{eq} to compare @var{object} against the elements of | |
30808 | 1209 the list, like @code{memq} and @code{remq}. |
6558 | 1210 @end defun |
1211 | |
1212 When @code{delq} deletes elements from the front of the list, it does so | |
1213 simply by advancing down the list and returning a sublist that starts | |
1214 after those elements: | |
1215 | |
1216 @example | |
1217 @group | |
1218 (delq 'a '(a b c)) @equiv{} (cdr '(a b c)) | |
1219 @end group | |
1220 @end example | |
1221 | |
1222 When an element to be deleted appears in the middle of the list, | |
1223 removing it involves changing the @sc{cdr}s (@pxref{Setcdr}). | |
1224 | |
1225 @example | |
1226 @group | |
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1227 (setq sample-list '(a b c (4))) |
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1228 @result{} (a b c (4)) |
6558 | 1229 @end group |
1230 @group | |
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1231 (delq 'a sample-list) |
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1232 @result{} (b c (4)) |
6558 | 1233 @end group |
1234 @group | |
1235 sample-list | |
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1236 @result{} (a b c (4)) |
6558 | 1237 @end group |
1238 @group | |
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1239 (delq 'c sample-list) |
11628 | 1240 @result{} (a b (4)) |
6558 | 1241 @end group |
1242 @group | |
1243 sample-list | |
11628 | 1244 @result{} (a b (4)) |
6558 | 1245 @end group |
1246 @end example | |
1247 | |
12098 | 1248 Note that @code{(delq 'c sample-list)} modifies @code{sample-list} to |
1249 splice out the third element, but @code{(delq 'a sample-list)} does not | |
6558 | 1250 splice anything---it just returns a shorter list. Don't assume that a |
1251 variable which formerly held the argument @var{list} now has fewer | |
1252 elements, or that it still holds the original list! Instead, save the | |
1253 result of @code{delq} and use that. Most often we store the result back | |
1254 into the variable that held the original list: | |
1255 | |
1256 @example | |
1257 (setq flowers (delq 'rose flowers)) | |
1258 @end example | |
1259 | |
1260 In the following example, the @code{(4)} that @code{delq} attempts to match | |
1261 and the @code{(4)} in the @code{sample-list} are not @code{eq}: | |
1262 | |
1263 @example | |
1264 @group | |
1265 (delq '(4) sample-list) | |
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1266 @result{} (a c (4)) |
6558 | 1267 @end group |
1268 @end example | |
1269 | |
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1270 @defun remq object list |
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1271 This function returns a copy of @var{list}, with all elements removed |
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1272 which are @code{eq} to @var{object}. The letter @samp{q} in @code{remq} |
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1273 says that it uses @code{eq} to compare @var{object} against the elements |
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1274 of @code{list}. |
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1275 |
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1276 @example |
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1277 @group |
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1278 (setq sample-list '(a b c a b c)) |
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1279 @result{} (a b c a b c) |
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1280 @end group |
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1281 @group |
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1282 (remq 'a sample-list) |
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1283 @result{} (b c b c) |
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1284 @end group |
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1285 @group |
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1286 sample-list |
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1287 @result{} (a b c a b c) |
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1288 @end group |
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1289 @end example |
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1290 @noindent |
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1291 The function @code{delq} offers a way to perform this operation |
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1292 destructively. See @ref{Sets And Lists}. |
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1293 @end defun |
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1294 |
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1295 The following three functions are like @code{memq}, @code{delq} and |
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1296 @code{remq}, but use @code{equal} rather than @code{eq} to compare |
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1297 elements. @xref{Equality Predicates}. |
6558 | 1298 |
1299 @defun member object list | |
1300 The function @code{member} tests to see whether @var{object} is a member | |
1301 of @var{list}, comparing members with @var{object} using @code{equal}. | |
1302 If @var{object} is a member, @code{member} returns a list starting with | |
1303 its first occurrence in @var{list}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
1304 | |
1305 Compare this with @code{memq}: | |
1306 | |
1307 @example | |
1308 @group | |
1309 (member '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are @code{equal}.} | |
1310 @result{} ((2)) | |
1311 @end group | |
1312 @group | |
1313 (memq '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are not @code{eq}.} | |
1314 @result{} nil | |
1315 @end group | |
1316 @group | |
1317 ;; @r{Two strings with the same contents are @code{equal}.} | |
1318 (member "foo" '("foo" "bar")) | |
1319 @result{} ("foo" "bar") | |
1320 @end group | |
1321 @end example | |
1322 @end defun | |
1323 | |
30808 | 1324 @defun delete object sequence |
1325 If @code{sequence} is a list, this function destructively removes all | |
1326 elements @code{equal} to @var{object} from @var{sequence}. For lists, | |
1327 @code{delete} is to @code{delq} as @code{member} is to @code{memq}: it | |
1328 uses @code{equal} to compare elements with @var{object}, like | |
1329 @code{member}; when it finds an element that matches, it removes the | |
1330 element just as @code{delq} would. | |
1331 | |
1332 If @code{sequence} is a vector or string, @code{delete} returns a copy | |
1333 of @code{sequence} with all elements @code{equal} to @code{object} | |
1334 removed. | |
1335 | |
1336 For example: | |
6558 | 1337 |
1338 @example | |
1339 @group | |
1340 (delete '(2) '((2) (1) (2))) | |
13229 | 1341 @result{} ((1)) |
6558 | 1342 @end group |
30808 | 1343 @group |
1344 (delete '(2) [(2) (1) (2)]) | |
1345 @result{} [(1)] | |
1346 @end group | |
1347 @end example | |
1348 @end defun | |
1349 | |
1350 @defun remove object sequence | |
1351 This function is the non-destructive counterpart of @code{delete}. If | |
1352 returns a copy of @code{sequence}, a list, vector, or string, with | |
1353 elements @code{equal} to @code{object} removed. For example: | |
1354 | |
1355 @example | |
1356 @group | |
1357 (remove '(2) '((2) (1) (2))) | |
1358 @result{} ((1)) | |
1359 @end group | |
1360 @group | |
1361 (remove '(2) [(2) (1) (2)]) | |
1362 @result{} [(1)] | |
1363 @end group | |
6558 | 1364 @end example |
1365 @end defun | |
1366 | |
1367 @quotation | |
30808 | 1368 @b{Common Lisp note:} The functions @code{member}, @code{delete} and |
1369 @code{remove} in GNU Emacs Lisp are derived from Maclisp, not Common | |
1370 Lisp. The Common Lisp versions do not use @code{equal} to compare | |
1371 elements. | |
6558 | 1372 @end quotation |
1373 | |
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1374 @defun member-ignore-case object list |
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1375 This function is like @code{member}, except that @var{object} should |
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1376 be a string and that it ignores differences in letter-case and text |
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1377 representation: upper-case and lower-case letters are treated as |
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1378 equal, and unibyte strings are converted to multibyte prior to |
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1379 comparison. |
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1380 @end defun |
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1381 |
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1382 @defun delete-dups list |
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1383 This function destructively removes all @code{equal} duplicates from |
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1384 @var{list}, stores the result in @var{list} and returns it. Of |
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1385 several @code{equal} occurrences of an element in @var{list}, |
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1386 @code{delete-dups} keeps the first one. |
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1387 @end defun |
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1388 |
12098 | 1389 See also the function @code{add-to-list}, in @ref{Setting Variables}, |
1390 for another way to add an element to a list stored in a variable. | |
1391 | |
6558 | 1392 @node Association Lists |
1393 @section Association Lists | |
1394 @cindex association list | |
1395 @cindex alist | |
1396 | |
1397 An @dfn{association list}, or @dfn{alist} for short, records a mapping | |
1398 from keys to values. It is a list of cons cells called | |
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1399 @dfn{associations}: the @sc{car} of each cons cell is the @dfn{key}, and the |
6558 | 1400 @sc{cdr} is the @dfn{associated value}.@footnote{This usage of ``key'' |
1401 is not related to the term ``key sequence''; it means a value used to | |
1402 look up an item in a table. In this case, the table is the alist, and | |
1403 the alist associations are the items.} | |
1404 | |
1405 Here is an example of an alist. The key @code{pine} is associated with | |
1406 the value @code{cones}; the key @code{oak} is associated with | |
1407 @code{acorns}; and the key @code{maple} is associated with @code{seeds}. | |
1408 | |
1409 @example | |
1410 @group | |
38786 | 1411 ((pine . cones) |
1412 (oak . acorns) | |
1413 (maple . seeds)) | |
6558 | 1414 @end group |
1415 @end example | |
1416 | |
1417 The associated values in an alist may be any Lisp objects; so may the | |
1418 keys. For example, in the following alist, the symbol @code{a} is | |
1419 associated with the number @code{1}, and the string @code{"b"} is | |
1420 associated with the @emph{list} @code{(2 3)}, which is the @sc{cdr} of | |
1421 the alist element: | |
1422 | |
1423 @example | |
1424 ((a . 1) ("b" 2 3)) | |
1425 @end example | |
1426 | |
1427 Sometimes it is better to design an alist to store the associated | |
1428 value in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr} of the element. Here is an | |
38786 | 1429 example of such an alist: |
6558 | 1430 |
1431 @example | |
38786 | 1432 ((rose red) (lily white) (buttercup yellow)) |
6558 | 1433 @end example |
1434 | |
1435 @noindent | |
1436 Here we regard @code{red} as the value associated with @code{rose}. One | |
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1437 advantage of this kind of alist is that you can store other related |
6558 | 1438 information---even a list of other items---in the @sc{cdr} of the |
1439 @sc{cdr}. One disadvantage is that you cannot use @code{rassq} (see | |
1440 below) to find the element containing a given value. When neither of | |
1441 these considerations is important, the choice is a matter of taste, as | |
1442 long as you are consistent about it for any given alist. | |
1443 | |
1444 Note that the same alist shown above could be regarded as having the | |
1445 associated value in the @sc{cdr} of the element; the value associated | |
1446 with @code{rose} would be the list @code{(red)}. | |
1447 | |
1448 Association lists are often used to record information that you might | |
1449 otherwise keep on a stack, since new associations may be added easily to | |
1450 the front of the list. When searching an association list for an | |
1451 association with a given key, the first one found is returned, if there | |
1452 is more than one. | |
1453 | |
1454 In Emacs Lisp, it is @emph{not} an error if an element of an | |
1455 association list is not a cons cell. The alist search functions simply | |
1456 ignore such elements. Many other versions of Lisp signal errors in such | |
1457 cases. | |
1458 | |
1459 Note that property lists are similar to association lists in several | |
1460 respects. A property list behaves like an association list in which | |
1461 each key can occur only once. @xref{Property Lists}, for a comparison | |
1462 of property lists and association lists. | |
1463 | |
1464 @defun assoc key alist | |
1465 This function returns the first association for @var{key} in | |
1466 @var{alist}. It compares @var{key} against the alist elements using | |
1467 @code{equal} (@pxref{Equality Predicates}). It returns @code{nil} if no | |
1468 association in @var{alist} has a @sc{car} @code{equal} to @var{key}. | |
1469 For example: | |
1470 | |
1471 @smallexample | |
1472 (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1473 @result{} ((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds)) | |
1474 (assoc 'oak trees) | |
1475 @result{} (oak . acorns) | |
1476 (cdr (assoc 'oak trees)) | |
1477 @result{} acorns | |
1478 (assoc 'birch trees) | |
1479 @result{} nil | |
1480 @end smallexample | |
1481 | |
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1482 Here is another example, in which the keys and values are not symbols: |
6558 | 1483 |
1484 @smallexample | |
1485 (setq needles-per-cluster | |
1486 '((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
1487 (3 "Pitch Pine") | |
1488 (5 "White Pine"))) | |
1489 | |
1490 (cdr (assoc 3 needles-per-cluster)) | |
1491 @result{} ("Pitch Pine") | |
1492 (cdr (assoc 2 needles-per-cluster)) | |
1493 @result{} ("Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
1494 @end smallexample | |
1495 @end defun | |
1496 | |
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1497 The function @code{assoc-string} is much like @code{assoc} except |
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1498 that it ignores certain differences between strings. @xref{Text |
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1499 Comparison}. |
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1500 |
12067 | 1501 @defun rassoc value alist |
1502 This function returns the first association with value @var{value} in | |
1503 @var{alist}. It returns @code{nil} if no association in @var{alist} has | |
1504 a @sc{cdr} @code{equal} to @var{value}. | |
1505 | |
1506 @code{rassoc} is like @code{assoc} except that it compares the @sc{cdr} of | |
1507 each @var{alist} association instead of the @sc{car}. You can think of | |
1508 this as ``reverse @code{assoc}'', finding the key for a given value. | |
1509 @end defun | |
1510 | |
6558 | 1511 @defun assq key alist |
1512 This function is like @code{assoc} in that it returns the first | |
1513 association for @var{key} in @var{alist}, but it makes the comparison | |
1514 using @code{eq} instead of @code{equal}. @code{assq} returns @code{nil} | |
1515 if no association in @var{alist} has a @sc{car} @code{eq} to @var{key}. | |
1516 This function is used more often than @code{assoc}, since @code{eq} is | |
1517 faster than @code{equal} and most alists use symbols as keys. | |
1518 @xref{Equality Predicates}. | |
1519 | |
1520 @smallexample | |
1521 (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1522 @result{} ((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds)) | |
1523 (assq 'pine trees) | |
1524 @result{} (pine . cones) | |
1525 @end smallexample | |
1526 | |
1527 On the other hand, @code{assq} is not usually useful in alists where the | |
1528 keys may not be symbols: | |
1529 | |
1530 @smallexample | |
1531 (setq leaves | |
1532 '(("simple leaves" . oak) | |
1533 ("compound leaves" . horsechestnut))) | |
1534 | |
1535 (assq "simple leaves" leaves) | |
1536 @result{} nil | |
1537 (assoc "simple leaves" leaves) | |
1538 @result{} ("simple leaves" . oak) | |
1539 @end smallexample | |
1540 @end defun | |
1541 | |
1542 @defun rassq value alist | |
1543 This function returns the first association with value @var{value} in | |
1544 @var{alist}. It returns @code{nil} if no association in @var{alist} has | |
1545 a @sc{cdr} @code{eq} to @var{value}. | |
1546 | |
1547 @code{rassq} is like @code{assq} except that it compares the @sc{cdr} of | |
1548 each @var{alist} association instead of the @sc{car}. You can think of | |
1549 this as ``reverse @code{assq}'', finding the key for a given value. | |
1550 | |
1551 For example: | |
1552 | |
1553 @smallexample | |
1554 (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1555 | |
1556 (rassq 'acorns trees) | |
1557 @result{} (oak . acorns) | |
1558 (rassq 'spores trees) | |
1559 @result{} nil | |
1560 @end smallexample | |
1561 | |
1562 Note that @code{rassq} cannot search for a value stored in the @sc{car} | |
1563 of the @sc{cdr} of an element: | |
1564 | |
1565 @smallexample | |
1566 (setq colors '((rose red) (lily white) (buttercup yellow))) | |
1567 | |
1568 (rassq 'white colors) | |
1569 @result{} nil | |
1570 @end smallexample | |
1571 | |
1572 In this case, the @sc{cdr} of the association @code{(lily white)} is not | |
1573 the symbol @code{white}, but rather the list @code{(white)}. This | |
1574 becomes clearer if the association is written in dotted pair notation: | |
1575 | |
1576 @smallexample | |
1577 (lily white) @equiv{} (lily . (white)) | |
1578 @end smallexample | |
1579 @end defun | |
1580 | |
38786 | 1581 @defun assoc-default key alist &optional test default |
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1582 This function searches @var{alist} for a match for @var{key}. For each |
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1583 element of @var{alist}, it compares the element (if it is an atom) or |
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1584 the element's @sc{car} (if it is a cons) against @var{key}, by calling |
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1585 @var{test} with two arguments: the element or its @sc{car}, and |
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1586 @var{key}. The arguments are passed in that order so that you can get |
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1587 useful results using @code{string-match} with an alist that contains |
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1588 regular expressions (@pxref{Regexp Search}). If @var{test} is omitted |
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1589 or @code{nil}, @code{equal} is used for comparison. |
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1590 |
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1591 If an alist element matches @var{key} by this criterion, |
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1592 then @code{assoc-default} returns a value based on this element. |
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1593 If the element is a cons, then the value is the element's @sc{cdr}. |
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1594 Otherwise, the return value is @var{default}. |
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1595 |
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1596 If no alist element matches @var{key}, @code{assoc-default} returns |
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1597 @code{nil}. |
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1598 @end defun |
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1599 |
6558 | 1600 @defun copy-alist alist |
1601 @cindex copying alists | |
1602 This function returns a two-level deep copy of @var{alist}: it creates a | |
1603 new copy of each association, so that you can alter the associations of | |
1604 the new alist without changing the old one. | |
1605 | |
1606 @smallexample | |
1607 @group | |
1608 (setq needles-per-cluster | |
1609 '((2 . ("Austrian Pine" "Red Pine")) | |
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1610 (3 . ("Pitch Pine")) |
7734 | 1611 @end group |
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1612 (5 . ("White Pine")))) |
6558 | 1613 @result{} |
1614 ((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
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1615 (3 "Pitch Pine") |
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1616 (5 "White Pine")) |
6558 | 1617 |
1618 (setq copy (copy-alist needles-per-cluster)) | |
1619 @result{} | |
1620 ((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
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1621 (3 "Pitch Pine") |
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1622 (5 "White Pine")) |
6558 | 1623 |
1624 (eq needles-per-cluster copy) | |
1625 @result{} nil | |
1626 (equal needles-per-cluster copy) | |
1627 @result{} t | |
1628 (eq (car needles-per-cluster) (car copy)) | |
1629 @result{} nil | |
1630 (cdr (car (cdr needles-per-cluster))) | |
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1631 @result{} ("Pitch Pine") |
7734 | 1632 @group |
6558 | 1633 (eq (cdr (car (cdr needles-per-cluster))) |
1634 (cdr (car (cdr copy)))) | |
1635 @result{} t | |
1636 @end group | |
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1637 @end smallexample |
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1638 |
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1639 This example shows how @code{copy-alist} makes it possible to change |
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1640 the associations of one copy without affecting the other: |
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1641 |
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1642 @smallexample |
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1643 @group |
11137 | 1644 (setcdr (assq 3 copy) '("Martian Vacuum Pine")) |
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1645 (cdr (assq 3 needles-per-cluster)) |
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1646 @result{} ("Pitch Pine") |
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1647 @end group |
6558 | 1648 @end smallexample |
1649 @end defun | |
1650 | |
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1651 @defun assq-delete-all key alist |
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1652 @tindex assq-delete-all |
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1653 This function deletes from @var{alist} all the elements whose @sc{car} |
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1654 is @code{eq} to @var{key}, much as if you used @code{delq} to delete |
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1655 each such element one by one. It returns the shortened alist, and |
52694
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1656 often modifies the original list structure of @var{alist}. For |
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1657 correct results, use the return value of @code{assq-delete-all} rather |
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1658 than looking at the saved value of @var{alist}. |
6558 | 1659 |
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1660 @example |
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1661 (setq alist '((foo 1) (bar 2) (foo 3) (lose 4))) |
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1662 @result{} ((foo 1) (bar 2) (foo 3) (lose 4)) |
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1663 (assq-delete-all 'foo alist) |
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1664 @result{} ((bar 2) (lose 4)) |
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1665 alist |
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1666 @result{} ((foo 1) (bar 2) (lose 4)) |
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1667 @end example |
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1668 @end defun |
52401 | 1669 |
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1670 @defun rassq-delete-all value alist |
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1671 This function deletes from @var{alist} all the elements whose @sc{cdr} |
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1672 is @code{eq} to @var{value}. It returns the shortened alist, and |
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1673 often modifies the original list structure of @var{alist}. |
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1674 @code{rassq-delete-all} is like @code{assq-delete-all} except that it |
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1675 compares the @sc{cdr} of each @var{alist} association instead of the |
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1676 @sc{car}. |
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1677 @end defun |
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1678 |
63541 | 1679 @node Rings |
1680 @section Managing a Fixed-Size Ring of Objects | |
1681 | |
1682 @cindex ring data structure | |
1683 This section describes functions for operating on rings. A | |
1684 @dfn{ring} is a fixed-size data structure that supports insertion, | |
1685 deletion, rotation, and modulo-indexed reference and traversal. | |
1686 | |
1687 @defun make-ring size | |
1688 This returns a new ring capable of holding @var{size} objects. | |
1689 @var{size} should be an integer. | |
1690 @end defun | |
1691 | |
1692 @defun ring-p object | |
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1693 This returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a ring, @code{nil} otherwise. |
63541 | 1694 @end defun |
1695 | |
1696 @defun ring-size ring | |
1697 This returns the maximum capacity of the @var{ring}. | |
1698 @end defun | |
1699 | |
1700 @defun ring-length ring | |
1701 This returns the number of objects that @var{ring} currently contains. | |
1702 The value will never exceed that returned by @code{ring-size}. | |
1703 @end defun | |
1704 | |
1705 @defun ring-elements ring | |
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1706 This returns a list of the objects in @var{ring}, in order, newest first. |
63541 | 1707 @end defun |
1708 | |
1709 @defun ring-copy ring | |
1710 This returns a new ring which is a copy of @var{ring}. | |
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1711 The new ring contains the same (@code{eq}) objects as @var{ring}. |
63541 | 1712 @end defun |
1713 | |
1714 @defun ring-empty-p ring | |
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1715 This returns @code{t} if @var{ring} is empty, @code{nil} otherwise. |
63541 | 1716 @end defun |
1717 | |
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1718 The newest element in the ring always has index 0. Higher indices |
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1719 correspond to older elements. Indices are computed modulo the ring |
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1720 length. Index @minus{}1 corresponds to the oldest element, @minus{}2 |
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1721 to the next-oldest, and so forth. |
63541 | 1722 |
1723 @defun ring-ref ring index | |
1724 This returns the object in @var{ring} found at index @var{index}. | |
1725 @var{index} may be negative or greater than the ring length. If | |
1726 @var{ring} is empty, @code{ring-ref} signals an error. | |
1727 @end defun | |
1728 | |
1729 @defun ring-insert ring object | |
1730 This inserts @var{object} into @var{ring}, making it the newest | |
1731 element, and returns @var{object}. | |
1732 | |
1733 If the ring is full, insertion removes the oldest element to | |
1734 make room for the new element. | |
1735 @end defun | |
1736 | |
1737 @defun ring-remove ring &optional index | |
1738 Remove an object from @var{ring}, and return that object. The | |
1739 argument @var{index} specifies which item to remove; if it is | |
1740 @code{nil}, that means to remove the oldest item. If @var{ring} is | |
1741 empty, @code{ring-remove} signals an error. | |
1742 @end defun | |
1743 | |
1744 @defun ring-insert-at-beginning ring object | |
1745 This inserts @var{object} into @var{ring}, treating it as the oldest | |
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1746 element. The return value is not significant. |
63541 | 1747 |
1748 If the ring is full, this function removes the newest element to make | |
1749 room for the inserted element. | |
1750 @end defun | |
1751 | |
1752 @cindex fifo data structure | |
1753 If you are careful not to exceed the ring size, you can | |
1754 use the ring as a first-in-first-out queue. For example: | |
1755 | |
1756 @lisp | |
1757 (let ((fifo (make-ring 5))) | |
1758 (mapc (lambda (obj) (ring-insert fifo obj)) | |
1759 '(0 one "two")) | |
1760 (list (ring-remove fifo) t | |
1761 (ring-remove fifo) t | |
1762 (ring-remove fifo))) | |
1763 @result{} (0 t one t "two") | |
1764 @end lisp | |
1765 | |
52401 | 1766 @ignore |
1767 arch-tag: 31fb8a4e-4aa8-4a74-a206-aa00451394d4 | |
1768 @end ignore |