annotate lispref/compile.texi @ 42550:57677c00b0af

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author André Spiegel <spiegel@gnu.org>
date Sat, 05 Jan 2002 17:28:54 +0000
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children 23a1cea22d13
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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5 @setfilename ../info/compile
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6 @node Byte Compilation, Advising Functions, Loading, Top
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7 @chapter Byte Compilation
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8 @cindex byte-code
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9 @cindex compilation
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10
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11 Emacs Lisp has a @dfn{compiler} that translates functions written
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12 in Lisp into a special representation called @dfn{byte-code} that can be
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13 executed more efficiently. The compiler replaces Lisp function
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14 definitions with byte-code. When a byte-code function is called, its
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15 definition is evaluated by the @dfn{byte-code interpreter}.
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16
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17 Because the byte-compiled code is evaluated by the byte-code
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18 interpreter, instead of being executed directly by the machine's
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19 hardware (as true compiled code is), byte-code is completely
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20 transportable from machine to machine without recompilation. It is not,
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21 however, as fast as true compiled code.
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22
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23 Compiling a Lisp file with the Emacs byte compiler always reads the
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24 file as multibyte text, even if Emacs was started with @samp{--unibyte},
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25 unless the file specifies otherwise. This is so that compilation gives
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26 results compatible with running the same file without compilation.
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27 @xref{Loading Non-ASCII}.
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28
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29 In general, any version of Emacs can run byte-compiled code produced
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30 by recent earlier versions of Emacs, but the reverse is not true. A
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31 major incompatible change was introduced in Emacs version 19.29, and
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32 files compiled with versions since that one will definitely not run
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33 in earlier versions unless you specify a special option.
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34 @iftex
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35 @xref{Docs and Compilation}.
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36 @end iftex
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37 In addition, the modifier bits in keyboard characters were renumbered in
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38 Emacs 19.29; as a result, files compiled in versions before 19.29 will
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39 not work in subsequent versions if they contain character constants with
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40 modifier bits.
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41
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42 @xref{Compilation Errors}, for how to investigate errors occurring in
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43 byte compilation.
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44
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45 @menu
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46 * Speed of Byte-Code:: An example of speedup from byte compilation.
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47 * Compilation Functions:: Byte compilation functions.
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48 * Docs and Compilation:: Dynamic loading of documentation strings.
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49 * Dynamic Loading:: Dynamic loading of individual functions.
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50 * Eval During Compile:: Code to be evaluated when you compile.
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51 * Byte-Code Objects:: The data type used for byte-compiled functions.
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52 * Disassembly:: Disassembling byte-code; how to read byte-code.
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53 @end menu
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54
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55 @node Speed of Byte-Code
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56 @section Performance of Byte-Compiled Code
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57
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58 A byte-compiled function is not as efficient as a primitive function
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59 written in C, but runs much faster than the version written in Lisp.
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60 Here is an example:
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61
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62 @example
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63 @group
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64 (defun silly-loop (n)
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65 "Return time before and after N iterations of a loop."
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66 (let ((t1 (current-time-string)))
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67 (while (> (setq n (1- n))
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68 0))
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69 (list t1 (current-time-string))))
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70 @result{} silly-loop
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71 @end group
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72
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73 @group
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74 (silly-loop 100000)
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75 @result{} ("Fri Mar 18 17:25:57 1994"
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76 "Fri Mar 18 17:26:28 1994") ; @r{31 seconds}
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77 @end group
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78
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79 @group
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80 (byte-compile 'silly-loop)
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81 @result{} @r{[Compiled code not shown]}
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82 @end group
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83
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84 @group
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85 (silly-loop 100000)
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86 @result{} ("Fri Mar 18 17:26:52 1994"
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87 "Fri Mar 18 17:26:58 1994") ; @r{6 seconds}
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88 @end group
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89 @end example
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90
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91 In this example, the interpreted code required 31 seconds to run,
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92 whereas the byte-compiled code required 6 seconds. These results are
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93 representative, but actual results will vary greatly.
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94
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95 @node Compilation Functions
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96 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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97 @section The Compilation Functions
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98 @cindex compilation functions
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99
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100 You can byte-compile an individual function or macro definition with
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101 the @code{byte-compile} function. You can compile a whole file with
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102 @code{byte-compile-file}, or several files with
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103 @code{byte-recompile-directory} or @code{batch-byte-compile}.
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104
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105 The byte compiler produces error messages and warnings about each file
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106 in a buffer called @samp{*Compile-Log*}. These report things in your
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107 program that suggest a problem but are not necessarily erroneous.
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108
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109 @cindex macro compilation
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110 Be careful when writing macro calls in files that you may someday
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111 byte-compile. Macro calls are expanded when they are compiled, so the
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112 macros must already be defined for proper compilation. For more
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113 details, see @ref{Compiling Macros}. If a program does not work the
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114 same way when compiled as it does when interpreted, erroneous macro
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115 definitions are one likely cause (@pxref{Problems with Macros}).
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116
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117 Normally, compiling a file does not evaluate the file's contents or
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118 load the file. But it does execute any @code{require} calls at top
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119 level in the file. One way to ensure that necessary macro definitions
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120 are available during compilation is to require the file that defines
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121 them (@pxref{Named Features}). To avoid loading the macro definition files
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122 when someone @emph{runs} the compiled program, write
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123 @code{eval-when-compile} around the @code{require} calls (@pxref{Eval
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124 During Compile}).
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125
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126 @defun byte-compile symbol
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127 This function byte-compiles the function definition of @var{symbol},
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128 replacing the previous definition with the compiled one. The function
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129 definition of @var{symbol} must be the actual code for the function;
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130 i.e., the compiler does not follow indirection to another symbol.
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131 @code{byte-compile} returns the new, compiled definition of
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132 @var{symbol}.
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133
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134 If @var{symbol}'s definition is a byte-code function object,
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135 @code{byte-compile} does nothing and returns @code{nil}. Lisp records
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136 only one function definition for any symbol, and if that is already
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137 compiled, non-compiled code is not available anywhere. So there is no
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138 way to ``compile the same definition again.''
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139
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140 @example
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141 @group
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142 (defun factorial (integer)
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143 "Compute factorial of INTEGER."
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144 (if (= 1 integer) 1
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145 (* integer (factorial (1- integer)))))
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146 @result{} factorial
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147 @end group
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148
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149 @group
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150 (byte-compile 'factorial)
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151 @result{}
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152 #[(integer)
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153 "^H\301U\203^H^@@\301\207\302^H\303^HS!\"\207"
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154 [integer 1 * factorial]
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155 4 "Compute factorial of INTEGER."]
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156 @end group
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157 @end example
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158
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159 @noindent
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160 The result is a byte-code function object. The string it contains is
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161 the actual byte-code; each character in it is an instruction or an
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162 operand of an instruction. The vector contains all the constants,
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163 variable names and function names used by the function, except for
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164 certain primitives that are coded as special instructions.
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165 @end defun
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166
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167 @deffn Command compile-defun
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168 This command reads the defun containing point, compiles it, and
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169 evaluates the result. If you use this on a defun that is actually a
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170 function definition, the effect is to install a compiled version of that
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171 function.
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172 @end deffn
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173
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174 @deffn Command byte-compile-file filename
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175 This function compiles a file of Lisp code named @var{filename} into a
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176 file of byte-code. The output file's name is made by changing the
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177 @samp{.el} suffix into @samp{.elc}; if @var{filename} does not end in
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178 @samp{.el}, it adds @samp{.elc} to the end of @var{filename}.
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179
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180 Compilation works by reading the input file one form at a time. If it
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181 is a definition of a function or macro, the compiled function or macro
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182 definition is written out. Other forms are batched together, then each
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183 batch is compiled, and written so that its compiled code will be
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184 executed when the file is read. All comments are discarded when the
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185 input file is read.
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186
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187 This command returns @code{t}. When called interactively, it prompts
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188 for the file name.
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189
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190 @example
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191 @group
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192 % ls -l push*
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193 -rw-r--r-- 1 lewis 791 Oct 5 20:31 push.el
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194 @end group
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195
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196 @group
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197 (byte-compile-file "~/emacs/push.el")
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198 @result{} t
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199 @end group
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200
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201 @group
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202 % ls -l push*
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203 -rw-r--r-- 1 lewis 791 Oct 5 20:31 push.el
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204 -rw-rw-rw- 1 lewis 638 Oct 8 20:25 push.elc
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205 @end group
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206 @end example
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207 @end deffn
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208
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209 @deffn Command byte-recompile-directory directory flag
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210 @cindex library compilation
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211 This function recompiles every @samp{.el} file in @var{directory} that
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212 needs recompilation. A file needs recompilation if a @samp{.elc} file
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213 exists but is older than the @samp{.el} file.
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214
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215 When a @samp{.el} file has no corresponding @samp{.elc} file, @var{flag}
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216 says what to do. If it is @code{nil}, these files are ignored. If it
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217 is non-@code{nil}, the user is asked whether to compile each such file.
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218
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219 The returned value of this command is unpredictable.
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220 @end deffn
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221
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222 @defun batch-byte-compile
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223 This function runs @code{byte-compile-file} on files specified on the
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224 command line. This function must be used only in a batch execution of
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225 Emacs, as it kills Emacs on completion. An error in one file does not
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226 prevent processing of subsequent files, but no output file will be
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227 generated for it, and the Emacs process will terminate with a nonzero
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228 status code.
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229
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230 @example
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231 % emacs -batch -f batch-byte-compile *.el
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232 @end example
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233 @end defun
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234
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235 @defun byte-code code-string data-vector max-stack
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236 @cindex byte-code interpreter
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237 This function actually interprets byte-code. A byte-compiled function
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238 is actually defined with a body that calls @code{byte-code}. Don't call
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239 this function yourself---only the byte compiler knows how to generate
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240 valid calls to this function.
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241
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242 In Emacs version 18, byte-code was always executed by way of a call to
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243 the function @code{byte-code}. Nowadays, byte-code is usually executed
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244 as part of a byte-code function object, and only rarely through an
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245 explicit call to @code{byte-code}.
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246 @end defun
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247
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248 @node Docs and Compilation
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249 @section Documentation Strings and Compilation
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250 @cindex dynamic loading of documentation
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251
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252 Functions and variables loaded from a byte-compiled file access their
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253 documentation strings dynamically from the file whenever needed. This
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254 saves space within Emacs, and makes loading faster because the
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255 documentation strings themselves need not be processed while loading the
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256 file. Actual access to the documentation strings becomes slower as a
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257 result, but this normally is not enough to bother users.
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258
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259 Dynamic access to documentation strings does have drawbacks:
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260
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261 @itemize @bullet
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262 @item
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263 If you delete or move the compiled file after loading it, Emacs can no
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264 longer access the documentation strings for the functions and variables
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265 in the file.
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266
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267 @item
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268 If you alter the compiled file (such as by compiling a new version),
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269 then further access to documentation strings in this file will give
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270 nonsense results.
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271 @end itemize
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272
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273 If your site installs Emacs following the usual procedures, these
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274 problems will never normally occur. Installing a new version uses a new
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275 directory with a different name; as long as the old version remains
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276 installed, its files will remain unmodified in the places where they are
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277 expected to be.
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278
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279 However, if you have built Emacs yourself and use it from the
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280 directory where you built it, you will experience this problem
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281 occasionally if you edit and recompile Lisp files. When it happens, you
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282 can cure the problem by reloading the file after recompiling it.
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283
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284 Byte-compiled files made with recent versions of Emacs (since 19.29)
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285 will not load into older versions because the older versions don't
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286 support this feature. You can turn off this feature at compile time by
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287 setting @code{byte-compile-dynamic-docstrings} to @code{nil}; then you
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288 can compile files that will load into older Emacs versions. You can do
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289 this globally, or for one source file by specifying a file-local binding
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290 for the variable. One way to do that is by adding this string to the
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291 file's first line:
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292
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293 @example
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294 -*-byte-compile-dynamic-docstrings: nil;-*-
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295 @end example
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296
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297 @defvar byte-compile-dynamic-docstrings
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298 If this is non-@code{nil}, the byte compiler generates compiled files
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299 that are set up for dynamic loading of documentation strings.
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300 @end defvar
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301
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302 @cindex @samp{#@@@var{count}}
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303 @cindex @samp{#$}
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304 The dynamic documentation string feature writes compiled files that
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305 use a special Lisp reader construct, @samp{#@@@var{count}}. This
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306 construct skips the next @var{count} characters. It also uses the
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307 @samp{#$} construct, which stands for ``the name of this file, as a
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308 string.'' It is usually best not to use these constructs in Lisp source
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309 files, since they are not designed to be clear to humans reading the
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310 file.
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311
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312 @node Dynamic Loading
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313 @section Dynamic Loading of Individual Functions
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314
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315 @cindex dynamic loading of functions
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316 @cindex lazy loading
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317 When you compile a file, you can optionally enable the @dfn{dynamic
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318 function loading} feature (also known as @dfn{lazy loading}). With
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319 dynamic function loading, loading the file doesn't fully read the
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320 function definitions in the file. Instead, each function definition
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321 contains a place-holder which refers to the file. The first time each
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322 function is called, it reads the full definition from the file, to
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323 replace the place-holder.
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324
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325 The advantage of dynamic function loading is that loading the file
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326 becomes much faster. This is a good thing for a file which contains
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327 many separate user-callable functions, if using one of them does not
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328 imply you will probably also use the rest. A specialized mode which
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329 provides many keyboard commands often has that usage pattern: a user may
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330 invoke the mode, but use only a few of the commands it provides.
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331
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332 The dynamic loading feature has certain disadvantages:
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333
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334 @itemize @bullet
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335 @item
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336 If you delete or move the compiled file after loading it, Emacs can no
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337 longer load the remaining function definitions not already loaded.
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338
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339 @item
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340 If you alter the compiled file (such as by compiling a new version),
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341 then trying to load any function not already loaded will yield nonsense
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342 results.
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343 @end itemize
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344
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345 These problems will never happen in normal circumstances with
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346 installed Emacs files. But they are quite likely to happen with Lisp
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347 files that you are changing. The easiest way to prevent these problems
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348 is to reload the new compiled file immediately after each recompilation.
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349
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350 The byte compiler uses the dynamic function loading feature if the
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351 variable @code{byte-compile-dynamic} is non-@code{nil} at compilation
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352 time. Do not set this variable globally, since dynamic loading is
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353 desirable only for certain files. Instead, enable the feature for
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354 specific source files with file-local variable bindings. For example,
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355 you could do it by writing this text in the source file's first line:
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356
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357 @example
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358 -*-byte-compile-dynamic: t;-*-
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359 @end example
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360
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361 @defvar byte-compile-dynamic
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362 If this is non-@code{nil}, the byte compiler generates compiled files
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363 that are set up for dynamic function loading.
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364 @end defvar
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365
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366 @defun fetch-bytecode function
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367 This immediately finishes loading the definition of @var{function} from
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368 its byte-compiled file, if it is not fully loaded already. The argument
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369 @var{function} may be a byte-code function object or a function name.
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370 @end defun
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371
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372 @node Eval During Compile
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373 @section Evaluation During Compilation
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374
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375 These features permit you to write code to be evaluated during
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376 compilation of a program.
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377
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378 @defspec eval-and-compile body
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379 This form marks @var{body} to be evaluated both when you compile the
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380 containing code and when you run it (whether compiled or not).
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381
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382 You can get a similar result by putting @var{body} in a separate file
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383 and referring to that file with @code{require}. That method is
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384 preferable when @var{body} is large.
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385 @end defspec
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386
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387 @defspec eval-when-compile body
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388 This form marks @var{body} to be evaluated at compile time but not when
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389 the compiled program is loaded. The result of evaluation by the
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390 compiler becomes a constant which appears in the compiled program. If
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391 you load the source file, rather than compiling it, @var{body} is
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392 evaluated normally.
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393
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394 @strong{Common Lisp Note:} At top level, this is analogous to the Common
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395 Lisp idiom @code{(eval-when (compile eval) @dots{})}. Elsewhere, the
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396 Common Lisp @samp{#.} reader macro (but not when interpreting) is closer
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397 to what @code{eval-when-compile} does.
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398 @end defspec
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399
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400 @node Byte-Code Objects
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401 @section Byte-Code Function Objects
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402 @cindex compiled function
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403 @cindex byte-code function
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404
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405 Byte-compiled functions have a special data type: they are
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406 @dfn{byte-code function objects}.
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407
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408 Internally, a byte-code function object is much like a vector;
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409 however, the evaluator handles this data type specially when it appears
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410 as a function to be called. The printed representation for a byte-code
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411 function object is like that for a vector, with an additional @samp{#}
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412 before the opening @samp{[}.
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413
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414 A byte-code function object must have at least four elements; there is
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415 no maximum number, but only the first six elements have any normal use.
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416 They are:
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417
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418 @table @var
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419 @item arglist
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420 The list of argument symbols.
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421
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422 @item byte-code
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423 The string containing the byte-code instructions.
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424
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425 @item constants
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426 The vector of Lisp objects referenced by the byte code. These include
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427 symbols used as function names and variable names.
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428
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429 @item stacksize
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430 The maximum stack size this function needs.
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431
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432 @item docstring
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433 The documentation string (if any); otherwise, @code{nil}. The value may
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434 be a number or a list, in case the documentation string is stored in a
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435 file. Use the function @code{documentation} to get the real
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436 documentation string (@pxref{Accessing Documentation}).
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437
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438 @item interactive
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439 The interactive spec (if any). This can be a string or a Lisp
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440 expression. It is @code{nil} for a function that isn't interactive.
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441 @end table
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442
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443 Here's an example of a byte-code function object, in printed
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444 representation. It is the definition of the command
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445 @code{backward-sexp}.
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446
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447 @example
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448 #[(&optional arg)
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449 "^H\204^F^@@\301^P\302^H[!\207"
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450 [arg 1 forward-sexp]
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451 2
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452 254435
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453 "p"]
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454 @end example
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455
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456 The primitive way to create a byte-code object is with
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457 @code{make-byte-code}:
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458
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459 @defun make-byte-code &rest elements
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460 This function constructs and returns a byte-code function object
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461 with @var{elements} as its elements.
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462 @end defun
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463
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464 You should not try to come up with the elements for a byte-code
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465 function yourself, because if they are inconsistent, Emacs may crash
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466 when you call the function. Always leave it to the byte compiler to
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467 create these objects; it makes the elements consistent (we hope).
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468
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469 You can access the elements of a byte-code object using @code{aref};
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470 you can also use @code{vconcat} to create a vector with the same
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471 elements.
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472
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473 @node Disassembly
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474 @section Disassembled Byte-Code
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475 @cindex disassembled byte-code
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476
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477 People do not write byte-code; that job is left to the byte compiler.
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478 But we provide a disassembler to satisfy a cat-like curiosity. The
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479 disassembler converts the byte-compiled code into humanly readable
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480 form.
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481
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482 The byte-code interpreter is implemented as a simple stack machine.
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483 It pushes values onto a stack of its own, then pops them off to use them
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484 in calculations whose results are themselves pushed back on the stack.
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485 When a byte-code function returns, it pops a value off the stack and
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486 returns it as the value of the function.
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487
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488 In addition to the stack, byte-code functions can use, bind, and set
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489 ordinary Lisp variables, by transferring values between variables and
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490 the stack.
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491
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492 @deffn Command disassemble object &optional stream
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493 This function prints the disassembled code for @var{object}. If
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494 @var{stream} is supplied, then output goes there. Otherwise, the
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495 disassembled code is printed to the stream @code{standard-output}. The
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496 argument @var{object} can be a function name or a lambda expression.
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497
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498 As a special exception, if this function is used interactively,
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499 it outputs to a buffer named @samp{*Disassemble*}.
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500 @end deffn
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501
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502 Here are two examples of using the @code{disassemble} function. We
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503 have added explanatory comments to help you relate the byte-code to the
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504 Lisp source; these do not appear in the output of @code{disassemble}.
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505 These examples show unoptimized byte-code. Nowadays byte-code is
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506 usually optimized, but we did not want to rewrite these examples, since
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507 they still serve their purpose.
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508
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509 @example
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510 @group
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511 (defun factorial (integer)
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512 "Compute factorial of an integer."
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513 (if (= 1 integer) 1
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514 (* integer (factorial (1- integer)))))
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515 @result{} factorial
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516 @end group
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517
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518 @group
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519 (factorial 4)
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520 @result{} 24
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521 @end group
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522
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523 @group
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524 (disassemble 'factorial)
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525 @print{} byte-code for factorial:
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526 doc: Compute factorial of an integer.
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527 args: (integer)
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528 @end group
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529
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530 @group
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531 0 constant 1 ; @r{Push 1 onto stack.}
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532
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533 1 varref integer ; @r{Get value of @code{integer}}
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534 ; @r{from the environment}
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535 ; @r{and push the value}
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536 ; @r{onto the stack.}
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537 @end group
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538
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539 @group
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540 2 eqlsign ; @r{Pop top two values off stack,}
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541 ; @r{compare them,}
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542 ; @r{and push result onto stack.}
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543 @end group
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544
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545 @group
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546 3 goto-if-nil 10 ; @r{Pop and test top of stack;}
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547 ; @r{if @code{nil}, go to 10,}
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548 ; @r{else continue.}
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549 @end group
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550
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551 @group
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552 6 constant 1 ; @r{Push 1 onto top of stack.}
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553
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554 7 goto 17 ; @r{Go to 17 (in this case, 1 will be}
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555 ; @r{returned by the function).}
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556 @end group
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557
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558 @group
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559 10 constant * ; @r{Push symbol @code{*} onto stack.}
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560
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561 11 varref integer ; @r{Push value of @code{integer} onto stack.}
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562 @end group
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563
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564 @group
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565 12 constant factorial ; @r{Push @code{factorial} onto stack.}
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566
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567 13 varref integer ; @r{Push value of @code{integer} onto stack.}
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568
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569 14 sub1 ; @r{Pop @code{integer}, decrement value,}
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570 ; @r{push new value onto stack.}
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571 @end group
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572
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573 @group
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574 ; @r{Stack now contains:}
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575 ; @minus{} @r{decremented value of @code{integer}}
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576 ; @minus{} @r{@code{factorial}}
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577 ; @minus{} @r{value of @code{integer}}
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578 ; @minus{} @r{@code{*}}
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579 @end group
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580
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581 @group
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582 15 call 1 ; @r{Call function @code{factorial} using}
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583 ; @r{the first (i.e., the top) element}
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584 ; @r{of the stack as the argument;}
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585 ; @r{push returned value onto stack.}
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586 @end group
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587
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588 @group
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589 ; @r{Stack now contains:}
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590 ; @minus{} @r{result of recursive}
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591 ; @r{call to @code{factorial}}
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592 ; @minus{} @r{value of @code{integer}}
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593 ; @minus{} @r{@code{*}}
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594 @end group
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595
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596 @group
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597 16 call 2 ; @r{Using the first two}
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598 ; @r{(i.e., the top two)}
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599 ; @r{elements of the stack}
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600 ; @r{as arguments,}
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601 ; @r{call the function @code{*},}
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602 ; @r{pushing the result onto the stack.}
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603 @end group
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604
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605 @group
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606 17 return ; @r{Return the top element}
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607 ; @r{of the stack.}
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608 @result{} nil
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609 @end group
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610 @end example
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611
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612 The @code{silly-loop} function is somewhat more complex:
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613
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614 @example
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615 @group
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616 (defun silly-loop (n)
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617 "Return time before and after N iterations of a loop."
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618 (let ((t1 (current-time-string)))
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619 (while (> (setq n (1- n))
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620 0))
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621 (list t1 (current-time-string))))
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622 @result{} silly-loop
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623 @end group
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624
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625 @group
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626 (disassemble 'silly-loop)
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627 @print{} byte-code for silly-loop:
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628 doc: Return time before and after N iterations of a loop.
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629 args: (n)
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630
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631 0 constant current-time-string ; @r{Push}
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632 ; @r{@code{current-time-string}}
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633 ; @r{onto top of stack.}
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634 @end group
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635
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636 @group
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637 1 call 0 ; @r{Call @code{current-time-string}}
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638 ; @r{ with no argument,}
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639 ; @r{ pushing result onto stack.}
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640 @end group
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641
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642 @group
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643 2 varbind t1 ; @r{Pop stack and bind @code{t1}}
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644 ; @r{to popped value.}
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645 @end group
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646
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647 @group
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648 3 varref n ; @r{Get value of @code{n} from}
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649 ; @r{the environment and push}
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650 ; @r{the value onto the stack.}
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651 @end group
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652
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653 @group
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654 4 sub1 ; @r{Subtract 1 from top of stack.}
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655 @end group
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656
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657 @group
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658 5 dup ; @r{Duplicate the top of the stack;}
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659 ; @r{i.e., copy the top of}
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660 ; @r{the stack and push the}
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661 ; @r{copy onto the stack.}
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662 @end group
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663
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664 @group
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665 6 varset n ; @r{Pop the top of the stack,}
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666 ; @r{and bind @code{n} to the value.}
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667
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668 ; @r{In effect, the sequence @code{dup varset}}
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669 ; @r{copies the top of the stack}
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670 ; @r{into the value of @code{n}}
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671 ; @r{without popping it.}
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672 @end group
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673
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674 @group
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675 7 constant 0 ; @r{Push 0 onto stack.}
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676 @end group
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677
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678 @group
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679 8 gtr ; @r{Pop top two values off stack,}
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680 ; @r{test if @var{n} is greater than 0}
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681 ; @r{and push result onto stack.}
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682 @end group
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683
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684 @group
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685 9 goto-if-nil-else-pop 17 ; @r{Goto 17 if @code{n} <= 0}
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686 ; @r{(this exits the while loop).}
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687 ; @r{else pop top of stack}
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688 ; @r{and continue}
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689 @end group
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690
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691 @group
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692 12 constant nil ; @r{Push @code{nil} onto stack}
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693 ; @r{(this is the body of the loop).}
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694 @end group
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695
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696 @group
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697 13 discard ; @r{Discard result of the body}
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698 ; @r{of the loop (a while loop}
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699 ; @r{is always evaluated for}
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700 ; @r{its side effects).}
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701 @end group
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702
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703 @group
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704 14 goto 3 ; @r{Jump back to beginning}
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705 ; @r{of while loop.}
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706 @end group
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707
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708 @group
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709 17 discard ; @r{Discard result of while loop}
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710 ; @r{by popping top of stack.}
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711 ; @r{This result is the value @code{nil} that}
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712 ; @r{was not popped by the goto at 9.}
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713 @end group
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714
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715 @group
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716 18 varref t1 ; @r{Push value of @code{t1} onto stack.}
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717 @end group
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718
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719 @group
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720 19 constant current-time-string ; @r{Push}
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721 ; @r{@code{current-time-string}}
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722 ; @r{onto top of stack.}
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723 @end group
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724
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725 @group
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726 20 call 0 ; @r{Call @code{current-time-string} again.}
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727 @end group
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728
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729 @group
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730 21 list2 ; @r{Pop top two elements off stack,}
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731 ; @r{create a list of them,}
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732 ; @r{and push list onto stack.}
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733 @end group
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734
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735 @group
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736 22 unbind 1 ; @r{Unbind @code{t1} in local environment.}
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737
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738 23 return ; @r{Return value of the top of stack.}
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739
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740 @result{} nil
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741 @end group
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742 @end example
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743
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744