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author | Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org> |
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date | Wed, 07 Dec 1994 13:03:48 +0000 |
parents | a13093894b9a |
children | 73dc8205d259 |
rev | line source |
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6510 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc. | |
4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. | |
5 @setfilename ../info/variables | |
6 @node Variables, Functions, Control Structures, Top | |
7 @chapter Variables | |
8 @cindex variable | |
9 | |
10 A @dfn{variable} is a name used in a program to stand for a value. | |
11 Nearly all programming languages have variables of some sort. In the | |
12 text of a Lisp program, variables are written using the syntax for | |
13 symbols. | |
14 | |
15 In Lisp, unlike most programming languages, programs are represented | |
16 primarily as Lisp objects and only secondarily as text. The Lisp | |
17 objects used for variables are symbols: the symbol name is the variable | |
18 name, and the variable's value is stored in the value cell of the | |
19 symbol. The use of a symbol as a variable is independent of its use as | |
20 a function name. @xref{Symbol Components}. | |
21 | |
22 The Lisp objects that constitute a Lisp program determine the textual | |
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23 form of the program---it is simply the read syntax for those Lisp |
6510 | 24 objects. This is why, for example, a variable in a textual Lisp program |
25 is written using the read syntax for the symbol that represents the | |
26 variable. | |
27 | |
28 @menu | |
29 * Global Variables:: Variable values that exist permanently, everywhere. | |
30 * Constant Variables:: Certain "variables" have values that never change. | |
31 * Local Variables:: Variable values that exist only temporarily. | |
32 * Void Variables:: Symbols that lack values. | |
33 * Defining Variables:: A definition says a symbol is used as a variable. | |
34 * Accessing Variables:: Examining values of variables whose names | |
35 are known only at run time. | |
36 * Setting Variables:: Storing new values in variables. | |
37 * Variable Scoping:: How Lisp chooses among local and global values. | |
38 * Buffer-Local Variables:: Variable values in effect only in one buffer. | |
39 @end menu | |
40 | |
41 @node Global Variables | |
42 @section Global Variables | |
43 @cindex global variable | |
44 | |
45 The simplest way to use a variable is @dfn{globally}. This means that | |
46 the variable has just one value at a time, and this value is in effect | |
47 (at least for the moment) throughout the Lisp system. The value remains | |
48 in effect until you specify a new one. When a new value replaces the | |
49 old one, no trace of the old value remains in the variable. | |
50 | |
51 You specify a value for a symbol with @code{setq}. For example, | |
52 | |
53 @example | |
54 (setq x '(a b)) | |
55 @end example | |
56 | |
57 @noindent | |
58 gives the variable @code{x} the value @code{(a b)}. Note that | |
59 @code{setq} does not evaluate its first argument, the name of the | |
60 variable, but it does evaluate the second argument, the new value. | |
61 | |
62 Once the variable has a value, you can refer to it by using the symbol | |
63 by itself as an expression. Thus, | |
64 | |
65 @example | |
66 @group | |
67 x @result{} (a b) | |
68 @end group | |
69 @end example | |
70 | |
71 @noindent | |
72 assuming the @code{setq} form shown above has already been executed. | |
73 | |
74 If you do another @code{setq}, the new value replaces the old one: | |
75 | |
76 @example | |
77 @group | |
78 x | |
79 @result{} (a b) | |
80 @end group | |
81 @group | |
82 (setq x 4) | |
83 @result{} 4 | |
84 @end group | |
85 @group | |
86 x | |
87 @result{} 4 | |
88 @end group | |
89 @end example | |
90 | |
91 @node Constant Variables | |
92 @section Variables That Never Change | |
93 @vindex nil | |
94 @vindex t | |
95 @kindex setting-constant | |
96 | |
97 Emacs Lisp has two special symbols, @code{nil} and @code{t}, that | |
98 always evaluate to themselves. These symbols cannot be rebound, nor can | |
99 their value cells be changed. An attempt to change the value of | |
100 @code{nil} or @code{t} signals a @code{setting-constant} error. | |
101 | |
102 @example | |
103 @group | |
104 nil @equiv{} 'nil | |
105 @result{} nil | |
106 @end group | |
107 @group | |
108 (setq nil 500) | |
109 @error{} Attempt to set constant symbol: nil | |
110 @end group | |
111 @end example | |
112 | |
113 @node Local Variables | |
114 @section Local Variables | |
115 @cindex binding local variables | |
116 @cindex local variables | |
117 @cindex local binding | |
118 @cindex global binding | |
119 | |
120 Global variables have values that last until explicitly superseded | |
121 with new values. Sometimes it is useful to create variable values that | |
122 exist temporarily---only while within a certain part of the program. | |
123 These values are called @dfn{local}, and the variables so used are | |
124 called @dfn{local variables}. | |
125 | |
126 For example, when a function is called, its argument variables receive | |
127 new local values that last until the function exits. The @code{let} | |
128 special form explicitly establishes new local values for specified | |
129 variables; these last until exit from the @code{let} form. | |
130 | |
131 @cindex shadowing of variables | |
132 Establishing a local value saves away the previous value (or lack of | |
133 one) of the variable. When the life span of the local value is over, | |
134 the previous value is restored. In the mean time, we say that the | |
135 previous value is @dfn{shadowed} and @dfn{not visible}. Both global and | |
136 local values may be shadowed (@pxref{Scope}). | |
137 | |
138 If you set a variable (such as with @code{setq}) while it is local, | |
139 this replaces the local value; it does not alter the global value, or | |
140 previous local values that are shadowed. To model this behavior, we | |
141 speak of a @dfn{local binding} of the variable as well as a local value. | |
142 | |
143 The local binding is a conceptual place that holds a local value. | |
144 Entry to a function, or a special form such as @code{let}, creates the | |
145 local binding; exit from the function or from the @code{let} removes the | |
146 local binding. As long as the local binding lasts, the variable's value | |
147 is stored within it. Use of @code{setq} or @code{set} while there is a | |
148 local binding stores a different value into the local binding; it does | |
149 not create a new binding. | |
150 | |
151 We also speak of the @dfn{global binding}, which is where | |
152 (conceptually) the global value is kept. | |
153 | |
154 @cindex current binding | |
155 A variable can have more than one local binding at a time (for | |
156 example, if there are nested @code{let} forms that bind it). In such a | |
157 case, the most recently created local binding that still exists is the | |
158 @dfn{current binding} of the variable. (This is called @dfn{dynamic | |
159 scoping}; see @ref{Variable Scoping}.) If there are no local bindings, | |
160 the variable's global binding is its current binding. We also call the | |
161 current binding the @dfn{most-local existing binding}, for emphasis. | |
162 Ordinary evaluation of a symbol always returns the value of its current | |
163 binding. | |
164 | |
165 The special forms @code{let} and @code{let*} exist to create | |
166 local bindings. | |
167 | |
168 @defspec let (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} | |
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169 This special form binds variables according to @var{bindings} and then |
6510 | 170 evaluates all of the @var{forms} in textual order. The @code{let}-form |
171 returns the value of the last form in @var{forms}. | |
172 | |
173 Each of the @var{bindings} is either @w{(i) a} symbol, in which case | |
174 that symbol is bound to @code{nil}; or @w{(ii) a} list of the form | |
175 @code{(@var{symbol} @var{value-form})}, in which case @var{symbol} is | |
176 bound to the result of evaluating @var{value-form}. If @var{value-form} | |
177 is omitted, @code{nil} is used. | |
178 | |
179 All of the @var{value-form}s in @var{bindings} are evaluated in the | |
180 order they appear and @emph{before} any of the symbols are bound. Here | |
181 is an example of this: @code{Z} is bound to the old value of @code{Y}, | |
182 which is 2, not the new value, 1. | |
183 | |
184 @example | |
185 @group | |
186 (setq Y 2) | |
187 @result{} 2 | |
188 @end group | |
189 @group | |
190 (let ((Y 1) | |
191 (Z Y)) | |
192 (list Y Z)) | |
193 @result{} (1 2) | |
194 @end group | |
195 @end example | |
196 @end defspec | |
197 | |
198 @defspec let* (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} | |
199 This special form is like @code{let}, but it binds each variable right | |
200 after computing its local value, before computing the local value for | |
201 the next variable. Therefore, an expression in @var{bindings} can | |
202 reasonably refer to the preceding symbols bound in this @code{let*} | |
203 form. Compare the following example with the example above for | |
204 @code{let}. | |
205 | |
206 @example | |
207 @group | |
208 (setq Y 2) | |
209 @result{} 2 | |
210 @end group | |
211 @group | |
212 (let* ((Y 1) | |
213 (Z Y)) ; @r{Use the just-established value of @code{Y}.} | |
214 (list Y Z)) | |
215 @result{} (1 1) | |
216 @end group | |
217 @end example | |
218 @end defspec | |
219 | |
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220 Here is a complete list of the other facilities that create local |
6510 | 221 bindings: |
222 | |
223 @itemize @bullet | |
224 @item | |
225 Function calls (@pxref{Functions}). | |
226 | |
227 @item | |
228 Macro calls (@pxref{Macros}). | |
229 | |
230 @item | |
231 @code{condition-case} (@pxref{Errors}). | |
232 @end itemize | |
233 | |
234 @defvar max-specpdl-size | |
235 @cindex variable limit error | |
236 @cindex evaluation error | |
237 @cindex infinite recursion | |
238 This variable defines the limit on the total number of local variable | |
239 bindings and @code{unwind-protect} cleanups (@pxref{Nonlocal Exits}) | |
240 that are allowed before signaling an error (with data @code{"Variable | |
241 binding depth exceeds max-specpdl-size"}). | |
242 | |
243 This limit, with the associated error when it is exceeded, is one way | |
244 that Lisp avoids infinite recursion on an ill-defined function. | |
245 | |
246 The default value is 600. | |
247 | |
248 @code{max-lisp-eval-depth} provides another limit on depth of nesting. | |
249 @xref{Eval}. | |
250 @end defvar | |
251 | |
252 @node Void Variables | |
253 @section When a Variable is ``Void'' | |
254 @kindex void-variable | |
255 @cindex void variable | |
256 | |
257 If you have never given a symbol any value as a global variable, we | |
258 say that that symbol's global value is @dfn{void}. In other words, the | |
259 symbol's value cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to | |
260 evaluate the symbol, you get a @code{void-variable} error rather than | |
261 a value. | |
262 | |
263 Note that a value of @code{nil} is not the same as void. The symbol | |
264 @code{nil} is a Lisp object and can be the value of a variable just as any | |
265 other object can be; but it is @emph{a value}. A void variable does not | |
266 have any value. | |
267 | |
268 After you have given a variable a value, you can make it void once more | |
269 using @code{makunbound}. | |
270 | |
271 @defun makunbound symbol | |
272 This function makes the current binding of @var{symbol} void. | |
273 Subsequent attempts to use this symbol's value as a variable will signal | |
274 the error @code{void-variable}, unless or until you set it again. | |
275 | |
276 @code{makunbound} returns @var{symbol}. | |
277 | |
278 @example | |
279 @group | |
280 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Make the global value} | |
281 ; @r{of @code{x} void.} | |
282 @result{} x | |
283 @end group | |
284 @group | |
285 x | |
286 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x | |
287 @end group | |
288 @end example | |
289 | |
290 If @var{symbol} is locally bound, @code{makunbound} affects the most | |
291 local existing binding. This is the only way a symbol can have a void | |
292 local binding, since all the constructs that create local bindings | |
293 create them with values. In this case, the voidness lasts at most as | |
294 long as the binding does; when the binding is removed due to exit from | |
295 the construct that made it, the previous or global binding is reexposed | |
296 as usual, and the variable is no longer void unless the newly reexposed | |
297 binding was void all along. | |
298 | |
299 @smallexample | |
300 @group | |
301 (setq x 1) ; @r{Put a value in the global binding.} | |
302 @result{} 1 | |
303 (let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} | |
304 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the local binding.} | |
305 x) | |
306 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x | |
307 @end group | |
308 @group | |
309 x ; @r{The global binding is unchanged.} | |
310 @result{} 1 | |
311 | |
312 (let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} | |
313 (let ((x 3)) ; @r{And again.} | |
314 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the innermost-local binding.} | |
315 x)) ; @r{And refer: it's void.} | |
316 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x | |
317 @end group | |
318 | |
319 @group | |
320 (let ((x 2)) | |
321 (let ((x 3)) | |
322 (makunbound 'x)) ; @r{Void inner binding, then remove it.} | |
323 x) ; @r{Now outer @code{let} binding is visible.} | |
324 @result{} 2 | |
325 @end group | |
326 @end smallexample | |
327 @end defun | |
328 | |
329 A variable that has been made void with @code{makunbound} is | |
330 indistinguishable from one that has never received a value and has | |
331 always been void. | |
332 | |
333 You can use the function @code{boundp} to test whether a variable is | |
334 currently void. | |
335 | |
336 @defun boundp variable | |
337 @code{boundp} returns @code{t} if @var{variable} (a symbol) is not void; | |
338 more precisely, if its current binding is not void. It returns | |
339 @code{nil} otherwise. | |
340 | |
341 @smallexample | |
342 @group | |
343 (boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Starts out void.} | |
344 @result{} nil | |
345 @end group | |
346 @group | |
347 (let ((abracadabra 5)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} | |
348 (boundp 'abracadabra)) | |
349 @result{} t | |
350 @end group | |
351 @group | |
352 (boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Still globally void.} | |
353 @result{} nil | |
354 @end group | |
355 @group | |
356 (setq abracadabra 5) ; @r{Make it globally nonvoid.} | |
357 @result{} 5 | |
358 @end group | |
359 @group | |
360 (boundp 'abracadabra) | |
361 @result{} t | |
362 @end group | |
363 @end smallexample | |
364 @end defun | |
365 | |
366 @node Defining Variables | |
367 @section Defining Global Variables | |
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368 @cindex variable definition |
6510 | 369 |
370 You may announce your intention to use a symbol as a global variable | |
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371 with a @dfn{variable definition}: a special form, either @code{defconst} |
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372 or @code{defvar}. |
6510 | 373 |
374 In Emacs Lisp, definitions serve three purposes. First, they inform | |
375 people who read the code that certain symbols are @emph{intended} to be | |
376 used a certain way (as variables). Second, they inform the Lisp system | |
377 of these things, supplying a value and documentation. Third, they | |
378 provide information to utilities such as @code{etags} and | |
379 @code{make-docfile}, which create data bases of the functions and | |
380 variables in a program. | |
381 | |
382 The difference between @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} is primarily | |
383 a matter of intent, serving to inform human readers of whether programs | |
384 will change the variable. Emacs Lisp does not restrict the ways in | |
385 which a variable can be used based on @code{defconst} or @code{defvar} | |
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386 declarations. However, it does make a difference for initialization: |
6510 | 387 @code{defconst} unconditionally initializes the variable, while |
388 @code{defvar} initializes it only if it is void. | |
389 | |
390 One would expect user option variables to be defined with | |
391 @code{defconst}, since programs do not change them. Unfortunately, this | |
392 has bad results if the definition is in a library that is not preloaded: | |
393 @code{defconst} would override any prior value when the library is | |
394 loaded. Users would like to be able to set user options in their init | |
395 files, and override the default values given in the definitions. For | |
396 this reason, user options must be defined with @code{defvar}. | |
397 | |
398 @defspec defvar symbol [value [doc-string]] | |
399 This special form defines @var{symbol} as a value and initializes it. | |
400 The definition informs a person reading your code that @var{symbol} is | |
401 used as a variable that programs are likely to set or change. It is | |
402 also used for all user option variables except in the preloaded parts of | |
403 Emacs. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the symbol to be | |
404 defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defvar}. | |
405 | |
406 If @var{symbol} already has a value (i.e., it is not void), @var{value} | |
407 is not even evaluated, and @var{symbol}'s value remains unchanged. If | |
408 @var{symbol} is void and @var{value} is specified, @code{defvar} | |
409 evaluates it and sets @var{symbol} to the result. (If @var{value} is | |
410 omitted, the value of @var{symbol} is not changed in any case.) | |
411 | |
412 If @var{symbol} has a buffer-local binding in the current buffer, | |
413 @code{defvar} sets the default value, not the local value. | |
414 @xref{Buffer-Local Variables}. | |
415 | |
416 If the @var{doc-string} argument appears, it specifies the documentation | |
417 for the variable. (This opportunity to specify documentation is one of | |
418 the main benefits of defining the variable.) The documentation is | |
419 stored in the symbol's @code{variable-documentation} property. The | |
420 Emacs help functions (@pxref{Documentation}) look for this property. | |
421 | |
422 If the first character of @var{doc-string} is @samp{*}, it means that | |
423 this variable is considered a user option. This lets users set the | |
424 variable conventiently using the commands @code{set-variable} and | |
425 @code{edit-options}. | |
426 | |
427 For example, this form defines @code{foo} but does not set its value: | |
428 | |
429 @example | |
430 @group | |
431 (defvar foo) | |
432 @result{} foo | |
433 @end group | |
434 @end example | |
435 | |
436 The following example sets the value of @code{bar} to @code{23}, and | |
437 gives it a documentation string: | |
438 | |
439 @example | |
440 @group | |
441 (defvar bar 23 | |
442 "The normal weight of a bar.") | |
443 @result{} bar | |
444 @end group | |
445 @end example | |
446 | |
447 The following form changes the documentation string for @code{bar}, | |
448 making it a user option, but does not change the value, since @code{bar} | |
449 already has a value. (The addition @code{(1+ 23)} is not even | |
450 performed.) | |
451 | |
452 @example | |
453 @group | |
454 (defvar bar (1+ 23) | |
455 "*The normal weight of a bar.") | |
456 @result{} bar | |
457 @end group | |
458 @group | |
459 bar | |
460 @result{} 23 | |
461 @end group | |
462 @end example | |
463 | |
464 Here is an equivalent expression for the @code{defvar} special form: | |
465 | |
466 @example | |
467 @group | |
468 (defvar @var{symbol} @var{value} @var{doc-string}) | |
469 @equiv{} | |
470 (progn | |
471 (if (not (boundp '@var{symbol})) | |
472 (setq @var{symbol} @var{value})) | |
473 (put '@var{symbol} 'variable-documentation '@var{doc-string}) | |
474 '@var{symbol}) | |
475 @end group | |
476 @end example | |
477 | |
478 The @code{defvar} form returns @var{symbol}, but it is normally used | |
479 at top level in a file where its value does not matter. | |
480 @end defspec | |
481 | |
482 @defspec defconst symbol [value [doc-string]] | |
483 This special form defines @var{symbol} as a value and initializes it. | |
484 It informs a person reading your code that @var{symbol} has a global | |
485 value, established here, that will not normally be changed or locally | |
486 bound by the execution of the program. The user, however, may be | |
487 welcome to change it. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the | |
488 symbol to be defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defconst}. | |
489 | |
490 @code{defconst} always evaluates @var{value} and sets the global value | |
491 of @var{symbol} to the result, provided @var{value} is given. If | |
492 @var{symbol} has a buffer-local binding in the current buffer, | |
493 @code{defconst} sets the default value, not the local value. | |
494 | |
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495 @strong{Please note:} Don't use @code{defconst} for user option |
6510 | 496 variables in libraries that are not standardly preloaded. The user |
497 should be able to specify a value for such a variable in the | |
498 @file{.emacs} file, so that it will be in effect if and when the library | |
499 is loaded later. | |
500 | |
501 Here, @code{pi} is a constant that presumably ought not to be changed | |
502 by anyone (attempts by the Indiana State Legislature notwithstanding). | |
503 As the second form illustrates, however, this is only advisory. | |
504 | |
505 @example | |
506 @group | |
507 (defconst pi 3.1415 "Pi to five places.") | |
508 @result{} pi | |
509 @end group | |
510 @group | |
511 (setq pi 3) | |
512 @result{} pi | |
513 @end group | |
514 @group | |
515 pi | |
516 @result{} 3 | |
517 @end group | |
518 @end example | |
519 @end defspec | |
520 | |
521 @defun user-variable-p variable | |
522 @cindex user option | |
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523 This function returns @code{t} if @var{variable} is a user option---a |
6510 | 524 variable intended to be set by the user for customization---and |
525 @code{nil} otherwise. (Variables other than user options exist for the | |
526 internal purposes of Lisp programs, and users need not know about them.) | |
527 | |
528 User option variables are distinguished from other variables by the | |
529 first character of the @code{variable-documentation} property. If the | |
530 property exists and is a string, and its first character is @samp{*}, | |
531 then the variable is a user option. | |
532 @end defun | |
533 | |
534 If a user option variable has a @code{variable-interactive} property, | |
535 @code{set-variable} uses that value to control reading the new value for | |
536 the variable. The property's value is used as if it were the argument | |
537 to @code{interactive}. | |
538 | |
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539 @strong{Warning:} If the @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} special |
6510 | 540 forms are used while the variable has a local binding, they set the |
541 local binding's value; the global binding is not changed. This is not | |
542 what we really want. To prevent it, use these special forms at top | |
543 level in a file, where normally no local binding is in effect, and make | |
544 sure to load the file before making a local binding for the variable. | |
545 | |
546 @node Accessing Variables | |
547 @section Accessing Variable Values | |
548 | |
549 The usual way to reference a variable is to write the symbol which | |
550 names it (@pxref{Symbol Forms}). This requires you to specify the | |
551 variable name when you write the program. Usually that is exactly what | |
552 you want to do. Occasionally you need to choose at run time which | |
553 variable to reference; then you can use @code{symbol-value}. | |
554 | |
555 @defun symbol-value symbol | |
556 This function returns the value of @var{symbol}. This is the value in | |
557 the innermost local binding of the symbol, or its global value if it | |
558 has no local bindings. | |
559 | |
560 @example | |
561 @group | |
562 (setq abracadabra 5) | |
563 @result{} 5 | |
564 @end group | |
565 @group | |
566 (setq foo 9) | |
567 @result{} 9 | |
568 @end group | |
569 | |
570 @group | |
571 ;; @r{Here the symbol @code{abracadabra}} | |
572 ;; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.} | |
573 (let ((abracadabra 'foo)) | |
574 (symbol-value 'abracadabra)) | |
575 @result{} foo | |
576 @end group | |
577 | |
578 @group | |
579 ;; @r{Here the value of @code{abracadabra},} | |
580 ;; @r{which is @code{foo},} | |
581 ;; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.} | |
582 (let ((abracadabra 'foo)) | |
583 (symbol-value abracadabra)) | |
584 @result{} 9 | |
585 @end group | |
586 | |
587 @group | |
588 (symbol-value 'abracadabra) | |
589 @result{} 5 | |
590 @end group | |
591 @end example | |
592 | |
593 A @code{void-variable} error is signaled if @var{symbol} has neither a | |
594 local binding nor a global value. | |
595 @end defun | |
596 | |
597 @node Setting Variables | |
598 @section How to Alter a Variable Value | |
599 | |
600 The usual way to change the value of a variable is with the special | |
601 form @code{setq}. When you need to compute the choice of variable at | |
602 run time, use the function @code{set}. | |
603 | |
604 @defspec setq [symbol form]@dots{} | |
605 This special form is the most common method of changing a variable's | |
606 value. Each @var{symbol} is given a new value, which is the result of | |
607 evaluating the corresponding @var{form}. The most-local existing | |
608 binding of the symbol is changed. | |
609 | |
610 @code{setq} does not evaluate @var{symbol}; it sets the symbol that you | |
611 write. We say that this argument is @dfn{automatically quoted}. The | |
612 @samp{q} in @code{setq} stands for ``quoted.'' | |
613 | |
614 The value of the @code{setq} form is the value of the last @var{form}. | |
615 | |
616 @example | |
617 @group | |
618 (setq x (1+ 2)) | |
619 @result{} 3 | |
620 @end group | |
621 x ; @r{@code{x} now has a global value.} | |
622 @result{} 3 | |
623 @group | |
624 (let ((x 5)) | |
625 (setq x 6) ; @r{The local binding of @code{x} is set.} | |
626 x) | |
627 @result{} 6 | |
628 @end group | |
629 x ; @r{The global value is unchanged.} | |
630 @result{} 3 | |
631 @end example | |
632 | |
633 Note that the first @var{form} is evaluated, then the first | |
634 @var{symbol} is set, then the second @var{form} is evaluated, then the | |
635 second @var{symbol} is set, and so on: | |
636 | |
637 @example | |
638 @group | |
639 (setq x 10 ; @r{Notice that @code{x} is set before} | |
640 y (1+ x)) ; @r{the value of @code{y} is computed.} | |
641 @result{} 11 | |
642 @end group | |
643 @end example | |
644 @end defspec | |
645 | |
646 @defun set symbol value | |
647 This function sets @var{symbol}'s value to @var{value}, then returns | |
648 @var{value}. Since @code{set} is a function, the expression written for | |
649 @var{symbol} is evaluated to obtain the symbol to set. | |
650 | |
651 The most-local existing binding of the variable is the binding that is | |
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652 set; shadowed bindings are not affected. |
6510 | 653 |
654 @example | |
655 @group | |
656 (set one 1) | |
657 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: one | |
658 @end group | |
659 @group | |
660 (set 'one 1) | |
661 @result{} 1 | |
662 @end group | |
663 @group | |
664 (set 'two 'one) | |
665 @result{} one | |
666 @end group | |
667 @group | |
668 (set two 2) ; @r{@code{two} evaluates to symbol @code{one}.} | |
669 @result{} 2 | |
670 @end group | |
671 @group | |
672 one ; @r{So it is @code{one} that was set.} | |
673 @result{} 2 | |
674 (let ((one 1)) ; @r{This binding of @code{one} is set,} | |
675 (set 'one 3) ; @r{not the global value.} | |
676 one) | |
677 @result{} 3 | |
678 @end group | |
679 @group | |
680 one | |
681 @result{} 2 | |
682 @end group | |
683 @end example | |
684 | |
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685 If @var{symbol} is not actually a symbol, a @code{wrong-type-argument} |
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686 error is signaled. |
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687 |
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688 @example |
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689 (set '(x y) 'z) |
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690 @error{} Wrong type argument: symbolp, (x y) |
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691 @end example |
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692 |
6510 | 693 Logically speaking, @code{set} is a more fundamental primitive than |
694 @code{setq}. Any use of @code{setq} can be trivially rewritten to use | |
695 @code{set}; @code{setq} could even be defined as a macro, given the | |
696 availability of @code{set}. However, @code{set} itself is rarely used; | |
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697 beginners hardly need to know about it. It is useful only for choosing |
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698 at run time which variable to set. For example, the command |
6510 | 699 @code{set-variable}, which reads a variable name from the user and then |
700 sets the variable, needs to use @code{set}. | |
701 | |
702 @cindex CL note---@code{set} local | |
703 @quotation | |
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704 @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, @code{set} always changes the |
6510 | 705 symbol's special value, ignoring any lexical bindings. In Emacs Lisp, |
706 all variables and all bindings are (in effect) special, so @code{set} | |
707 always affects the most local existing binding. | |
708 @end quotation | |
709 @end defun | |
710 | |
711 @node Variable Scoping | |
712 @section Scoping Rules for Variable Bindings | |
713 | |
714 A given symbol @code{foo} may have several local variable bindings, | |
715 established at different places in the Lisp program, as well as a global | |
716 binding. The most recently established binding takes precedence over | |
717 the others. | |
718 | |
719 @cindex scope | |
720 @cindex extent | |
721 @cindex dynamic scoping | |
722 Local bindings in Emacs Lisp have @dfn{indefinite scope} and | |
723 @dfn{dynamic extent}. @dfn{Scope} refers to @emph{where} textually in | |
724 the source code the binding can be accessed. Indefinite scope means | |
725 that any part of the program can potentially access the variable | |
726 binding. @dfn{Extent} refers to @emph{when}, as the program is | |
727 executing, the binding exists. Dynamic extent means that the binding | |
728 lasts as long as the activation of the construct that established it. | |
729 | |
730 The combination of dynamic extent and indefinite scope is called | |
731 @dfn{dynamic scoping}. By contrast, most programming languages use | |
732 @dfn{lexical scoping}, in which references to a local variable must be | |
733 located textually within the function or block that binds the variable. | |
734 | |
735 @cindex CL note---special variables | |
736 @quotation | |
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737 @b{Common Lisp note:} Variables declared ``special'' in Common Lisp |
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738 are dynamically scoped, like variables in Emacs Lisp. |
6510 | 739 @end quotation |
740 | |
741 @menu | |
742 * Scope:: Scope means where in the program a value is visible. | |
743 Comparison with other languages. | |
744 * Extent:: Extent means how long in time a value exists. | |
745 * Impl of Scope:: Two ways to implement dynamic scoping. | |
746 * Using Scoping:: How to use dynamic scoping carefully and avoid problems. | |
747 @end menu | |
748 | |
749 @node Scope | |
750 @subsection Scope | |
751 | |
752 Emacs Lisp uses @dfn{indefinite scope} for local variable bindings. | |
753 This means that any function anywhere in the program text might access a | |
754 given binding of a variable. Consider the following function | |
755 definitions: | |
756 | |
757 @example | |
758 @group | |
759 (defun binder (x) ; @r{@code{x} is bound in @code{binder}.} | |
760 (foo 5)) ; @r{@code{foo} is some other function.} | |
761 @end group | |
762 | |
763 @group | |
764 (defun user () ; @r{@code{x} is used in @code{user}.} | |
765 (list x)) | |
766 @end group | |
767 @end example | |
768 | |
769 In a lexically scoped language, the binding of @code{x} in | |
770 @code{binder} would never be accessible in @code{user}, because | |
771 @code{user} is not textually contained within the function | |
772 @code{binder}. However, in dynamically scoped Emacs Lisp, @code{user} | |
773 may or may not refer to the binding of @code{x} established in | |
774 @code{binder}, depending on circumstances: | |
775 | |
776 @itemize @bullet | |
777 @item | |
778 If we call @code{user} directly without calling @code{binder} at all, | |
779 then whatever binding of @code{x} is found, it cannot come from | |
780 @code{binder}. | |
781 | |
782 @item | |
783 If we define @code{foo} as follows and call @code{binder}, then the | |
784 binding made in @code{binder} will be seen in @code{user}: | |
785 | |
786 @example | |
787 @group | |
788 (defun foo (lose) | |
789 (user)) | |
790 @end group | |
791 @end example | |
792 | |
793 @item | |
794 If we define @code{foo} as follows and call @code{binder}, then the | |
795 binding made in @code{binder} @emph{will not} be seen in @code{user}: | |
796 | |
797 @example | |
798 (defun foo (x) | |
799 (user)) | |
800 @end example | |
801 | |
802 @noindent | |
803 Here, when @code{foo} is called by @code{binder}, it binds @code{x}. | |
804 (The binding in @code{foo} is said to @dfn{shadow} the one made in | |
805 @code{binder}.) Therefore, @code{user} will access the @code{x} bound | |
806 by @code{foo} instead of the one bound by @code{binder}. | |
807 @end itemize | |
808 | |
809 @node Extent | |
810 @subsection Extent | |
811 | |
812 @dfn{Extent} refers to the time during program execution that a | |
813 variable name is valid. In Emacs Lisp, a variable is valid only while | |
814 the form that bound it is executing. This is called @dfn{dynamic | |
815 extent}. ``Local'' or ``automatic'' variables in most languages, | |
816 including C and Pascal, have dynamic extent. | |
817 | |
818 One alternative to dynamic extent is @dfn{indefinite extent}. This | |
819 means that a variable binding can live on past the exit from the form | |
820 that made the binding. Common Lisp and Scheme, for example, support | |
821 this, but Emacs Lisp does not. | |
822 | |
823 To illustrate this, the function below, @code{make-add}, returns a | |
824 function that purports to add @var{n} to its own argument @var{m}. | |
825 This would work in Common Lisp, but it does not work as intended in | |
826 Emacs Lisp, because after the call to @code{make-add} exits, the | |
827 variable @code{n} is no longer bound to the actual argument 2. | |
828 | |
829 @example | |
830 (defun make-add (n) | |
831 (function (lambda (m) (+ n m)))) ; @r{Return a function.} | |
832 @result{} make-add | |
833 (fset 'add2 (make-add 2)) ; @r{Define function @code{add2}} | |
834 ; @r{with @code{(make-add 2)}.} | |
835 @result{} (lambda (m) (+ n m)) | |
836 (add2 4) ; @r{Try to add 2 to 4.} | |
837 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: n | |
838 @end example | |
839 | |
840 @cindex closures not available | |
841 Some Lisp dialects have ``closures'', objects that are like functions | |
842 but record additional variable bindings. Emacs Lisp does not have | |
843 closures. | |
844 | |
845 @node Impl of Scope | |
846 @subsection Implementation of Dynamic Scoping | |
847 @cindex deep binding | |
848 | |
849 A simple sample implementation (which is not how Emacs Lisp actually | |
850 works) may help you understand dynamic binding. This technique is | |
851 called @dfn{deep binding} and was used in early Lisp systems. | |
852 | |
853 Suppose there is a stack of bindings: variable-value pairs. At entry | |
854 to a function or to a @code{let} form, we can push bindings on the stack | |
855 for the arguments or local variables created there. We can pop those | |
856 bindings from the stack at exit from the binding construct. | |
857 | |
858 We can find the value of a variable by searching the stack from top to | |
859 bottom for a binding for that variable; the value from that binding is | |
860 the value of the variable. To set the variable, we search for the | |
861 current binding, then store the new value into that binding. | |
862 | |
863 As you can see, a function's bindings remain in effect as long as it | |
864 continues execution, even during its calls to other functions. That is | |
865 why we say the extent of the binding is dynamic. And any other function | |
866 can refer to the bindings, if it uses the same variables while the | |
867 bindings are in effect. That is why we say the scope is indefinite. | |
868 | |
869 @cindex shallow binding | |
870 The actual implementation of variable scoping in GNU Emacs Lisp uses a | |
871 technique called @dfn{shallow binding}. Each variable has a standard | |
872 place in which its current value is always found---the value cell of the | |
873 symbol. | |
874 | |
875 In shallow binding, setting the variable works by storing a value in | |
876 the value cell. Creating a new binding works by pushing the old value | |
877 (belonging to a previous binding) on a stack, and storing the local value | |
878 in the value cell. Eliminating a binding works by popping the old value | |
879 off the stack, into the value cell. | |
880 | |
881 We use shallow binding because it has the same results as deep | |
882 binding, but runs faster, since there is never a need to search for a | |
883 binding. | |
884 | |
885 @node Using Scoping | |
886 @subsection Proper Use of Dynamic Scoping | |
887 | |
888 Binding a variable in one function and using it in another is a | |
889 powerful technique, but if used without restraint, it can make programs | |
890 hard to understand. There are two clean ways to use this technique: | |
891 | |
892 @itemize @bullet | |
893 @item | |
894 Use or bind the variable only in a few related functions, written close | |
895 together in one file. Such a variable is used for communication within | |
896 one program. | |
897 | |
898 You should write comments to inform other programmers that they can see | |
899 all uses of the variable before them, and to advise them not to add uses | |
900 elsewhere. | |
901 | |
902 @item | |
903 Give the variable a well-defined, documented meaning, and make all | |
904 appropriate functions refer to it (but not bind it or set it) wherever | |
905 that meaning is relevant. For example, the variable | |
906 @code{case-fold-search} is defined as ``non-@code{nil} means ignore case | |
907 when searching''; various search and replace functions refer to it | |
908 directly or through their subroutines, but do not bind or set it. | |
909 | |
910 Then you can bind the variable in other programs, knowing reliably what | |
911 the effect will be. | |
912 @end itemize | |
913 | |
914 @node Buffer-Local Variables | |
915 @section Buffer-Local Variables | |
916 @cindex variables, buffer-local | |
917 @cindex buffer-local variables | |
918 | |
919 Global and local variable bindings are found in most programming | |
920 languages in one form or another. Emacs also supports another, unusual | |
921 kind of variable binding: @dfn{buffer-local} bindings, which apply only | |
922 to one buffer. Emacs Lisp is meant for programming editing commands, | |
923 and having different values for a variable in different buffers is an | |
924 important customization method. | |
925 | |
926 @menu | |
927 * Intro to Buffer-Local:: Introduction and concepts. | |
928 * Creating Buffer-Local:: Creating and destroying buffer-local bindings. | |
929 * Default Value:: The default value is seen in buffers | |
930 that don't have their own local values. | |
931 @end menu | |
932 | |
933 @node Intro to Buffer-Local | |
934 @subsection Introduction to Buffer-Local Variables | |
935 | |
936 A buffer-local variable has a buffer-local binding associated with a | |
937 particular buffer. The binding is in effect when that buffer is | |
938 current; otherwise, it is not in effect. If you set the variable while | |
939 a buffer-local binding is in effect, the new value goes in that binding, | |
940 so the global binding is unchanged; this means that the change is | |
941 visible in that buffer alone. | |
942 | |
943 A variable may have buffer-local bindings in some buffers but not in | |
944 others. The global binding is shared by all the buffers that don't have | |
945 their own bindings. Thus, if you set the variable in a buffer that does | |
946 not have a buffer-local binding for it, the new value is visible in all | |
947 buffers except those with buffer-local bindings. (Here we are assuming | |
948 that there are no @code{let}-style local bindings to complicate the issue.) | |
949 | |
950 The most common use of buffer-local bindings is for major modes to change | |
951 variables that control the behavior of commands. For example, C mode and | |
952 Lisp mode both set the variable @code{paragraph-start} to specify that only | |
953 blank lines separate paragraphs. They do this by making the variable | |
954 buffer-local in the buffer that is being put into C mode or Lisp mode, and | |
955 then setting it to the new value for that mode. | |
956 | |
957 The usual way to make a buffer-local binding is with | |
958 @code{make-local-variable}, which is what major mode commands use. This | |
959 affects just the current buffer; all other buffers (including those yet to | |
960 be created) continue to share the global value. | |
961 | |
962 @cindex automatically buffer-local | |
963 A more powerful operation is to mark the variable as | |
964 @dfn{automatically buffer-local} by calling | |
965 @code{make-variable-buffer-local}. You can think of this as making the | |
966 variable local in all buffers, even those yet to be created. More | |
967 precisely, the effect is that setting the variable automatically makes | |
968 the variable local to the current buffer if it is not already so. All | |
969 buffers start out by sharing the global value of the variable as usual, | |
970 but any @code{setq} creates a buffer-local binding for the current | |
971 buffer. The new value is stored in the buffer-local binding, leaving | |
972 the (default) global binding untouched. The global value can no longer | |
973 be changed with @code{setq}; you need to use @code{setq-default} to do | |
974 that. | |
975 | |
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976 @strong{Warning:} When a variable has local values in one or more |
6510 | 977 buffers, you can get Emacs very confused by binding the variable with |
978 @code{let}, changing to a different current buffer in which a different | |
979 binding is in effect, and then exiting the @code{let}. This can | |
980 scramble the values of the global and local bindings. | |
981 | |
982 To preserve your sanity, avoid that series of actions. If you use | |
983 @code{save-excursion} around each piece of code that changes to a | |
984 different current buffer, you will not have this problem. Here is an | |
985 example of what to avoid: | |
986 | |
987 @example | |
988 @group | |
989 (setq foo 'b) | |
990 (set-buffer "a") | |
991 (make-local-variable 'foo) | |
992 @end group | |
993 (setq foo 'a) | |
994 (let ((foo 'temp)) | |
995 (set-buffer "b") | |
996 @dots{}) | |
997 @group | |
998 foo @result{} 'a ; @r{The old buffer-local value from buffer @samp{a}} | |
999 ; @r{is now the default value.} | |
1000 @end group | |
1001 @group | |
1002 (set-buffer "a") | |
1003 foo @result{} 'temp ; @r{The local value that should be gone} | |
1004 ; @r{is now the buffer-local value in buffer @samp{a}.} | |
1005 @end group | |
1006 @end example | |
1007 | |
1008 @noindent | |
1009 But @code{save-excursion} as shown here avoids the problem: | |
1010 | |
1011 @example | |
1012 @group | |
1013 (let ((foo 'temp)) | |
1014 (save-excursion | |
1015 (set-buffer "b") | |
1016 @var{body}@dots{})) | |
1017 @end group | |
1018 @end example | |
1019 | |
1020 Note that references to @code{foo} in @var{body} access the | |
1021 buffer-local binding of buffer @samp{b}. | |
1022 | |
1023 When a file specifies local variable values, these become buffer-local | |
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1024 values when you visit the file. @xref{Auto Major Mode}. |
6510 | 1025 |
1026 @node Creating Buffer-Local | |
1027 @subsection Creating and Deleting Buffer-Local Bindings | |
1028 | |
1029 @deffn Command make-local-variable variable | |
1030 This function creates a buffer-local binding in the current buffer for | |
1031 @var{variable} (a symbol). Other buffers are not affected. The value | |
1032 returned is @var{variable}. | |
1033 | |
1034 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
1035 The buffer-local value of @var{variable} starts out as the same value | |
1036 @var{variable} previously had. If @var{variable} was void, it remains | |
1037 void. | |
1038 | |
1039 @example | |
1040 @group | |
1041 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{b1}:} | |
1042 (setq foo 5) ; @r{Affects all buffers.} | |
1043 @result{} 5 | |
1044 @end group | |
1045 @group | |
1046 (make-local-variable 'foo) ; @r{Now it is local in @samp{b1}.} | |
1047 @result{} foo | |
1048 @end group | |
1049 @group | |
1050 foo ; @r{That did not change} | |
1051 @result{} 5 ; @r{the value.} | |
1052 @end group | |
1053 @group | |
1054 (setq foo 6) ; @r{Change the value} | |
1055 @result{} 6 ; @r{in @samp{b1}.} | |
1056 @end group | |
1057 @group | |
1058 foo | |
1059 @result{} 6 | |
1060 @end group | |
1061 | |
1062 @group | |
1063 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{b2}, the value hasn't changed.} | |
1064 (save-excursion | |
1065 (set-buffer "b2") | |
1066 foo) | |
1067 @result{} 5 | |
1068 @end group | |
1069 @end example | |
8214 | 1070 |
1071 Making a variable buffer-local within a @code{let}-binding for that | |
1072 variable does not work. This is because @code{let} does not distinguish | |
1073 between different kinds of bindings; it knows only which variable the | |
1074 binding was made for. | |
6510 | 1075 @end deffn |
1076 | |
1077 @deffn Command make-variable-buffer-local variable | |
1078 This function marks @var{variable} (a symbol) automatically | |
1079 buffer-local, so that any subsequent attempt to set it will make it | |
1080 local to the current buffer at the time. | |
1081 | |
1082 The value returned is @var{variable}. | |
1083 @end deffn | |
1084 | |
1085 @defun buffer-local-variables &optional buffer | |
1086 This function returns a list describing the buffer-local variables in | |
1087 buffer @var{buffer}. It returns an association list (@pxref{Association | |
1088 Lists}) in which each association contains one buffer-local variable and | |
1089 its value. When a buffer-local variable is void in @var{buffer}, then | |
1090 it appears directly in the resulting list. If @var{buffer} is omitted, | |
1091 the current buffer is used. | |
1092 | |
1093 @example | |
1094 @group | |
1095 (make-local-variable 'foobar) | |
1096 (makunbound 'foobar) | |
1097 (make-local-variable 'bind-me) | |
1098 (setq bind-me 69) | |
1099 @end group | |
1100 (setq lcl (buffer-local-variables)) | |
1101 ;; @r{First, built-in variables local in all buffers:} | |
1102 @result{} ((mark-active . nil) | |
1103 (buffer-undo-list nil) | |
1104 (mode-name . "Fundamental") | |
1105 @dots{} | |
1106 @group | |
1107 ;; @r{Next, non-built-in local variables.} | |
1108 ;; @r{This one is local and void:} | |
1109 foobar | |
1110 ;; @r{This one is local and nonvoid:} | |
1111 (bind-me . 69)) | |
1112 @end group | |
1113 @end example | |
1114 | |
1115 Note that storing new values into the @sc{cdr}s of cons cells in this | |
1116 list does @emph{not} change the local values of the variables. | |
1117 @end defun | |
1118 | |
1119 @deffn Command kill-local-variable variable | |
1120 This function deletes the buffer-local binding (if any) for | |
1121 @var{variable} (a symbol) in the current buffer. As a result, the | |
1122 global (default) binding of @var{variable} becomes visible in this | |
1123 buffer. Usually this results in a change in the value of | |
1124 @var{variable}, since the global value is usually different from the | |
1125 buffer-local value just eliminated. | |
1126 | |
1127 If you kill the local binding of a variable that automatically becomes | |
1128 local when set, this makes the global value visible in the current | |
1129 buffer. However, if you set the variable again, that will once again | |
1130 create a local binding for it. | |
1131 | |
1132 @code{kill-local-variable} returns @var{variable}. | |
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1133 |
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1134 This function is a command because it is sometimes useful to kill one |
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1135 buffer-local variable interactively, just as it is useful to create |
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1136 buffer-local variables interactively. |
6510 | 1137 @end deffn |
1138 | |
1139 @defun kill-all-local-variables | |
1140 This function eliminates all the buffer-local variable bindings of the | |
1141 current buffer except for variables marked as ``permanent''. As a | |
1142 result, the buffer will see the default values of most variables. | |
1143 | |
1144 This function also resets certain other information pertaining to the | |
1145 buffer: it sets the local keymap to @code{nil}, the syntax table to the | |
1146 value of @code{standard-syntax-table}, and the abbrev table to the value | |
1147 of @code{fundamental-mode-abbrev-table}. | |
1148 | |
1149 Every major mode command begins by calling this function, which has the | |
1150 effect of switching to Fundamental mode and erasing most of the effects | |
1151 of the previous major mode. To ensure that this does its job, the | |
1152 variables that major modes set should not be marked permanent. | |
1153 | |
1154 @code{kill-all-local-variables} returns @code{nil}. | |
1155 @end defun | |
1156 | |
1157 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
1158 @cindex permanent local variable | |
1159 A local variable is @dfn{permanent} if the variable name (a symbol) has a | |
1160 @code{permanent-local} property that is non-@code{nil}. Permanent | |
1161 locals are appropriate for data pertaining to where the file came from | |
1162 or how to save it, rather than with how to edit the contents. | |
1163 | |
1164 @node Default Value | |
1165 @subsection The Default Value of a Buffer-Local Variable | |
1166 @cindex default value | |
1167 | |
1168 The global value of a variable with buffer-local bindings is also | |
1169 called the @dfn{default} value, because it is the value that is in | |
1170 effect except when specifically overridden. | |
1171 | |
1172 The functions @code{default-value} and @code{setq-default} access and | |
1173 change a variable's default value regardless of whether the current | |
1174 buffer has a buffer-local binding. For example, you could use | |
1175 @code{setq-default} to change the default setting of | |
1176 @code{paragraph-start} for most buffers; and this would work even when | |
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1177 you are in a C or Lisp mode buffer that has a buffer-local value for |
6510 | 1178 this variable. |
1179 | |
1180 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
1181 The special forms @code{defvar} and @code{defconst} also set the | |
1182 default value (if they set the variable at all), rather than any local | |
1183 value. | |
1184 | |
1185 @defun default-value symbol | |
1186 This function returns @var{symbol}'s default value. This is the value | |
1187 that is seen in buffers that do not have their own values for this | |
1188 variable. If @var{symbol} is not buffer-local, this is equivalent to | |
1189 @code{symbol-value} (@pxref{Accessing Variables}). | |
1190 @end defun | |
1191 | |
1192 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
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1193 @defun default-boundp symbol |
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1194 The function @code{default-boundp} tells you whether @var{symbol}'s |
6510 | 1195 default value is nonvoid. If @code{(default-boundp 'foo)} returns |
1196 @code{nil}, then @code{(default-value 'foo)} would get an error. | |
1197 | |
1198 @code{default-boundp} is to @code{default-value} as @code{boundp} is to | |
1199 @code{symbol-value}. | |
1200 @end defun | |
1201 | |
1202 @defspec setq-default symbol value | |
1203 This sets the default value of @var{symbol} to @var{value}. It does not | |
1204 evaluate @var{symbol}, but does evaluate @var{value}. The value of the | |
1205 @code{setq-default} form is @var{value}. | |
1206 | |
1207 If a @var{symbol} is not buffer-local for the current buffer, and is not | |
1208 marked automatically buffer-local, @code{setq-default} has the same | |
1209 effect as @code{setq}. If @var{symbol} is buffer-local for the current | |
1210 buffer, then this changes the value that other buffers will see (as long | |
1211 as they don't have a buffer-local value), but not the value that the | |
1212 current buffer sees. | |
1213 | |
1214 @example | |
1215 @group | |
1216 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{foo}:} | |
1217 (make-local-variable 'local) | |
1218 @result{} local | |
1219 @end group | |
1220 @group | |
1221 (setq local 'value-in-foo) | |
1222 @result{} value-in-foo | |
1223 @end group | |
1224 @group | |
1225 (setq-default local 'new-default) | |
1226 @result{} new-default | |
1227 @end group | |
1228 @group | |
1229 local | |
1230 @result{} value-in-foo | |
1231 @end group | |
1232 @group | |
1233 (default-value 'local) | |
1234 @result{} new-default | |
1235 @end group | |
1236 | |
1237 @group | |
1238 ;; @r{In (the new) buffer @samp{bar}:} | |
1239 local | |
1240 @result{} new-default | |
1241 @end group | |
1242 @group | |
1243 (default-value 'local) | |
1244 @result{} new-default | |
1245 @end group | |
1246 @group | |
1247 (setq local 'another-default) | |
1248 @result{} another-default | |
1249 @end group | |
1250 @group | |
1251 (default-value 'local) | |
1252 @result{} another-default | |
1253 @end group | |
1254 | |
1255 @group | |
1256 ;; @r{Back in buffer @samp{foo}:} | |
1257 local | |
1258 @result{} value-in-foo | |
1259 (default-value 'local) | |
1260 @result{} another-default | |
1261 @end group | |
1262 @end example | |
1263 @end defspec | |
1264 | |
1265 @defun set-default symbol value | |
1266 This function is like @code{setq-default}, except that @var{symbol} is | |
1267 evaluated. | |
1268 | |
1269 @example | |
1270 @group | |
1271 (set-default (car '(a b c)) 23) | |
1272 @result{} 23 | |
1273 @end group | |
1274 @group | |
1275 (default-value 'a) | |
1276 @result{} 23 | |
1277 @end group | |
1278 @end example | |
1279 @end defun | |
1280 |