Mercurial > emacs
annotate doc/lispref/functions.texi @ 112412:647e164c1f3e
aclocal.m4: put this file back into repository
This way, we don't have to assume that the maintainer has
the automake package installed. See
<http://lists.gnu.org/archive/html/emacs-devel/2011-01/msg00746.html>.
* .bzrignore: Remove aclocal.m4, undoing the previous change.
* Makefile.in (top_maintainer_clean): Do not remove aclocal.m4,
undoing the previous change.
* aclocal.m4: New file (actually, resurrected).
author | Paul Eggert <eggert@cs.ucla.edu> |
---|---|
date | Fri, 21 Jan 2011 23:18:23 -0800 |
parents | ef719132ddfa |
children |
rev | line source |
---|---|
84070 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2001, | |
112218
376148b31b5e
Add 2011 to FSF/AIST copyright years.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
111755
diff
changeset
|
4 @c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011 |
109267 | 5 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
84070 | 6 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
84116
0ba80d073e27
(setfilename): Go up one more level to ../../info.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
84070
diff
changeset
|
7 @setfilename ../../info/functions |
84070 | 8 @node Functions, Macros, Variables, Top |
9 @chapter Functions | |
10 | |
11 A Lisp program is composed mainly of Lisp functions. This chapter | |
12 explains what functions are, how they accept arguments, and how to | |
13 define them. | |
14 | |
15 @menu | |
16 * What Is a Function:: Lisp functions vs. primitives; terminology. | |
17 * Lambda Expressions:: How functions are expressed as Lisp objects. | |
18 * Function Names:: A symbol can serve as the name of a function. | |
19 * Defining Functions:: Lisp expressions for defining functions. | |
20 * Calling Functions:: How to use an existing function. | |
21 * Mapping Functions:: Applying a function to each element of a list, etc. | |
22 * Anonymous Functions:: Lambda expressions are functions with no names. | |
23 * Function Cells:: Accessing or setting the function definition | |
24 of a symbol. | |
25 * Obsolete Functions:: Declaring functions obsolete. | |
109267 | 26 * Inline Functions:: Defining functions that the compiler will open code. |
86383
382d8b0539b2
(Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
85688
diff
changeset
|
27 * Declaring Functions:: Telling the compiler that a function is defined. |
84070 | 28 * Function Safety:: Determining whether a function is safe to call. |
29 * Related Topics:: Cross-references to specific Lisp primitives | |
30 that have a special bearing on how functions work. | |
31 @end menu | |
32 | |
33 @node What Is a Function | |
34 @section What Is a Function? | |
35 | |
36 In a general sense, a function is a rule for carrying on a computation | |
37 given several values called @dfn{arguments}. The result of the | |
38 computation is called the value of the function. The computation can | |
39 also have side effects: lasting changes in the values of variables or | |
40 the contents of data structures. | |
41 | |
42 Here are important terms for functions in Emacs Lisp and for other | |
43 function-like objects. | |
44 | |
45 @table @dfn | |
46 @item function | |
47 @cindex function | |
48 In Emacs Lisp, a @dfn{function} is anything that can be applied to | |
49 arguments in a Lisp program. In some cases, we use it more | |
50 specifically to mean a function written in Lisp. Special forms and | |
51 macros are not functions. | |
52 | |
53 @item primitive | |
54 @cindex primitive | |
55 @cindex subr | |
56 @cindex built-in function | |
57 A @dfn{primitive} is a function callable from Lisp that is written in C, | |
58 such as @code{car} or @code{append}. These functions are also called | |
59 @dfn{built-in functions}, or @dfn{subrs}. (Special forms are also | |
60 considered primitives.) | |
61 | |
62 Usually the reason we implement a function as a primitive is either | |
63 because it is fundamental, because it provides a low-level interface | |
64 to operating system services, or because it needs to run fast. | |
65 Primitives can be modified or added only by changing the C sources and | |
66 recompiling the editor. See @ref{Writing Emacs Primitives}. | |
67 | |
68 @item lambda expression | |
69 A @dfn{lambda expression} is a function written in Lisp. | |
70 These are described in the following section. | |
71 @ifnottex | |
72 @xref{Lambda Expressions}. | |
73 @end ifnottex | |
74 | |
75 @item special form | |
76 A @dfn{special form} is a primitive that is like a function but does not | |
77 evaluate all of its arguments in the usual way. It may evaluate only | |
78 some of the arguments, or may evaluate them in an unusual order, or | |
79 several times. Many special forms are described in @ref{Control | |
80 Structures}. | |
81 | |
82 @item macro | |
83 @cindex macro | |
84 A @dfn{macro} is a construct defined in Lisp by the programmer. It | |
85 differs from a function in that it translates a Lisp expression that you | |
86 write into an equivalent expression to be evaluated instead of the | |
87 original expression. Macros enable Lisp programmers to do the sorts of | |
88 things that special forms can do. @xref{Macros}, for how to define and | |
89 use macros. | |
90 | |
91 @item command | |
92 @cindex command | |
93 A @dfn{command} is an object that @code{command-execute} can invoke; it | |
94 is a possible definition for a key sequence. Some functions are | |
95 commands; a function written in Lisp is a command if it contains an | |
96 interactive declaration (@pxref{Defining Commands}). Such a function | |
97 can be called from Lisp expressions like other functions; in this case, | |
98 the fact that the function is a command makes no difference. | |
99 | |
100 Keyboard macros (strings and vectors) are commands also, even though | |
101 they are not functions. A symbol is a command if its function | |
102 definition is a command; such symbols can be invoked with @kbd{M-x}. | |
103 The symbol is a function as well if the definition is a function. | |
104 @xref{Interactive Call}. | |
105 | |
106 @item keystroke command | |
107 @cindex keystroke command | |
108 A @dfn{keystroke command} is a command that is bound to a key sequence | |
109 (typically one to three keystrokes). The distinction is made here | |
110 merely to avoid confusion with the meaning of ``command'' in non-Emacs | |
111 editors; for Lisp programs, the distinction is normally unimportant. | |
112 | |
113 @item byte-code function | |
114 A @dfn{byte-code function} is a function that has been compiled by the | |
115 byte compiler. @xref{Byte-Code Type}. | |
116 @end table | |
117 | |
118 @defun functionp object | |
119 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is any kind of | |
98685
48cabcb73380
(What Is a Function): `functionp' returns nil for special forms. Add an xref.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
93735
diff
changeset
|
120 function, i.e.@: can be passed to @code{funcall}. Note that |
48cabcb73380
(What Is a Function): `functionp' returns nil for special forms. Add an xref.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
93735
diff
changeset
|
121 @code{functionp} returns @code{nil} for special forms (@pxref{Special |
48cabcb73380
(What Is a Function): `functionp' returns nil for special forms. Add an xref.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
93735
diff
changeset
|
122 Forms}). |
84070 | 123 @end defun |
124 | |
125 Unlike @code{functionp}, the next three functions do @emph{not} | |
126 treat a symbol as its function definition. | |
127 | |
128 @defun subrp object | |
129 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a built-in function | |
130 (i.e., a Lisp primitive). | |
131 | |
132 @example | |
133 @group | |
134 (subrp 'message) ; @r{@code{message} is a symbol,} | |
135 @result{} nil ; @r{not a subr object.} | |
136 @end group | |
137 @group | |
138 (subrp (symbol-function 'message)) | |
139 @result{} t | |
140 @end group | |
141 @end example | |
142 @end defun | |
143 | |
144 @defun byte-code-function-p object | |
145 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a byte-code | |
146 function. For example: | |
147 | |
148 @example | |
149 @group | |
150 (byte-code-function-p (symbol-function 'next-line)) | |
151 @result{} t | |
152 @end group | |
153 @end example | |
154 @end defun | |
155 | |
156 @defun subr-arity subr | |
157 This function provides information about the argument list of a | |
158 primitive, @var{subr}. The returned value is a pair | |
159 @code{(@var{min} . @var{max})}. @var{min} is the minimum number of | |
160 args. @var{max} is the maximum number or the symbol @code{many}, for a | |
161 function with @code{&rest} arguments, or the symbol @code{unevalled} if | |
162 @var{subr} is a special form. | |
163 @end defun | |
164 | |
165 @node Lambda Expressions | |
166 @section Lambda Expressions | |
167 @cindex lambda expression | |
168 | |
169 A function written in Lisp is a list that looks like this: | |
170 | |
171 @example | |
172 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{}) | |
173 @r{[}@var{documentation-string}@r{]} | |
174 @r{[}@var{interactive-declaration}@r{]} | |
175 @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
176 @end example | |
177 | |
178 @noindent | |
179 Such a list is called a @dfn{lambda expression}. In Emacs Lisp, it | |
180 actually is valid as an expression---it evaluates to itself. In some | |
181 other Lisp dialects, a lambda expression is not a valid expression at | |
182 all. In either case, its main use is not to be evaluated as an | |
183 expression, but to be called as a function. | |
184 | |
185 @menu | |
186 * Lambda Components:: The parts of a lambda expression. | |
187 * Simple Lambda:: A simple example. | |
188 * Argument List:: Details and special features of argument lists. | |
189 * Function Documentation:: How to put documentation in a function. | |
190 @end menu | |
191 | |
192 @node Lambda Components | |
193 @subsection Components of a Lambda Expression | |
194 | |
195 @ifnottex | |
196 | |
197 A function written in Lisp (a ``lambda expression'') is a list that | |
198 looks like this: | |
199 | |
200 @example | |
201 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{}) | |
202 [@var{documentation-string}] | |
203 [@var{interactive-declaration}] | |
204 @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
205 @end example | |
206 @end ifnottex | |
207 | |
208 @cindex lambda list | |
209 The first element of a lambda expression is always the symbol | |
210 @code{lambda}. This indicates that the list represents a function. The | |
211 reason functions are defined to start with @code{lambda} is so that | |
212 other lists, intended for other uses, will not accidentally be valid as | |
213 functions. | |
214 | |
215 The second element is a list of symbols---the argument variable names. | |
216 This is called the @dfn{lambda list}. When a Lisp function is called, | |
217 the argument values are matched up against the variables in the lambda | |
218 list, which are given local bindings with the values provided. | |
219 @xref{Local Variables}. | |
220 | |
221 The documentation string is a Lisp string object placed within the | |
222 function definition to describe the function for the Emacs help | |
223 facilities. @xref{Function Documentation}. | |
224 | |
225 The interactive declaration is a list of the form @code{(interactive | |
226 @var{code-string})}. This declares how to provide arguments if the | |
227 function is used interactively. Functions with this declaration are called | |
228 @dfn{commands}; they can be called using @kbd{M-x} or bound to a key. | |
229 Functions not intended to be called in this way should not have interactive | |
230 declarations. @xref{Defining Commands}, for how to write an interactive | |
231 declaration. | |
232 | |
233 @cindex body of function | |
234 The rest of the elements are the @dfn{body} of the function: the Lisp | |
235 code to do the work of the function (or, as a Lisp programmer would say, | |
236 ``a list of Lisp forms to evaluate''). The value returned by the | |
237 function is the value returned by the last element of the body. | |
238 | |
239 @node Simple Lambda | |
240 @subsection A Simple Lambda-Expression Example | |
241 | |
242 Consider for example the following function: | |
243 | |
244 @example | |
245 (lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
246 @end example | |
247 | |
248 @noindent | |
249 We can call this function by writing it as the @sc{car} of an | |
250 expression, like this: | |
251 | |
252 @example | |
253 @group | |
254 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
255 1 2 3) | |
256 @end group | |
257 @end example | |
258 | |
259 @noindent | |
260 This call evaluates the body of the lambda expression with the variable | |
261 @code{a} bound to 1, @code{b} bound to 2, and @code{c} bound to 3. | |
262 Evaluation of the body adds these three numbers, producing the result 6; | |
263 therefore, this call to the function returns the value 6. | |
264 | |
265 Note that the arguments can be the results of other function calls, as in | |
266 this example: | |
267 | |
268 @example | |
269 @group | |
270 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
271 1 (* 2 3) (- 5 4)) | |
272 @end group | |
273 @end example | |
274 | |
275 @noindent | |
276 This evaluates the arguments @code{1}, @code{(* 2 3)}, and @code{(- 5 | |
277 4)} from left to right. Then it applies the lambda expression to the | |
278 argument values 1, 6 and 1 to produce the value 8. | |
279 | |
280 It is not often useful to write a lambda expression as the @sc{car} of | |
281 a form in this way. You can get the same result, of making local | |
282 variables and giving them values, using the special form @code{let} | |
283 (@pxref{Local Variables}). And @code{let} is clearer and easier to use. | |
284 In practice, lambda expressions are either stored as the function | |
285 definitions of symbols, to produce named functions, or passed as | |
286 arguments to other functions (@pxref{Anonymous Functions}). | |
287 | |
288 However, calls to explicit lambda expressions were very useful in the | |
289 old days of Lisp, before the special form @code{let} was invented. At | |
290 that time, they were the only way to bind and initialize local | |
291 variables. | |
292 | |
293 @node Argument List | |
294 @subsection Other Features of Argument Lists | |
295 @kindex wrong-number-of-arguments | |
296 @cindex argument binding | |
297 @cindex binding arguments | |
298 @cindex argument lists, features | |
299 | |
300 Our simple sample function, @code{(lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))}, | |
301 specifies three argument variables, so it must be called with three | |
302 arguments: if you try to call it with only two arguments or four | |
303 arguments, you get a @code{wrong-number-of-arguments} error. | |
304 | |
305 It is often convenient to write a function that allows certain | |
306 arguments to be omitted. For example, the function @code{substring} | |
307 accepts three arguments---a string, the start index and the end | |
308 index---but the third argument defaults to the @var{length} of the | |
309 string if you omit it. It is also convenient for certain functions to | |
310 accept an indefinite number of arguments, as the functions @code{list} | |
311 and @code{+} do. | |
312 | |
313 @cindex optional arguments | |
314 @cindex rest arguments | |
315 @kindex &optional | |
316 @kindex &rest | |
317 To specify optional arguments that may be omitted when a function | |
318 is called, simply include the keyword @code{&optional} before the optional | |
319 arguments. To specify a list of zero or more extra arguments, include the | |
320 keyword @code{&rest} before one final argument. | |
321 | |
322 Thus, the complete syntax for an argument list is as follows: | |
323 | |
324 @example | |
325 @group | |
326 (@var{required-vars}@dots{} | |
327 @r{[}&optional @var{optional-vars}@dots{}@r{]} | |
328 @r{[}&rest @var{rest-var}@r{]}) | |
329 @end group | |
330 @end example | |
331 | |
332 @noindent | |
333 The square brackets indicate that the @code{&optional} and @code{&rest} | |
334 clauses, and the variables that follow them, are optional. | |
335 | |
336 A call to the function requires one actual argument for each of the | |
337 @var{required-vars}. There may be actual arguments for zero or more of | |
338 the @var{optional-vars}, and there cannot be any actual arguments beyond | |
339 that unless the lambda list uses @code{&rest}. In that case, there may | |
340 be any number of extra actual arguments. | |
341 | |
342 If actual arguments for the optional and rest variables are omitted, | |
343 then they always default to @code{nil}. There is no way for the | |
344 function to distinguish between an explicit argument of @code{nil} and | |
345 an omitted argument. However, the body of the function is free to | |
346 consider @code{nil} an abbreviation for some other meaningful value. | |
347 This is what @code{substring} does; @code{nil} as the third argument to | |
348 @code{substring} means to use the length of the string supplied. | |
349 | |
350 @cindex CL note---default optional arg | |
351 @quotation | |
352 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp allows the function to specify what | |
353 default value to use when an optional argument is omitted; Emacs Lisp | |
354 always uses @code{nil}. Emacs Lisp does not support ``supplied-p'' | |
355 variables that tell you whether an argument was explicitly passed. | |
356 @end quotation | |
357 | |
358 For example, an argument list that looks like this: | |
359 | |
360 @example | |
361 (a b &optional c d &rest e) | |
362 @end example | |
363 | |
364 @noindent | |
365 binds @code{a} and @code{b} to the first two actual arguments, which are | |
366 required. If one or two more arguments are provided, @code{c} and | |
367 @code{d} are bound to them respectively; any arguments after the first | |
368 four are collected into a list and @code{e} is bound to that list. If | |
369 there are only two arguments, @code{c} is @code{nil}; if two or three | |
370 arguments, @code{d} is @code{nil}; if four arguments or fewer, @code{e} | |
371 is @code{nil}. | |
372 | |
373 There is no way to have required arguments following optional | |
374 ones---it would not make sense. To see why this must be so, suppose | |
375 that @code{c} in the example were optional and @code{d} were required. | |
376 Suppose three actual arguments are given; which variable would the | |
377 third argument be for? Would it be used for the @var{c}, or for | |
378 @var{d}? One can argue for both possibilities. Similarly, it makes | |
379 no sense to have any more arguments (either required or optional) | |
380 after a @code{&rest} argument. | |
381 | |
382 Here are some examples of argument lists and proper calls: | |
383 | |
384 @smallexample | |
385 ((lambda (n) (1+ n)) ; @r{One required:} | |
386 1) ; @r{requires exactly one argument.} | |
387 @result{} 2 | |
388 ((lambda (n &optional n1) ; @r{One required and one optional:} | |
389 (if n1 (+ n n1) (1+ n))) ; @r{1 or 2 arguments.} | |
390 1 2) | |
391 @result{} 3 | |
392 ((lambda (n &rest ns) ; @r{One required and one rest:} | |
393 (+ n (apply '+ ns))) ; @r{1 or more arguments.} | |
394 1 2 3 4 5) | |
395 @result{} 15 | |
396 @end smallexample | |
397 | |
398 @node Function Documentation | |
399 @subsection Documentation Strings of Functions | |
400 @cindex documentation of function | |
401 | |
402 A lambda expression may optionally have a @dfn{documentation string} just | |
403 after the lambda list. This string does not affect execution of the | |
404 function; it is a kind of comment, but a systematized comment which | |
405 actually appears inside the Lisp world and can be used by the Emacs help | |
406 facilities. @xref{Documentation}, for how the @var{documentation-string} is | |
407 accessed. | |
408 | |
409 It is a good idea to provide documentation strings for all the | |
410 functions in your program, even those that are called only from within | |
411 your program. Documentation strings are like comments, except that they | |
412 are easier to access. | |
413 | |
414 The first line of the documentation string should stand on its own, | |
415 because @code{apropos} displays just this first line. It should consist | |
416 of one or two complete sentences that summarize the function's purpose. | |
417 | |
418 The start of the documentation string is usually indented in the | |
419 source file, but since these spaces come before the starting | |
420 double-quote, they are not part of the string. Some people make a | |
421 practice of indenting any additional lines of the string so that the | |
422 text lines up in the program source. @emph{That is a mistake.} The | |
423 indentation of the following lines is inside the string; what looks | |
424 nice in the source code will look ugly when displayed by the help | |
425 commands. | |
426 | |
427 You may wonder how the documentation string could be optional, since | |
428 there are required components of the function that follow it (the body). | |
429 Since evaluation of a string returns that string, without any side effects, | |
430 it has no effect if it is not the last form in the body. Thus, in | |
431 practice, there is no confusion between the first form of the body and the | |
432 documentation string; if the only body form is a string then it serves both | |
433 as the return value and as the documentation. | |
434 | |
435 The last line of the documentation string can specify calling | |
436 conventions different from the actual function arguments. Write | |
437 text like this: | |
438 | |
439 @example | |
440 \(fn @var{arglist}) | |
441 @end example | |
442 | |
443 @noindent | |
444 following a blank line, at the beginning of the line, with no newline | |
445 following it inside the documentation string. (The @samp{\} is used | |
446 to avoid confusing the Emacs motion commands.) The calling convention | |
447 specified in this way appears in help messages in place of the one | |
448 derived from the actual arguments of the function. | |
449 | |
450 This feature is particularly useful for macro definitions, since the | |
451 arguments written in a macro definition often do not correspond to the | |
452 way users think of the parts of the macro call. | |
453 | |
454 @node Function Names | |
455 @section Naming a Function | |
456 @cindex function definition | |
457 @cindex named function | |
458 @cindex function name | |
459 | |
460 In most computer languages, every function has a name; the idea of a | |
461 function without a name is nonsensical. In Lisp, a function in the | |
462 strictest sense has no name. It is simply a list whose first element is | |
463 @code{lambda}, a byte-code function object, or a primitive subr-object. | |
464 | |
465 However, a symbol can serve as the name of a function. This happens | |
466 when you put the function in the symbol's @dfn{function cell} | |
467 (@pxref{Symbol Components}). Then the symbol itself becomes a valid, | |
468 callable function, equivalent to the list or subr-object that its | |
469 function cell refers to. The contents of the function cell are also | |
470 called the symbol's @dfn{function definition}. The procedure of using a | |
471 symbol's function definition in place of the symbol is called | |
472 @dfn{symbol function indirection}; see @ref{Function Indirection}. | |
473 | |
474 In practice, nearly all functions are given names in this way and | |
475 referred to through their names. For example, the symbol @code{car} works | |
476 as a function and does what it does because the primitive subr-object | |
477 @code{#<subr car>} is stored in its function cell. | |
478 | |
479 We give functions names because it is convenient to refer to them by | |
480 their names in Lisp expressions. For primitive subr-objects such as | |
481 @code{#<subr car>}, names are the only way you can refer to them: there | |
482 is no read syntax for such objects. For functions written in Lisp, the | |
483 name is more convenient to use in a call than an explicit lambda | |
484 expression. Also, a function with a name can refer to itself---it can | |
485 be recursive. Writing the function's name in its own definition is much | |
486 more convenient than making the function definition point to itself | |
487 (something that is not impossible but that has various disadvantages in | |
488 practice). | |
489 | |
490 We often identify functions with the symbols used to name them. For | |
491 example, we often speak of ``the function @code{car},'' not | |
492 distinguishing between the symbol @code{car} and the primitive | |
493 subr-object that is its function definition. For most purposes, the | |
494 distinction is not important. | |
495 | |
496 Even so, keep in mind that a function need not have a unique name. While | |
497 a given function object @emph{usually} appears in the function cell of only | |
498 one symbol, this is just a matter of convenience. It is easy to store | |
499 it in several symbols using @code{fset}; then each of the symbols is | |
500 equally well a name for the same function. | |
501 | |
502 A symbol used as a function name may also be used as a variable; these | |
503 two uses of a symbol are independent and do not conflict. (Some Lisp | |
504 dialects, such as Scheme, do not distinguish between a symbol's value | |
505 and its function definition; a symbol's value as a variable is also its | |
506 function definition.) If you have not given a symbol a function | |
507 definition, you cannot use it as a function; whether the symbol has a | |
508 value as a variable makes no difference to this. | |
509 | |
510 @node Defining Functions | |
511 @section Defining Functions | |
512 @cindex defining a function | |
513 | |
514 We usually give a name to a function when it is first created. This | |
515 is called @dfn{defining a function}, and it is done with the | |
516 @code{defun} special form. | |
517 | |
518 @defspec defun name argument-list body-forms | |
519 @code{defun} is the usual way to define new Lisp functions. It | |
520 defines the symbol @var{name} as a function that looks like this: | |
521 | |
522 @example | |
523 (lambda @var{argument-list} . @var{body-forms}) | |
524 @end example | |
525 | |
526 @code{defun} stores this lambda expression in the function cell of | |
527 @var{name}. It returns the value @var{name}, but usually we ignore this | |
528 value. | |
529 | |
530 As described previously, @var{argument-list} is a list of argument | |
531 names and may include the keywords @code{&optional} and @code{&rest} | |
532 (@pxref{Lambda Expressions}). Also, the first two of the | |
533 @var{body-forms} may be a documentation string and an interactive | |
534 declaration. | |
535 | |
536 There is no conflict if the same symbol @var{name} is also used as a | |
537 variable, since the symbol's value cell is independent of the function | |
538 cell. @xref{Symbol Components}. | |
539 | |
540 Here are some examples: | |
541 | |
542 @example | |
543 @group | |
544 (defun foo () 5) | |
545 @result{} foo | |
546 @end group | |
547 @group | |
548 (foo) | |
549 @result{} 5 | |
550 @end group | |
551 | |
552 @group | |
553 (defun bar (a &optional b &rest c) | |
554 (list a b c)) | |
555 @result{} bar | |
556 @end group | |
557 @group | |
558 (bar 1 2 3 4 5) | |
559 @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5)) | |
560 @end group | |
561 @group | |
562 (bar 1) | |
563 @result{} (1 nil nil) | |
564 @end group | |
565 @group | |
566 (bar) | |
567 @error{} Wrong number of arguments. | |
568 @end group | |
569 | |
570 @group | |
571 (defun capitalize-backwards () | |
572 "Upcase the last letter of a word." | |
573 (interactive) | |
574 (backward-word 1) | |
575 (forward-word 1) | |
576 (backward-char 1) | |
577 (capitalize-word 1)) | |
578 @result{} capitalize-backwards | |
579 @end group | |
580 @end example | |
581 | |
582 Be careful not to redefine existing functions unintentionally. | |
583 @code{defun} redefines even primitive functions such as @code{car} | |
584 without any hesitation or notification. Redefining a function already | |
585 defined is often done deliberately, and there is no way to distinguish | |
586 deliberate redefinition from unintentional redefinition. | |
587 @end defspec | |
588 | |
589 @cindex function aliases | |
590 @defun defalias name definition &optional docstring | |
591 @anchor{Definition of defalias} | |
592 This special form defines the symbol @var{name} as a function, with | |
593 definition @var{definition} (which can be any valid Lisp function). | |
594 It returns @var{definition}. | |
595 | |
596 If @var{docstring} is non-@code{nil}, it becomes the function | |
597 documentation of @var{name}. Otherwise, any documentation provided by | |
598 @var{definition} is used. | |
599 | |
600 The proper place to use @code{defalias} is where a specific function | |
601 name is being defined---especially where that name appears explicitly in | |
602 the source file being loaded. This is because @code{defalias} records | |
603 which file defined the function, just like @code{defun} | |
604 (@pxref{Unloading}). | |
605 | |
606 By contrast, in programs that manipulate function definitions for other | |
607 purposes, it is better to use @code{fset}, which does not keep such | |
608 records. @xref{Function Cells}. | |
609 @end defun | |
610 | |
611 You cannot create a new primitive function with @code{defun} or | |
612 @code{defalias}, but you can use them to change the function definition of | |
613 any symbol, even one such as @code{car} or @code{x-popup-menu} whose | |
614 normal definition is a primitive. However, this is risky: for | |
615 instance, it is next to impossible to redefine @code{car} without | |
616 breaking Lisp completely. Redefining an obscure function such as | |
617 @code{x-popup-menu} is less dangerous, but it still may not work as | |
618 you expect. If there are calls to the primitive from C code, they | |
619 call the primitive's C definition directly, so changing the symbol's | |
620 definition will have no effect on them. | |
621 | |
622 See also @code{defsubst}, which defines a function like @code{defun} | |
623 and tells the Lisp compiler to open-code it. @xref{Inline Functions}. | |
624 | |
625 @node Calling Functions | |
626 @section Calling Functions | |
627 @cindex function invocation | |
628 @cindex calling a function | |
629 | |
630 Defining functions is only half the battle. Functions don't do | |
631 anything until you @dfn{call} them, i.e., tell them to run. Calling a | |
632 function is also known as @dfn{invocation}. | |
633 | |
634 The most common way of invoking a function is by evaluating a list. | |
635 For example, evaluating the list @code{(concat "a" "b")} calls the | |
636 function @code{concat} with arguments @code{"a"} and @code{"b"}. | |
637 @xref{Evaluation}, for a description of evaluation. | |
638 | |
639 When you write a list as an expression in your program, you specify | |
640 which function to call, and how many arguments to give it, in the text | |
641 of the program. Usually that's just what you want. Occasionally you | |
642 need to compute at run time which function to call. To do that, use | |
643 the function @code{funcall}. When you also need to determine at run | |
644 time how many arguments to pass, use @code{apply}. | |
645 | |
646 @defun funcall function &rest arguments | |
647 @code{funcall} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, and returns | |
648 whatever @var{function} returns. | |
649 | |
650 Since @code{funcall} is a function, all of its arguments, including | |
651 @var{function}, are evaluated before @code{funcall} is called. This | |
652 means that you can use any expression to obtain the function to be | |
653 called. It also means that @code{funcall} does not see the | |
654 expressions you write for the @var{arguments}, only their values. | |
655 These values are @emph{not} evaluated a second time in the act of | |
656 calling @var{function}; the operation of @code{funcall} is like the | |
657 normal procedure for calling a function, once its arguments have | |
658 already been evaluated. | |
659 | |
660 The argument @var{function} must be either a Lisp function or a | |
661 primitive function. Special forms and macros are not allowed, because | |
662 they make sense only when given the ``unevaluated'' argument | |
663 expressions. @code{funcall} cannot provide these because, as we saw | |
664 above, it never knows them in the first place. | |
665 | |
666 @example | |
667 @group | |
668 (setq f 'list) | |
669 @result{} list | |
670 @end group | |
671 @group | |
672 (funcall f 'x 'y 'z) | |
673 @result{} (x y z) | |
674 @end group | |
675 @group | |
676 (funcall f 'x 'y '(z)) | |
677 @result{} (x y (z)) | |
678 @end group | |
679 @group | |
680 (funcall 'and t nil) | |
681 @error{} Invalid function: #<subr and> | |
682 @end group | |
683 @end example | |
684 | |
685 Compare these examples with the examples of @code{apply}. | |
686 @end defun | |
687 | |
688 @defun apply function &rest arguments | |
689 @code{apply} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, just like | |
690 @code{funcall} but with one difference: the last of @var{arguments} is a | |
691 list of objects, which are passed to @var{function} as separate | |
692 arguments, rather than a single list. We say that @code{apply} | |
693 @dfn{spreads} this list so that each individual element becomes an | |
694 argument. | |
695 | |
696 @code{apply} returns the result of calling @var{function}. As with | |
697 @code{funcall}, @var{function} must either be a Lisp function or a | |
698 primitive function; special forms and macros do not make sense in | |
699 @code{apply}. | |
700 | |
701 @example | |
702 @group | |
703 (setq f 'list) | |
704 @result{} list | |
705 @end group | |
706 @group | |
707 (apply f 'x 'y 'z) | |
708 @error{} Wrong type argument: listp, z | |
709 @end group | |
710 @group | |
711 (apply '+ 1 2 '(3 4)) | |
712 @result{} 10 | |
713 @end group | |
714 @group | |
715 (apply '+ '(1 2 3 4)) | |
716 @result{} 10 | |
717 @end group | |
718 | |
719 @group | |
720 (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil)) | |
721 @result{} (a b c x y z) | |
722 @end group | |
723 @end example | |
724 | |
725 For an interesting example of using @code{apply}, see @ref{Definition | |
726 of mapcar}. | |
727 @end defun | |
728 | |
98889
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
729 @cindex partial application of functions |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
730 @cindex currying |
98931
8bd819e4a411
(Calling Functions): Wording fixes from RMS.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98889
diff
changeset
|
731 Sometimes it is useful to fix some of the function's arguments at |
98889
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
732 certain values, and leave the rest of arguments for when the function |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
733 is actually called. The act of fixing some of the function's |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
734 arguments is called @dfn{partial application} of the function@footnote{ |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
735 This is related to, but different from @dfn{currying}, which |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
736 transforms a function that takes multiple arguments in such a way that |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
737 it can be called as a chain of functions, each one with a single |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
738 argument.}. |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
739 The result is a new function that accepts the rest of |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
740 arguments and calls the original function with all the arguments |
98931
8bd819e4a411
(Calling Functions): Wording fixes from RMS.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98889
diff
changeset
|
741 combined. |
8bd819e4a411
(Calling Functions): Wording fixes from RMS.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98889
diff
changeset
|
742 |
8bd819e4a411
(Calling Functions): Wording fixes from RMS.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98889
diff
changeset
|
743 Here's how to do partial application in Emacs Lisp: |
98889
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
744 |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
745 @defun apply-partially func &rest args |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
746 This function returns a new function which, when called, will call |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
747 @var{func} with the list of arguments composed from @var{args} and |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
748 additional arguments specified at the time of the call. If @var{func} |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
749 accepts @var{n} arguments, then a call to @code{apply-partially} with |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
750 @w{@code{@var{m} < @var{n}}} arguments will produce a new function of |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
751 @w{@code{@var{n} - @var{m}}} arguments. |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
752 |
98962
89d49db15c3c
(Calling Functions): Use `defalias' instead of `fset'. Fix wording.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98931
diff
changeset
|
753 Here's how we could define the built-in function @code{1+}, if it |
89d49db15c3c
(Calling Functions): Use `defalias' instead of `fset'. Fix wording.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98931
diff
changeset
|
754 didn't exist, using @code{apply-partially} and @code{+}, another |
89d49db15c3c
(Calling Functions): Use `defalias' instead of `fset'. Fix wording.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98931
diff
changeset
|
755 built-in function: |
98889
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
756 |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
757 @example |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
758 @group |
98962
89d49db15c3c
(Calling Functions): Use `defalias' instead of `fset'. Fix wording.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98931
diff
changeset
|
759 (defalias '1+ (apply-partially '+ 1) |
89d49db15c3c
(Calling Functions): Use `defalias' instead of `fset'. Fix wording.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98931
diff
changeset
|
760 "Increment argument by one.") |
89d49db15c3c
(Calling Functions): Use `defalias' instead of `fset'. Fix wording.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98931
diff
changeset
|
761 @end group |
89d49db15c3c
(Calling Functions): Use `defalias' instead of `fset'. Fix wording.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98931
diff
changeset
|
762 @group |
89d49db15c3c
(Calling Functions): Use `defalias' instead of `fset'. Fix wording.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98931
diff
changeset
|
763 (1+ 10) |
98889
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
764 @result{} 11 |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
765 @end group |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
766 @end example |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
767 @end defun |
f577e03e6ee0
(Calling Functions): Document `apply-partially'.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
98685
diff
changeset
|
768 |
84070 | 769 @cindex functionals |
770 It is common for Lisp functions to accept functions as arguments or | |
771 find them in data structures (especially in hook variables and property | |
772 lists) and call them using @code{funcall} or @code{apply}. Functions | |
773 that accept function arguments are often called @dfn{functionals}. | |
774 | |
775 Sometimes, when you call a functional, it is useful to supply a no-op | |
776 function as the argument. Here are two different kinds of no-op | |
777 function: | |
778 | |
779 @defun identity arg | |
780 This function returns @var{arg} and has no side effects. | |
781 @end defun | |
782 | |
783 @defun ignore &rest args | |
784 This function ignores any arguments and returns @code{nil}. | |
785 @end defun | |
786 | |
787 @node Mapping Functions | |
788 @section Mapping Functions | |
789 @cindex mapping functions | |
790 | |
791 A @dfn{mapping function} applies a given function (@emph{not} a | |
792 special form or macro) to each element of a list or other collection. | |
793 Emacs Lisp has several such functions; @code{mapcar} and | |
794 @code{mapconcat}, which scan a list, are described here. | |
795 @xref{Definition of mapatoms}, for the function @code{mapatoms} which | |
796 maps over the symbols in an obarray. @xref{Definition of maphash}, | |
797 for the function @code{maphash} which maps over key/value associations | |
798 in a hash table. | |
799 | |
800 These mapping functions do not allow char-tables because a char-table | |
801 is a sparse array whose nominal range of indices is very large. To map | |
802 over a char-table in a way that deals properly with its sparse nature, | |
803 use the function @code{map-char-table} (@pxref{Char-Tables}). | |
804 | |
805 @defun mapcar function sequence | |
806 @anchor{Definition of mapcar} | |
807 @code{mapcar} applies @var{function} to each element of @var{sequence} | |
808 in turn, and returns a list of the results. | |
809 | |
810 The argument @var{sequence} can be any kind of sequence except a | |
811 char-table; that is, a list, a vector, a bool-vector, or a string. The | |
812 result is always a list. The length of the result is the same as the | |
813 length of @var{sequence}. For example: | |
814 | |
815 @smallexample | |
816 @group | |
817 (mapcar 'car '((a b) (c d) (e f))) | |
818 @result{} (a c e) | |
819 (mapcar '1+ [1 2 3]) | |
820 @result{} (2 3 4) | |
111755
350f17da7963
Document byte-to-string in Lisp manual.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
109267
diff
changeset
|
821 (mapcar 'string "abc") |
84070 | 822 @result{} ("a" "b" "c") |
823 @end group | |
824 | |
825 @group | |
826 ;; @r{Call each function in @code{my-hooks}.} | |
827 (mapcar 'funcall my-hooks) | |
828 @end group | |
829 | |
830 @group | |
831 (defun mapcar* (function &rest args) | |
832 "Apply FUNCTION to successive cars of all ARGS. | |
833 Return the list of results." | |
834 ;; @r{If no list is exhausted,} | |
835 (if (not (memq nil args)) | |
836 ;; @r{apply function to @sc{car}s.} | |
837 (cons (apply function (mapcar 'car args)) | |
838 (apply 'mapcar* function | |
839 ;; @r{Recurse for rest of elements.} | |
840 (mapcar 'cdr args))))) | |
841 @end group | |
842 | |
843 @group | |
844 (mapcar* 'cons '(a b c) '(1 2 3 4)) | |
845 @result{} ((a . 1) (b . 2) (c . 3)) | |
846 @end group | |
847 @end smallexample | |
848 @end defun | |
849 | |
850 @defun mapc function sequence | |
851 @code{mapc} is like @code{mapcar} except that @var{function} is used for | |
852 side-effects only---the values it returns are ignored, not collected | |
853 into a list. @code{mapc} always returns @var{sequence}. | |
854 @end defun | |
855 | |
856 @defun mapconcat function sequence separator | |
857 @code{mapconcat} applies @var{function} to each element of | |
858 @var{sequence}: the results, which must be strings, are concatenated. | |
859 Between each pair of result strings, @code{mapconcat} inserts the string | |
860 @var{separator}. Usually @var{separator} contains a space or comma or | |
861 other suitable punctuation. | |
862 | |
863 The argument @var{function} must be a function that can take one | |
864 argument and return a string. The argument @var{sequence} can be any | |
865 kind of sequence except a char-table; that is, a list, a vector, a | |
866 bool-vector, or a string. | |
867 | |
868 @smallexample | |
869 @group | |
870 (mapconcat 'symbol-name | |
871 '(The cat in the hat) | |
872 " ") | |
873 @result{} "The cat in the hat" | |
874 @end group | |
875 | |
876 @group | |
877 (mapconcat (function (lambda (x) (format "%c" (1+ x)))) | |
878 "HAL-8000" | |
879 "") | |
880 @result{} "IBM.9111" | |
881 @end group | |
882 @end smallexample | |
883 @end defun | |
884 | |
885 @node Anonymous Functions | |
886 @section Anonymous Functions | |
887 @cindex anonymous function | |
888 | |
889 In Lisp, a function is a list that starts with @code{lambda}, a | |
890 byte-code function compiled from such a list, or alternatively a | |
104991
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
891 primitive subr-object; names are ``extra.'' Although functions are |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
892 usually defined with @code{defun} and given names at the same time, it |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
893 is occasionally more concise to use an explicit lambda expression---an |
84070 | 894 anonymous function. Such a list is valid wherever a function name is. |
895 | |
896 Any method of creating such a list makes a valid function. Even this: | |
897 | |
898 @smallexample | |
899 @group | |
900 (setq silly (append '(lambda (x)) (list (list '+ (* 3 4) 'x)))) | |
901 @result{} (lambda (x) (+ 12 x)) | |
902 @end group | |
903 @end smallexample | |
904 | |
905 @noindent | |
906 This computes a list that looks like @code{(lambda (x) (+ 12 x))} and | |
907 makes it the value (@emph{not} the function definition!) of | |
908 @code{silly}. | |
909 | |
910 Here is how we might call this function: | |
911 | |
912 @example | |
913 @group | |
914 (funcall silly 1) | |
915 @result{} 13 | |
916 @end group | |
917 @end example | |
918 | |
919 @noindent | |
104991
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
920 It does @emph{not} work to write @code{(silly 1)}, because this |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
921 function is not the @emph{function definition} of @code{silly}. We |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
922 have not given @code{silly} any function definition, just a value as a |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
923 variable. |
84070 | 924 |
925 Most of the time, anonymous functions are constants that appear in | |
104991
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
926 your program. For instance, you might want to pass one as an argument |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
927 to the function @code{mapcar}, which applies any given function to |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
928 each element of a list (@pxref{Mapping Functions}). |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
929 @xref{describe-symbols example}, for a realistic example of this. |
84070 | 930 |
104991
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
931 In the following example, we define a @code{change-property} |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
932 function that takes a function as its third argument, followed by a |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
933 @code{double-property} function that makes use of |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
934 @code{change-property} by passing it an anonymous function: |
84070 | 935 |
936 @example | |
937 @group | |
938 (defun change-property (symbol prop function) | |
939 (let ((value (get symbol prop))) | |
940 (put symbol prop (funcall function value)))) | |
941 @end group | |
104991
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
942 |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
943 @group |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
944 (defun double-property (symbol prop) |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
945 (change-property symbol prop (lambda (x) (* 2 x)))) |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
946 @end group |
84070 | 947 @end example |
948 | |
949 @noindent | |
104991
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
950 In the @code{double-property} function, we did not quote the |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
951 @code{lambda} form. This is permissible, because a @code{lambda} form |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
952 is @dfn{self-quoting}: evaluating the form yields the form itself. |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
953 |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
954 Whether or not you quote a @code{lambda} form makes a difference if |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
955 you compile the code (@pxref{Byte Compilation}). If the @code{lambda} |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
956 form is unquoted, as in the above example, the anonymous function is |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
957 also compiled. Suppose, however, that we quoted the @code{lambda} |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
958 form: |
84070 | 959 |
960 @example | |
961 @group | |
962 (defun double-property (symbol prop) | |
963 (change-property symbol prop '(lambda (x) (* 2 x)))) | |
964 @end group | |
965 @end example | |
966 | |
967 @noindent | |
104991
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
968 If you compile this, the argument passed to @code{change-property} is |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
969 the precise list shown: |
84070 | 970 |
971 @example | |
972 (lambda (x) (* x 2)) | |
973 @end example | |
974 | |
975 @noindent | |
104991
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
976 The Lisp compiler cannot assume this list is a function, even though |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
977 it looks like one, since it does not know what @code{change-property} |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
978 will do with the list. Perhaps it will check whether the @sc{car} of |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
979 the third element is the symbol @code{*}! |
84070 | 980 |
104991
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
981 @findex function |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
982 The @code{function} special form explicitly tells the byte-compiler |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
983 that its argument is a function: |
84070 | 984 |
985 @defspec function function-object | |
986 @cindex function quoting | |
987 This special form returns @var{function-object} without evaluating it. | |
988 In this, it is equivalent to @code{quote}. However, it serves as a | |
989 note to the Emacs Lisp compiler that @var{function-object} is intended | |
990 to be used only as a function, and therefore can safely be compiled. | |
991 Contrast this with @code{quote}, in @ref{Quoting}. | |
992 @end defspec | |
993 | |
104991
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
994 @cindex @samp{#'} syntax |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
995 The read syntax @code{#'} is a short-hand for using @code{function}. |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
996 Generally, it is not necessary to use either @code{#'} or |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
997 @code{function}; just use an unquoted @code{lambda} form instead. |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
998 (Actually, @code{lambda} is a macro defined using @code{function}.) |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
999 The following forms are all equivalent: |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
1000 |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
1001 @example |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
1002 #'(lambda (x) (* x x)) |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
1003 (function (lambda (x) (* x x))) |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
1004 (lambda (x) (* x x)) |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
1005 @end example |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
1006 |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
1007 We sometimes write @code{function} instead of @code{quote} when |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
1008 quoting the name of a function, but this usage is just a sort of |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
1009 comment: |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
1010 |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
1011 @example |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
1012 (function @var{symbol}) @equiv{} (quote @var{symbol}) @equiv{} '@var{symbol} |
0b7fb1bd00dc
* functions.texi (Anonymous Functions): Rearrange discussion,
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
103803
diff
changeset
|
1013 @end example |
84070 | 1014 |
1015 @node Function Cells | |
1016 @section Accessing Function Cell Contents | |
1017 | |
1018 The @dfn{function definition} of a symbol is the object stored in the | |
1019 function cell of the symbol. The functions described here access, test, | |
1020 and set the function cell of symbols. | |
1021 | |
1022 See also the function @code{indirect-function}. @xref{Definition of | |
1023 indirect-function}. | |
1024 | |
1025 @defun symbol-function symbol | |
1026 @kindex void-function | |
1027 This returns the object in the function cell of @var{symbol}. If the | |
1028 symbol's function cell is void, a @code{void-function} error is | |
1029 signaled. | |
1030 | |
1031 This function does not check that the returned object is a legitimate | |
1032 function. | |
1033 | |
1034 @example | |
1035 @group | |
1036 (defun bar (n) (+ n 2)) | |
1037 @result{} bar | |
1038 @end group | |
1039 @group | |
1040 (symbol-function 'bar) | |
1041 @result{} (lambda (n) (+ n 2)) | |
1042 @end group | |
1043 @group | |
1044 (fset 'baz 'bar) | |
1045 @result{} bar | |
1046 @end group | |
1047 @group | |
1048 (symbol-function 'baz) | |
1049 @result{} bar | |
1050 @end group | |
1051 @end example | |
1052 @end defun | |
1053 | |
1054 @cindex void function cell | |
1055 If you have never given a symbol any function definition, we say that | |
1056 that symbol's function cell is @dfn{void}. In other words, the function | |
1057 cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to call such a symbol | |
1058 as a function, it signals a @code{void-function} error. | |
1059 | |
1060 Note that void is not the same as @code{nil} or the symbol | |
1061 @code{void}. The symbols @code{nil} and @code{void} are Lisp objects, | |
1062 and can be stored into a function cell just as any other object can be | |
1063 (and they can be valid functions if you define them in turn with | |
1064 @code{defun}). A void function cell contains no object whatsoever. | |
1065 | |
1066 You can test the voidness of a symbol's function definition with | |
1067 @code{fboundp}. After you have given a symbol a function definition, you | |
1068 can make it void once more using @code{fmakunbound}. | |
1069 | |
1070 @defun fboundp symbol | |
1071 This function returns @code{t} if the symbol has an object in its | |
1072 function cell, @code{nil} otherwise. It does not check that the object | |
1073 is a legitimate function. | |
1074 @end defun | |
1075 | |
1076 @defun fmakunbound symbol | |
1077 This function makes @var{symbol}'s function cell void, so that a | |
1078 subsequent attempt to access this cell will cause a | |
1079 @code{void-function} error. It returns @var{symbol}. (See also | |
1080 @code{makunbound}, in @ref{Void Variables}.) | |
1081 | |
1082 @example | |
1083 @group | |
1084 (defun foo (x) x) | |
1085 @result{} foo | |
1086 @end group | |
1087 @group | |
1088 (foo 1) | |
1089 @result{}1 | |
1090 @end group | |
1091 @group | |
1092 (fmakunbound 'foo) | |
1093 @result{} foo | |
1094 @end group | |
1095 @group | |
1096 (foo 1) | |
1097 @error{} Symbol's function definition is void: foo | |
1098 @end group | |
1099 @end example | |
1100 @end defun | |
1101 | |
1102 @defun fset symbol definition | |
1103 This function stores @var{definition} in the function cell of | |
1104 @var{symbol}. The result is @var{definition}. Normally | |
1105 @var{definition} should be a function or the name of a function, but | |
1106 this is not checked. The argument @var{symbol} is an ordinary evaluated | |
1107 argument. | |
1108 | |
1109 There are three normal uses of this function: | |
1110 | |
1111 @itemize @bullet | |
1112 @item | |
1113 Copying one symbol's function definition to another---in other words, | |
1114 making an alternate name for a function. (If you think of this as the | |
1115 definition of the new name, you should use @code{defalias} instead of | |
1116 @code{fset}; see @ref{Definition of defalias}.) | |
1117 | |
1118 @item | |
1119 Giving a symbol a function definition that is not a list and therefore | |
1120 cannot be made with @code{defun}. For example, you can use @code{fset} | |
1121 to give a symbol @code{s1} a function definition which is another symbol | |
1122 @code{s2}; then @code{s1} serves as an alias for whatever definition | |
1123 @code{s2} presently has. (Once again use @code{defalias} instead of | |
1124 @code{fset} if you think of this as the definition of @code{s1}.) | |
1125 | |
1126 @item | |
1127 In constructs for defining or altering functions. If @code{defun} | |
1128 were not a primitive, it could be written in Lisp (as a macro) using | |
1129 @code{fset}. | |
1130 @end itemize | |
1131 | |
1132 Here are examples of these uses: | |
1133 | |
1134 @example | |
1135 @group | |
1136 ;; @r{Save @code{foo}'s definition in @code{old-foo}.} | |
1137 (fset 'old-foo (symbol-function 'foo)) | |
1138 @end group | |
1139 | |
1140 @group | |
1141 ;; @r{Make the symbol @code{car} the function definition of @code{xfirst}.} | |
1142 ;; @r{(Most likely, @code{defalias} would be better than @code{fset} here.)} | |
1143 (fset 'xfirst 'car) | |
1144 @result{} car | |
1145 @end group | |
1146 @group | |
1147 (xfirst '(1 2 3)) | |
1148 @result{} 1 | |
1149 @end group | |
1150 @group | |
1151 (symbol-function 'xfirst) | |
1152 @result{} car | |
1153 @end group | |
1154 @group | |
1155 (symbol-function (symbol-function 'xfirst)) | |
1156 @result{} #<subr car> | |
1157 @end group | |
1158 | |
1159 @group | |
1160 ;; @r{Define a named keyboard macro.} | |
1161 (fset 'kill-two-lines "\^u2\^k") | |
1162 @result{} "\^u2\^k" | |
1163 @end group | |
1164 | |
1165 @group | |
1166 ;; @r{Here is a function that alters other functions.} | |
1167 (defun copy-function-definition (new old) | |
1168 "Define NEW with the same function definition as OLD." | |
1169 (fset new (symbol-function old))) | |
1170 @end group | |
1171 @end example | |
1172 @end defun | |
1173 | |
1174 @code{fset} is sometimes used to save the old definition of a | |
1175 function before redefining it. That permits the new definition to | |
1176 invoke the old definition. But it is unmodular and unclean for a Lisp | |
1177 file to redefine a function defined elsewhere. If you want to modify | |
1178 a function defined by another package, it is cleaner to use | |
1179 @code{defadvice} (@pxref{Advising Functions}). | |
1180 | |
1181 @node Obsolete Functions | |
1182 @section Declaring Functions Obsolete | |
1183 | |
1184 You can use @code{make-obsolete} to declare a function obsolete. This | |
1185 indicates that the function may be removed at some stage in the future. | |
1186 | |
1187 @defun make-obsolete obsolete-name current-name &optional when | |
1188 This function makes the byte compiler warn that the function | |
1189 @var{obsolete-name} is obsolete. If @var{current-name} is a symbol, the | |
1190 warning message says to use @var{current-name} instead of | |
1191 @var{obsolete-name}. @var{current-name} does not need to be an alias for | |
1192 @var{obsolete-name}; it can be a different function with similar | |
1193 functionality. If @var{current-name} is a string, it is the warning | |
1194 message. | |
1195 | |
1196 If provided, @var{when} should be a string indicating when the function | |
1197 was first made obsolete---for example, a date or a release number. | |
1198 @end defun | |
1199 | |
1200 You can define a function as an alias and declare it obsolete at the | |
108355
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1201 same time using the macro @code{define-obsolete-function-alias}: |
84070 | 1202 |
1203 @defmac define-obsolete-function-alias obsolete-name current-name &optional when docstring | |
1204 This macro marks the function @var{obsolete-name} obsolete and also | |
1205 defines it as an alias for the function @var{current-name}. It is | |
1206 equivalent to the following: | |
1207 | |
1208 @example | |
1209 (defalias @var{obsolete-name} @var{current-name} @var{docstring}) | |
1210 (make-obsolete @var{obsolete-name} @var{current-name} @var{when}) | |
1211 @end example | |
1212 @end defmac | |
1213 | |
108355
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1214 In addition, you can mark a certain a particular calling convention |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1215 for a function as obsolete: |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1216 |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1217 @defun set-advertised-calling-convention function signature |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1218 This function specifies the argument list @var{signature} as the |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1219 correct way to call @var{function}. This causes the Emacs byte |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1220 compiler to issue a warning whenever it comes across an Emacs Lisp |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1221 program that calls @var{function} any other way (however, it will |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1222 still allow the code to be byte compiled). |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1223 |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1224 For instance, in old versions of Emacs the @code{sit-for} function |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1225 accepted three arguments, like this |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1226 |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1227 @smallexample |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1228 (sit-for seconds milliseconds nodisp) |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1229 @end smallexample |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1230 |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1231 However, calling @code{sit-for} this way is considered obsolete |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1232 (@pxref{Waiting}). The old calling convention is deprecated like |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1233 this: |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1234 |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1235 @smallexample |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1236 (set-advertised-calling-convention |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1237 'sit-for '(seconds &optional nodisp)) |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1238 @end smallexample |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1239 @end defun |
7da3761e3cdf
Document Emacs 23.2 changes.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
106815
diff
changeset
|
1240 |
84070 | 1241 @node Inline Functions |
1242 @section Inline Functions | |
1243 @cindex inline functions | |
1244 | |
1245 @findex defsubst | |
1246 You can define an @dfn{inline function} by using @code{defsubst} instead | |
1247 of @code{defun}. An inline function works just like an ordinary | |
1248 function except for one thing: when you compile a call to the function, | |
1249 the function's definition is open-coded into the caller. | |
1250 | |
1251 Making a function inline makes explicit calls run faster. But it also | |
1252 has disadvantages. For one thing, it reduces flexibility; if you | |
1253 change the definition of the function, calls already inlined still use | |
1254 the old definition until you recompile them. | |
1255 | |
1256 Another disadvantage is that making a large function inline can increase | |
1257 the size of compiled code both in files and in memory. Since the speed | |
1258 advantage of inline functions is greatest for small functions, you | |
1259 generally should not make large functions inline. | |
1260 | |
1261 Also, inline functions do not behave well with respect to debugging, | |
1262 tracing, and advising (@pxref{Advising Functions}). Since ease of | |
1263 debugging and the flexibility of redefining functions are important | |
1264 features of Emacs, you should not make a function inline, even if it's | |
1265 small, unless its speed is really crucial, and you've timed the code | |
1266 to verify that using @code{defun} actually has performance problems. | |
1267 | |
1268 It's possible to define a macro to expand into the same code that an | |
1269 inline function would execute. (@xref{Macros}.) But the macro would be | |
1270 limited to direct use in expressions---a macro cannot be called with | |
1271 @code{apply}, @code{mapcar} and so on. Also, it takes some work to | |
1272 convert an ordinary function into a macro. To convert it into an inline | |
1273 function is very easy; simply replace @code{defun} with @code{defsubst}. | |
1274 Since each argument of an inline function is evaluated exactly once, you | |
1275 needn't worry about how many times the body uses the arguments, as you | |
1276 do for macros. (@xref{Argument Evaluation}.) | |
1277 | |
1278 Inline functions can be used and open-coded later on in the same file, | |
1279 following the definition, just like macros. | |
1280 | |
86383
382d8b0539b2
(Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
85688
diff
changeset
|
1281 @node Declaring Functions |
382d8b0539b2
(Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
85688
diff
changeset
|
1282 @section Telling the Compiler that a Function is Defined |
382d8b0539b2
(Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
85688
diff
changeset
|
1283 @cindex function declaration |
382d8b0539b2
(Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
85688
diff
changeset
|
1284 @cindex declaring functions |
86826
9b003519e0dd
(Declaring Functions): Add findex. Mention `external' files.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
86447
diff
changeset
|
1285 @findex declare-function |
86383
382d8b0539b2
(Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
85688
diff
changeset
|
1286 |
86408
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1287 Byte-compiling a file often produces warnings about functions that the |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1288 compiler doesn't know about (@pxref{Compiler Errors}). Sometimes this |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1289 indicates a real problem, but usually the functions in question are |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1290 defined in other files which would be loaded if that code is run. For |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1291 example, byte-compiling @file{fortran.el} used to warn: |
86383
382d8b0539b2
(Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
85688
diff
changeset
|
1292 |
86408
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1293 @smallexample |
86383
382d8b0539b2
(Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
85688
diff
changeset
|
1294 In end of data: |
103803
a2c1141560a8
Minor rearrangements to improve TeX line-filling.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
100974
diff
changeset
|
1295 fortran.el:2152:1:Warning: the function `gud-find-c-expr' is not known |
a2c1141560a8
Minor rearrangements to improve TeX line-filling.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
100974
diff
changeset
|
1296 to be defined. |
86408
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1297 @end smallexample |
86383
382d8b0539b2
(Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
85688
diff
changeset
|
1298 |
86408
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1299 In fact, @code{gud-find-c-expr} is only used in the function that |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1300 Fortran mode uses for the local value of |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1301 @code{gud-find-expr-function}, which is a callback from GUD; if it is |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1302 called, the GUD functions will be loaded. When you know that such a |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1303 warning does not indicate a real problem, it is good to suppress the |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1304 warning. That makes new warnings which might mean real problems more |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1305 visible. You do that with @code{declare-function}. |
86383
382d8b0539b2
(Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
85688
diff
changeset
|
1306 |
382d8b0539b2
(Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
85688
diff
changeset
|
1307 All you need to do is add a @code{declare-function} statement before the |
382d8b0539b2
(Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
85688
diff
changeset
|
1308 first use of the function in question: |
382d8b0539b2
(Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
85688
diff
changeset
|
1309 |
86408
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1310 @smallexample |
86383
382d8b0539b2
(Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
85688
diff
changeset
|
1311 (declare-function gud-find-c-expr "gud.el" nil) |
86447
598f0ef502b4
(Declaring Functions): Fix typo in directive.
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents:
86408
diff
changeset
|
1312 @end smallexample |
86383
382d8b0539b2
(Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
85688
diff
changeset
|
1313 |
382d8b0539b2
(Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
85688
diff
changeset
|
1314 This says that @code{gud-find-c-expr} is defined in @file{gud.el} (the |
86408
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1315 @samp{.el} can be omitted). The compiler takes for granted that that file |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1316 really defines the function, and does not check. |
86447
598f0ef502b4
(Declaring Functions): Fix typo in directive.
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents:
86408
diff
changeset
|
1317 |
86408
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1318 The optional third argument specifies the argument list of |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1319 @code{gud-find-c-expr}. In this case, it takes no arguments |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1320 (@code{nil} is different from not specifying a value). In other |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1321 cases, this might be something like @code{(file &optional overwrite)}. |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1322 You don't have to specify the argument list, but if you do the |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1323 byte compiler can check that the calls match the declaration. |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1324 |
86845
62955c80c79b
(Declaring Functions): Add optional fourth
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
86826
diff
changeset
|
1325 @defmac declare-function function file &optional arglist fileonly |
86408
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1326 Tell the byte compiler to assume that @var{function} is defined, with |
99914
863a0dc13e9d
(Declaring Functions): Fix typo.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
98962
diff
changeset
|
1327 arguments @var{arglist}, and that the definition should come from the |
863a0dc13e9d
(Declaring Functions): Fix typo.
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
parents:
98962
diff
changeset
|
1328 file @var{file}. @var{fileonly} non-@code{nil} means only check that |
86845
62955c80c79b
(Declaring Functions): Add optional fourth
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
86826
diff
changeset
|
1329 @var{file} exists, not that it actually defines @var{function}. |
86408
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1330 @end defmac |
86383
382d8b0539b2
(Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
85688
diff
changeset
|
1331 |
86408
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1332 To verify that these functions really are declared where |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1333 @code{declare-function} says they are, use @code{check-declare-file} |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1334 to check all @code{declare-function} calls in one source file, or use |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1335 @code{check-declare-directory} check all the files in and under a |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1336 certain directory. |
86383
382d8b0539b2
(Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
85688
diff
changeset
|
1337 |
86408
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1338 These commands find the file that ought to contain a function's |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1339 definition using @code{locate-library}; if that finds no file, they |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1340 expand the definition file name relative to the directory of the file |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1341 that contains the @code{declare-function} call. |
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1342 |
105318
179b0f945895
(Declaring Functions): Mention that we also search for ".m" files in
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
104991
diff
changeset
|
1343 You can also say that a function is defined by C code by specifying a |
179b0f945895
(Declaring Functions): Mention that we also search for ".m" files in
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
104991
diff
changeset
|
1344 file name ending in @samp{.c} or @samp{.m}. @code{check-declare-file} |
179b0f945895
(Declaring Functions): Mention that we also search for ".m" files in
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
104991
diff
changeset
|
1345 looks for these files in the C source code directory. This is useful |
179b0f945895
(Declaring Functions): Mention that we also search for ".m" files in
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
104991
diff
changeset
|
1346 only when you call a function that is defined only on certain systems. |
179b0f945895
(Declaring Functions): Mention that we also search for ".m" files in
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
104991
diff
changeset
|
1347 Most of the primitive functions of Emacs are always defined so they will |
86408
c4f8d28a93e7
(Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
86383
diff
changeset
|
1348 never give you a warning. |
86383
382d8b0539b2
(Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
85688
diff
changeset
|
1349 |
86826
9b003519e0dd
(Declaring Functions): Add findex. Mention `external' files.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
86447
diff
changeset
|
1350 Sometimes a file will optionally use functions from an external package. |
9b003519e0dd
(Declaring Functions): Add findex. Mention `external' files.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
86447
diff
changeset
|
1351 If you prefix the filename in the @code{declare-function} statement with |
9b003519e0dd
(Declaring Functions): Add findex. Mention `external' files.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
86447
diff
changeset
|
1352 @samp{ext:}, then it will be checked if it is found, otherwise skipped |
9b003519e0dd
(Declaring Functions): Add findex. Mention `external' files.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
86447
diff
changeset
|
1353 without error. |
9b003519e0dd
(Declaring Functions): Add findex. Mention `external' files.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
86447
diff
changeset
|
1354 |
86845
62955c80c79b
(Declaring Functions): Add optional fourth
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
86826
diff
changeset
|
1355 There are some function definitions that @samp{check-declare} does not |
62955c80c79b
(Declaring Functions): Add optional fourth
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
86826
diff
changeset
|
1356 understand (e.g. @code{defstruct} and some other macros). In such cases, |
86884
bcf9ca31cd6d
(Declaring Functions): Improve previous change (arguments by name, not number).
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
86845
diff
changeset
|
1357 you can pass a non-@code{nil} @var{fileonly} argument to |
bcf9ca31cd6d
(Declaring Functions): Improve previous change (arguments by name, not number).
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
86845
diff
changeset
|
1358 @code{declare-function}, meaning to only check that the file exists, not |
bcf9ca31cd6d
(Declaring Functions): Improve previous change (arguments by name, not number).
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
86845
diff
changeset
|
1359 that it actually defines the function. Note that to do this without |
bcf9ca31cd6d
(Declaring Functions): Improve previous change (arguments by name, not number).
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
86845
diff
changeset
|
1360 having to specify an argument list, you should set the @var{arglist} |
bcf9ca31cd6d
(Declaring Functions): Improve previous change (arguments by name, not number).
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
86845
diff
changeset
|
1361 argument to @code{t} (because @code{nil} means an empty argument list, as |
bcf9ca31cd6d
(Declaring Functions): Improve previous change (arguments by name, not number).
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
86845
diff
changeset
|
1362 opposed to an unspecified one). |
86845
62955c80c79b
(Declaring Functions): Add optional fourth
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
86826
diff
changeset
|
1363 |
84070 | 1364 @node Function Safety |
1365 @section Determining whether a Function is Safe to Call | |
1366 @cindex function safety | |
1367 @cindex safety of functions | |
1368 | |
1369 Some major modes such as SES call functions that are stored in user | |
1370 files. (@inforef{Top, ,ses}, for more information on SES.) User | |
1371 files sometimes have poor pedigrees---you can get a spreadsheet from | |
1372 someone you've just met, or you can get one through email from someone | |
1373 you've never met. So it is risky to call a function whose source code | |
1374 is stored in a user file until you have determined that it is safe. | |
1375 | |
1376 @defun unsafep form &optional unsafep-vars | |
1377 Returns @code{nil} if @var{form} is a @dfn{safe} Lisp expression, or | |
1378 returns a list that describes why it might be unsafe. The argument | |
1379 @var{unsafep-vars} is a list of symbols known to have temporary | |
1380 bindings at this point; it is mainly used for internal recursive | |
1381 calls. The current buffer is an implicit argument, which provides a | |
1382 list of buffer-local bindings. | |
1383 @end defun | |
1384 | |
1385 Being quick and simple, @code{unsafep} does a very light analysis and | |
1386 rejects many Lisp expressions that are actually safe. There are no | |
1387 known cases where @code{unsafep} returns @code{nil} for an unsafe | |
1388 expression. However, a ``safe'' Lisp expression can return a string | |
1389 with a @code{display} property, containing an associated Lisp | |
1390 expression to be executed after the string is inserted into a buffer. | |
1391 This associated expression can be a virus. In order to be safe, you | |
1392 must delete properties from all strings calculated by user code before | |
1393 inserting them into buffers. | |
1394 | |
1395 @ignore | |
1396 What is a safe Lisp expression? Basically, it's an expression that | |
1397 calls only built-in functions with no side effects (or only innocuous | |
1398 ones). Innocuous side effects include displaying messages and | |
1399 altering non-risky buffer-local variables (but not global variables). | |
1400 | |
1401 @table @dfn | |
1402 @item Safe expression | |
1403 @itemize | |
1404 @item | |
1405 An atom or quoted thing. | |
1406 @item | |
1407 A call to a safe function (see below), if all its arguments are | |
1408 safe expressions. | |
1409 @item | |
1410 One of the special forms @code{and}, @code{catch}, @code{cond}, | |
1411 @code{if}, @code{or}, @code{prog1}, @code{prog2}, @code{progn}, | |
1412 @code{while}, and @code{unwind-protect}], if all its arguments are | |
1413 safe. | |
1414 @item | |
1415 A form that creates temporary bindings (@code{condition-case}, | |
1416 @code{dolist}, @code{dotimes}, @code{lambda}, @code{let}, or | |
1417 @code{let*}), if all args are safe and the symbols to be bound are not | |
1418 explicitly risky (see @pxref{File Local Variables}). | |
1419 @item | |
1420 An assignment using @code{add-to-list}, @code{setq}, @code{push}, or | |
1421 @code{pop}, if all args are safe and the symbols to be assigned are | |
1422 not explicitly risky and they already have temporary or buffer-local | |
1423 bindings. | |
1424 @item | |
1425 One of [apply, mapc, mapcar, mapconcat] if the first argument is a | |
1426 safe explicit lambda and the other args are safe expressions. | |
1427 @end itemize | |
1428 | |
1429 @item Safe function | |
1430 @itemize | |
1431 @item | |
1432 A lambda containing safe expressions. | |
1433 @item | |
1434 A symbol on the list @code{safe-functions}, so the user says it's safe. | |
1435 @item | |
1436 A symbol with a non-@code{nil} @code{side-effect-free} property. | |
1437 @item | |
100917
e2daa3033e6e
(Function Safety): Texinfo usage fix.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
99914
diff
changeset
|
1438 A symbol with a non-@code{nil} @code{safe-function} property. The |
e2daa3033e6e
(Function Safety): Texinfo usage fix.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
99914
diff
changeset
|
1439 value @code{t} indicates a function that is safe but has innocuous |
e2daa3033e6e
(Function Safety): Texinfo usage fix.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
99914
diff
changeset
|
1440 side effects. Other values will someday indicate functions with |
e2daa3033e6e
(Function Safety): Texinfo usage fix.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
99914
diff
changeset
|
1441 classes of side effects that are not always safe. |
84070 | 1442 @end itemize |
1443 | |
1444 The @code{side-effect-free} and @code{safe-function} properties are | |
1445 provided for built-in functions and for low-level functions and macros | |
1446 defined in @file{subr.el}. You can assign these properties for the | |
1447 functions you write. | |
1448 @end table | |
1449 @end ignore | |
1450 | |
1451 @node Related Topics | |
1452 @section Other Topics Related to Functions | |
1453 | |
1454 Here is a table of several functions that do things related to | |
1455 function calling and function definitions. They are documented | |
1456 elsewhere, but we provide cross references here. | |
1457 | |
1458 @table @code | |
1459 @item apply | |
1460 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1461 | |
1462 @item autoload | |
1463 See @ref{Autoload}. | |
1464 | |
1465 @item call-interactively | |
1466 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1467 | |
85688 | 1468 @item called-interactively-p |
1469 See @ref{Distinguish Interactive}. | |
1470 | |
84070 | 1471 @item commandp |
1472 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1473 | |
1474 @item documentation | |
1475 See @ref{Accessing Documentation}. | |
1476 | |
1477 @item eval | |
1478 See @ref{Eval}. | |
1479 | |
1480 @item funcall | |
1481 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1482 | |
1483 @item function | |
1484 See @ref{Anonymous Functions}. | |
1485 | |
1486 @item ignore | |
1487 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1488 | |
1489 @item indirect-function | |
1490 See @ref{Function Indirection}. | |
1491 | |
1492 @item interactive | |
1493 See @ref{Using Interactive}. | |
1494 | |
1495 @item interactive-p | |
85688 | 1496 See @ref{Distinguish Interactive}. |
84070 | 1497 |
1498 @item mapatoms | |
1499 See @ref{Creating Symbols}. | |
1500 | |
1501 @item mapcar | |
1502 See @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
1503 | |
1504 @item map-char-table | |
1505 See @ref{Char-Tables}. | |
1506 | |
1507 @item mapconcat | |
1508 See @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
1509 | |
1510 @item undefined | |
1511 See @ref{Functions for Key Lookup}. | |
1512 @end table |