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author | Paul Eggert <eggert@cs.ucla.edu> |
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date | Fri, 21 Jan 2011 23:18:23 -0800 |
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84092 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2001, | |
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4 @c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011 |
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5 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
84092 | 6 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
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7 @setfilename ../../info/objects |
84092 | 8 @node Lisp Data Types, Numbers, Introduction, Top |
9 @chapter Lisp Data Types | |
10 @cindex object | |
11 @cindex Lisp object | |
12 @cindex type | |
13 @cindex data type | |
14 | |
15 A Lisp @dfn{object} is a piece of data used and manipulated by Lisp | |
16 programs. For our purposes, a @dfn{type} or @dfn{data type} is a set of | |
17 possible objects. | |
18 | |
19 Every object belongs to at least one type. Objects of the same type | |
20 have similar structures and may usually be used in the same contexts. | |
21 Types can overlap, and objects can belong to two or more types. | |
22 Consequently, we can ask whether an object belongs to a particular type, | |
23 but not for ``the'' type of an object. | |
24 | |
25 @cindex primitive type | |
26 A few fundamental object types are built into Emacs. These, from | |
27 which all other types are constructed, are called @dfn{primitive types}. | |
28 Each object belongs to one and only one primitive type. These types | |
29 include @dfn{integer}, @dfn{float}, @dfn{cons}, @dfn{symbol}, | |
30 @dfn{string}, @dfn{vector}, @dfn{hash-table}, @dfn{subr}, and | |
31 @dfn{byte-code function}, plus several special types, such as | |
32 @dfn{buffer}, that are related to editing. (@xref{Editing Types}.) | |
33 | |
34 Each primitive type has a corresponding Lisp function that checks | |
35 whether an object is a member of that type. | |
36 | |
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37 Lisp is unlike many other languages in that its objects are |
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38 @dfn{self-typing}: the primitive type of each object is implicit in |
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39 the object itself. For example, if an object is a vector, nothing can |
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40 treat it as a number; Lisp knows it is a vector, not a number. |
84092 | 41 |
42 In most languages, the programmer must declare the data type of each | |
43 variable, and the type is known by the compiler but not represented in | |
44 the data. Such type declarations do not exist in Emacs Lisp. A Lisp | |
45 variable can have any type of value, and it remembers whatever value | |
46 you store in it, type and all. (Actually, a small number of Emacs | |
47 Lisp variables can only take on values of a certain type. | |
48 @xref{Variables with Restricted Values}.) | |
49 | |
50 This chapter describes the purpose, printed representation, and read | |
51 syntax of each of the standard types in GNU Emacs Lisp. Details on how | |
52 to use these types can be found in later chapters. | |
53 | |
54 @menu | |
55 * Printed Representation:: How Lisp objects are represented as text. | |
56 * Comments:: Comments and their formatting conventions. | |
57 * Programming Types:: Types found in all Lisp systems. | |
58 * Editing Types:: Types specific to Emacs. | |
59 * Circular Objects:: Read syntax for circular structure. | |
60 * Type Predicates:: Tests related to types. | |
61 * Equality Predicates:: Tests of equality between any two objects. | |
62 @end menu | |
63 | |
64 @node Printed Representation | |
65 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
66 @section Printed Representation and Read Syntax | |
67 @cindex printed representation | |
68 @cindex read syntax | |
69 | |
70 The @dfn{printed representation} of an object is the format of the | |
71 output generated by the Lisp printer (the function @code{prin1}) for | |
72 that object. Every data type has a unique printed representation. | |
73 The @dfn{read syntax} of an object is the format of the input accepted | |
74 by the Lisp reader (the function @code{read}) for that object. This | |
75 is not necessarily unique; many kinds of object have more than one | |
76 syntax. @xref{Read and Print}. | |
77 | |
78 @cindex hash notation | |
79 In most cases, an object's printed representation is also a read | |
80 syntax for the object. However, some types have no read syntax, since | |
81 it does not make sense to enter objects of these types as constants in | |
82 a Lisp program. These objects are printed in @dfn{hash notation}, | |
83 which consists of the characters @samp{#<}, a descriptive string | |
84 (typically the type name followed by the name of the object), and a | |
85 closing @samp{>}. For example: | |
86 | |
87 @example | |
88 (current-buffer) | |
89 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> | |
90 @end example | |
91 | |
92 @noindent | |
93 Hash notation cannot be read at all, so the Lisp reader signals the | |
94 error @code{invalid-read-syntax} whenever it encounters @samp{#<}. | |
95 @kindex invalid-read-syntax | |
96 | |
97 In other languages, an expression is text; it has no other form. In | |
98 Lisp, an expression is primarily a Lisp object and only secondarily the | |
99 text that is the object's read syntax. Often there is no need to | |
100 emphasize this distinction, but you must keep it in the back of your | |
101 mind, or you will occasionally be very confused. | |
102 | |
103 When you evaluate an expression interactively, the Lisp interpreter | |
104 first reads the textual representation of it, producing a Lisp object, | |
105 and then evaluates that object (@pxref{Evaluation}). However, | |
106 evaluation and reading are separate activities. Reading returns the | |
107 Lisp object represented by the text that is read; the object may or may | |
108 not be evaluated later. @xref{Input Functions}, for a description of | |
109 @code{read}, the basic function for reading objects. | |
110 | |
111 @node Comments | |
112 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
113 @section Comments | |
114 @cindex comments | |
115 @cindex @samp{;} in comment | |
116 | |
117 A @dfn{comment} is text that is written in a program only for the sake | |
118 of humans that read the program, and that has no effect on the meaning | |
119 of the program. In Lisp, a semicolon (@samp{;}) starts a comment if it | |
120 is not within a string or character constant. The comment continues to | |
121 the end of line. The Lisp reader discards comments; they do not become | |
122 part of the Lisp objects which represent the program within the Lisp | |
123 system. | |
124 | |
125 The @samp{#@@@var{count}} construct, which skips the next @var{count} | |
126 characters, is useful for program-generated comments containing binary | |
127 data. The Emacs Lisp byte compiler uses this in its output files | |
128 (@pxref{Byte Compilation}). It isn't meant for source files, however. | |
129 | |
130 @xref{Comment Tips}, for conventions for formatting comments. | |
131 | |
132 @node Programming Types | |
133 @section Programming Types | |
134 @cindex programming types | |
135 | |
136 There are two general categories of types in Emacs Lisp: those having | |
137 to do with Lisp programming, and those having to do with editing. The | |
138 former exist in many Lisp implementations, in one form or another. The | |
139 latter are unique to Emacs Lisp. | |
140 | |
141 @menu | |
142 * Integer Type:: Numbers without fractional parts. | |
143 * Floating Point Type:: Numbers with fractional parts and with a large range. | |
144 * Character Type:: The representation of letters, numbers and | |
145 control characters. | |
146 * Symbol Type:: A multi-use object that refers to a function, | |
147 variable, or property list, and has a unique identity. | |
148 * Sequence Type:: Both lists and arrays are classified as sequences. | |
149 * Cons Cell Type:: Cons cells, and lists (which are made from cons cells). | |
150 * Array Type:: Arrays include strings and vectors. | |
151 * String Type:: An (efficient) array of characters. | |
152 * Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays. | |
153 * Char-Table Type:: One-dimensional sparse arrays indexed by characters. | |
154 * Bool-Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays of @code{t} or @code{nil}. | |
155 * Hash Table Type:: Super-fast lookup tables. | |
156 * Function Type:: A piece of executable code you can call from elsewhere. | |
157 * Macro Type:: A method of expanding an expression into another | |
158 expression, more fundamental but less pretty. | |
159 * Primitive Function Type:: A function written in C, callable from Lisp. | |
160 * Byte-Code Type:: A function written in Lisp, then compiled. | |
161 * Autoload Type:: A type used for automatically loading seldom-used | |
162 functions. | |
163 @end menu | |
164 | |
165 @node Integer Type | |
166 @subsection Integer Type | |
167 | |
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168 The range of values for integers in Emacs Lisp is @minus{}536870912 to |
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169 536870911 (30 bits; i.e., |
84092 | 170 @ifnottex |
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171 -2**29 |
84092 | 172 @end ifnottex |
173 @tex | |
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174 @math{-2^{29}} |
84092 | 175 @end tex |
176 to | |
177 @ifnottex | |
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178 2**29 - 1) |
84092 | 179 @end ifnottex |
180 @tex | |
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181 @math{2^{29}-1}) |
84092 | 182 @end tex |
183 on most machines. (Some machines may provide a wider range.) It is | |
184 important to note that the Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions do not check | |
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185 for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 536870911)} is @minus{}536870912 on most |
84092 | 186 machines. |
187 | |
188 The read syntax for integers is a sequence of (base ten) digits with an | |
189 optional sign at the beginning and an optional period at the end. The | |
190 printed representation produced by the Lisp interpreter never has a | |
191 leading @samp{+} or a final @samp{.}. | |
192 | |
193 @example | |
194 @group | |
195 -1 ; @r{The integer -1.} | |
196 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
197 1. ; @r{Also the integer 1.} | |
198 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} | |
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199 1073741825 ; @r{Also the integer 1 on a 30-bit implementation.} |
84092 | 200 @end group |
201 @end example | |
202 | |
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203 @noindent |
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204 As a special exception, if a sequence of digits specifies an integer |
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205 too large or too small to be a valid integer object, the Lisp reader |
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206 reads it as a floating-point number (@pxref{Floating Point Type}). |
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207 For instance, on most machines @code{536870912} is read as the |
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208 floating-point number @code{536870912.0}. |
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209 |
84092 | 210 @xref{Numbers}, for more information. |
211 | |
212 @node Floating Point Type | |
213 @subsection Floating Point Type | |
214 | |
215 Floating point numbers are the computer equivalent of scientific | |
216 notation; you can think of a floating point number as a fraction | |
217 together with a power of ten. The precise number of significant | |
218 figures and the range of possible exponents is machine-specific; Emacs | |
219 uses the C data type @code{double} to store the value, and internally | |
220 this records a power of 2 rather than a power of 10. | |
221 | |
222 The printed representation for floating point numbers requires either | |
223 a decimal point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or | |
224 both. For example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, | |
225 @samp{1.5e3}, and @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point | |
226 number whose value is 1500. They are all equivalent. | |
227 | |
228 @xref{Numbers}, for more information. | |
229 | |
230 @node Character Type | |
231 @subsection Character Type | |
232 @cindex @acronym{ASCII} character codes | |
233 | |
234 A @dfn{character} in Emacs Lisp is nothing more than an integer. In | |
235 other words, characters are represented by their character codes. For | |
236 example, the character @kbd{A} is represented as the @w{integer 65}. | |
237 | |
238 Individual characters are used occasionally in programs, but it is | |
239 more common to work with @emph{strings}, which are sequences composed | |
240 of characters. @xref{String Type}. | |
241 | |
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242 Characters in strings and buffers are currently limited to the range |
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243 of 0 to 4194303---twenty two bits (@pxref{Character Codes}). Codes 0 |
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244 through 127 are @acronym{ASCII} codes; the rest are |
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245 non-@acronym{ASCII} (@pxref{Non-ASCII Characters}). Characters that |
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246 represent keyboard input have a much wider range, to encode modifier |
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247 keys such as Control, Meta and Shift. |
84092 | 248 |
249 There are special functions for producing a human-readable textual | |
250 description of a character for the sake of messages. @xref{Describing | |
251 Characters}. | |
252 | |
253 @menu | |
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254 * Basic Char Syntax:: Syntax for regular characters. |
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255 * General Escape Syntax:: How to specify characters by their codes. |
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256 * Ctl-Char Syntax:: Syntax for control characters. |
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257 * Meta-Char Syntax:: Syntax for meta-characters. |
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258 * Other Char Bits:: Syntax for hyper-, super-, and alt-characters. |
84092 | 259 @end menu |
260 | |
261 @node Basic Char Syntax | |
262 @subsubsection Basic Char Syntax | |
263 @cindex read syntax for characters | |
264 @cindex printed representation for characters | |
265 @cindex syntax for characters | |
266 @cindex @samp{?} in character constant | |
267 @cindex question mark in character constant | |
268 | |
269 Since characters are really integers, the printed representation of | |
270 a character is a decimal number. This is also a possible read syntax | |
271 for a character, but writing characters that way in Lisp programs is | |
272 not clear programming. You should @emph{always} use the special read | |
273 syntax formats that Emacs Lisp provides for characters. These syntax | |
274 formats start with a question mark. | |
275 | |
276 The usual read syntax for alphanumeric characters is a question mark | |
277 followed by the character; thus, @samp{?A} for the character | |
278 @kbd{A}, @samp{?B} for the character @kbd{B}, and @samp{?a} for the | |
279 character @kbd{a}. | |
280 | |
281 For example: | |
282 | |
283 @example | |
284 ?Q @result{} 81 ?q @result{} 113 | |
285 @end example | |
286 | |
287 You can use the same syntax for punctuation characters, but it is | |
288 often a good idea to add a @samp{\} so that the Emacs commands for | |
289 editing Lisp code don't get confused. For example, @samp{?\(} is the | |
290 way to write the open-paren character. If the character is @samp{\}, | |
291 you @emph{must} use a second @samp{\} to quote it: @samp{?\\}. | |
292 | |
293 @cindex whitespace | |
294 @cindex bell character | |
295 @cindex @samp{\a} | |
296 @cindex backspace | |
297 @cindex @samp{\b} | |
298 @cindex tab (ASCII character) | |
299 @cindex @samp{\t} | |
300 @cindex vertical tab | |
301 @cindex @samp{\v} | |
302 @cindex formfeed | |
303 @cindex @samp{\f} | |
304 @cindex newline | |
305 @cindex @samp{\n} | |
306 @cindex return (ASCII character) | |
307 @cindex @samp{\r} | |
308 @cindex escape (ASCII character) | |
309 @cindex @samp{\e} | |
310 @cindex space (ASCII character) | |
311 @cindex @samp{\s} | |
312 You can express the characters control-g, backspace, tab, newline, | |
313 vertical tab, formfeed, space, return, del, and escape as @samp{?\a}, | |
314 @samp{?\b}, @samp{?\t}, @samp{?\n}, @samp{?\v}, @samp{?\f}, | |
315 @samp{?\s}, @samp{?\r}, @samp{?\d}, and @samp{?\e}, respectively. | |
316 (@samp{?\s} followed by a dash has a different meaning---it applies | |
317 the ``super'' modifier to the following character.) Thus, | |
318 | |
319 @example | |
320 ?\a @result{} 7 ; @r{control-g, @kbd{C-g}} | |
321 ?\b @result{} 8 ; @r{backspace, @key{BS}, @kbd{C-h}} | |
322 ?\t @result{} 9 ; @r{tab, @key{TAB}, @kbd{C-i}} | |
323 ?\n @result{} 10 ; @r{newline, @kbd{C-j}} | |
324 ?\v @result{} 11 ; @r{vertical tab, @kbd{C-k}} | |
325 ?\f @result{} 12 ; @r{formfeed character, @kbd{C-l}} | |
326 ?\r @result{} 13 ; @r{carriage return, @key{RET}, @kbd{C-m}} | |
327 ?\e @result{} 27 ; @r{escape character, @key{ESC}, @kbd{C-[}} | |
328 ?\s @result{} 32 ; @r{space character, @key{SPC}} | |
329 ?\\ @result{} 92 ; @r{backslash character, @kbd{\}} | |
330 ?\d @result{} 127 ; @r{delete character, @key{DEL}} | |
331 @end example | |
332 | |
333 @cindex escape sequence | |
334 These sequences which start with backslash are also known as | |
335 @dfn{escape sequences}, because backslash plays the role of an | |
336 ``escape character''; this terminology has nothing to do with the | |
337 character @key{ESC}. @samp{\s} is meant for use in character | |
338 constants; in string constants, just write the space. | |
339 | |
340 A backslash is allowed, and harmless, preceding any character without | |
341 a special escape meaning; thus, @samp{?\+} is equivalent to @samp{?+}. | |
342 There is no reason to add a backslash before most characters. However, | |
343 you should add a backslash before any of the characters | |
344 @samp{()\|;'`"#.,} to avoid confusing the Emacs commands for editing | |
345 Lisp code. You can also add a backslash before whitespace characters such as | |
346 space, tab, newline and formfeed. However, it is cleaner to use one of | |
347 the easily readable escape sequences, such as @samp{\t} or @samp{\s}, | |
348 instead of an actual whitespace character such as a tab or a space. | |
349 (If you do write backslash followed by a space, you should write | |
350 an extra space after the character constant to separate it from the | |
351 following text.) | |
352 | |
353 @node General Escape Syntax | |
354 @subsubsection General Escape Syntax | |
355 | |
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356 In addition to the specific escape sequences for special important |
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357 control characters, Emacs provides several types of escape syntax that |
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358 you can use to specify non-ASCII text characters. |
84092 | 359 |
360 @cindex unicode character escape | |
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361 You can specify characters by their Unicode values. |
84092 | 362 @code{?\u@var{nnnn}} represents a character that maps to the Unicode |
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363 code point @samp{U+@var{nnnn}} (by convention, Unicode code points are |
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364 given in hexadecimal). There is a slightly different syntax for |
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365 specifying characters with code points higher than |
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366 @code{U+@var{ffff}}: @code{\U00@var{nnnnnn}} represents the character |
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367 whose code point is @samp{U+@var{nnnnnn}}. The Unicode Standard only |
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368 defines code points up to @samp{U+@var{10ffff}}, so if you specify a |
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369 code point higher than that, Emacs signals an error. |
84092 | 370 |
371 This peculiar and inconvenient syntax was adopted for compatibility | |
372 with other programming languages. Unlike some other languages, Emacs | |
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373 Lisp supports this syntax only in character literals and strings. |
84092 | 374 |
375 @cindex @samp{\} in character constant | |
376 @cindex backslash in character constant | |
377 @cindex octal character code | |
378 The most general read syntax for a character represents the | |
379 character code in either octal or hex. To use octal, write a question | |
380 mark followed by a backslash and the octal character code (up to three | |
381 octal digits); thus, @samp{?\101} for the character @kbd{A}, | |
382 @samp{?\001} for the character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\002} for the | |
383 character @kbd{C-b}. Although this syntax can represent any | |
384 @acronym{ASCII} character, it is preferred only when the precise octal | |
385 value is more important than the @acronym{ASCII} representation. | |
386 | |
387 @example | |
388 @group | |
389 ?\012 @result{} 10 ?\n @result{} 10 ?\C-j @result{} 10 | |
390 ?\101 @result{} 65 ?A @result{} 65 | |
391 @end group | |
392 @end example | |
393 | |
394 To use hex, write a question mark followed by a backslash, @samp{x}, | |
395 and the hexadecimal character code. You can use any number of hex | |
396 digits, so you can represent any character code in this way. | |
397 Thus, @samp{?\x41} for the character @kbd{A}, @samp{?\x1} for the | |
398 character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\x8e0} for the Latin-1 character | |
399 @iftex | |
400 @samp{@`a}. | |
401 @end iftex | |
402 @ifnottex | |
403 @samp{a} with grave accent. | |
404 @end ifnottex | |
405 | |
406 @node Ctl-Char Syntax | |
407 @subsubsection Control-Character Syntax | |
408 | |
409 @cindex control characters | |
410 Control characters can be represented using yet another read syntax. | |
411 This consists of a question mark followed by a backslash, caret, and the | |
412 corresponding non-control character, in either upper or lower case. For | |
413 example, both @samp{?\^I} and @samp{?\^i} are valid read syntax for the | |
414 character @kbd{C-i}, the character whose value is 9. | |
415 | |
416 Instead of the @samp{^}, you can use @samp{C-}; thus, @samp{?\C-i} is | |
417 equivalent to @samp{?\^I} and to @samp{?\^i}: | |
418 | |
419 @example | |
420 ?\^I @result{} 9 ?\C-I @result{} 9 | |
421 @end example | |
422 | |
423 In strings and buffers, the only control characters allowed are those | |
424 that exist in @acronym{ASCII}; but for keyboard input purposes, you can turn | |
425 any character into a control character with @samp{C-}. The character | |
426 codes for these non-@acronym{ASCII} control characters include the | |
427 @tex | |
428 @math{2^{26}} | |
429 @end tex | |
430 @ifnottex | |
431 2**26 | |
432 @end ifnottex | |
433 bit as well as the code for the corresponding non-control | |
434 character. Ordinary terminals have no way of generating non-@acronym{ASCII} | |
435 control characters, but you can generate them straightforwardly using X | |
436 and other window systems. | |
437 | |
438 For historical reasons, Emacs treats the @key{DEL} character as | |
439 the control equivalent of @kbd{?}: | |
440 | |
441 @example | |
442 ?\^? @result{} 127 ?\C-? @result{} 127 | |
443 @end example | |
444 | |
445 @noindent | |
446 As a result, it is currently not possible to represent the character | |
447 @kbd{Control-?}, which is a meaningful input character under X, using | |
448 @samp{\C-}. It is not easy to change this, as various Lisp files refer | |
449 to @key{DEL} in this way. | |
450 | |
451 For representing control characters to be found in files or strings, | |
452 we recommend the @samp{^} syntax; for control characters in keyboard | |
453 input, we prefer the @samp{C-} syntax. Which one you use does not | |
454 affect the meaning of the program, but may guide the understanding of | |
455 people who read it. | |
456 | |
457 @node Meta-Char Syntax | |
458 @subsubsection Meta-Character Syntax | |
459 | |
460 @cindex meta characters | |
461 A @dfn{meta character} is a character typed with the @key{META} | |
462 modifier key. The integer that represents such a character has the | |
463 @tex | |
464 @math{2^{27}} | |
465 @end tex | |
466 @ifnottex | |
467 2**27 | |
468 @end ifnottex | |
469 bit set. We use high bits for this and other modifiers to make | |
470 possible a wide range of basic character codes. | |
471 | |
472 In a string, the | |
473 @tex | |
474 @math{2^{7}} | |
475 @end tex | |
476 @ifnottex | |
477 2**7 | |
478 @end ifnottex | |
479 bit attached to an @acronym{ASCII} character indicates a meta | |
480 character; thus, the meta characters that can fit in a string have | |
481 codes in the range from 128 to 255, and are the meta versions of the | |
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482 ordinary @acronym{ASCII} characters. @xref{Strings of Events}, for |
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483 details about @key{META}-handling in strings. |
84092 | 484 |
485 The read syntax for meta characters uses @samp{\M-}. For example, | |
486 @samp{?\M-A} stands for @kbd{M-A}. You can use @samp{\M-} together with | |
487 octal character codes (see below), with @samp{\C-}, or with any other | |
488 syntax for a character. Thus, you can write @kbd{M-A} as @samp{?\M-A}, | |
489 or as @samp{?\M-\101}. Likewise, you can write @kbd{C-M-b} as | |
490 @samp{?\M-\C-b}, @samp{?\C-\M-b}, or @samp{?\M-\002}. | |
491 | |
492 @node Other Char Bits | |
493 @subsubsection Other Character Modifier Bits | |
494 | |
495 The case of a graphic character is indicated by its character code; | |
496 for example, @acronym{ASCII} distinguishes between the characters @samp{a} | |
497 and @samp{A}. But @acronym{ASCII} has no way to represent whether a control | |
498 character is upper case or lower case. Emacs uses the | |
499 @tex | |
500 @math{2^{25}} | |
501 @end tex | |
502 @ifnottex | |
503 2**25 | |
504 @end ifnottex | |
505 bit to indicate that the shift key was used in typing a control | |
506 character. This distinction is possible only when you use X terminals | |
507 or other special terminals; ordinary terminals do not report the | |
508 distinction to the computer in any way. The Lisp syntax for | |
509 the shift bit is @samp{\S-}; thus, @samp{?\C-\S-o} or @samp{?\C-\S-O} | |
510 represents the shifted-control-o character. | |
511 | |
512 @cindex hyper characters | |
513 @cindex super characters | |
514 @cindex alt characters | |
515 The X Window System defines three other | |
516 @anchor{modifier bits}modifier bits that can be set | |
517 in a character: @dfn{hyper}, @dfn{super} and @dfn{alt}. The syntaxes | |
518 for these bits are @samp{\H-}, @samp{\s-} and @samp{\A-}. (Case is | |
519 significant in these prefixes.) Thus, @samp{?\H-\M-\A-x} represents | |
520 @kbd{Alt-Hyper-Meta-x}. (Note that @samp{\s} with no following @samp{-} | |
521 represents the space character.) | |
522 @tex | |
523 Numerically, the bit values are @math{2^{22}} for alt, @math{2^{23}} | |
524 for super and @math{2^{24}} for hyper. | |
525 @end tex | |
526 @ifnottex | |
527 Numerically, the | |
528 bit values are 2**22 for alt, 2**23 for super and 2**24 for hyper. | |
529 @end ifnottex | |
530 | |
531 @node Symbol Type | |
532 @subsection Symbol Type | |
533 | |
534 A @dfn{symbol} in GNU Emacs Lisp is an object with a name. The | |
535 symbol name serves as the printed representation of the symbol. In | |
87098 | 536 ordinary Lisp use, with one single obarray (@pxref{Creating Symbols}), |
84092 | 537 a symbol's name is unique---no two symbols have the same name. |
538 | |
539 A symbol can serve as a variable, as a function name, or to hold a | |
540 property list. Or it may serve only to be distinct from all other Lisp | |
541 objects, so that its presence in a data structure may be recognized | |
542 reliably. In a given context, usually only one of these uses is | |
543 intended. But you can use one symbol in all of these ways, | |
544 independently. | |
545 | |
546 A symbol whose name starts with a colon (@samp{:}) is called a | |
547 @dfn{keyword symbol}. These symbols automatically act as constants, and | |
548 are normally used only by comparing an unknown symbol with a few | |
549 specific alternatives. | |
550 | |
551 @cindex @samp{\} in symbols | |
552 @cindex backslash in symbols | |
553 A symbol name can contain any characters whatever. Most symbol names | |
554 are written with letters, digits, and the punctuation characters | |
555 @samp{-+=*/}. Such names require no special punctuation; the characters | |
556 of the name suffice as long as the name does not look like a number. | |
557 (If it does, write a @samp{\} at the beginning of the name to force | |
558 interpretation as a symbol.) The characters @samp{_~!@@$%^&:<>@{@}?} are | |
559 less often used but also require no special punctuation. Any other | |
560 characters may be included in a symbol's name by escaping them with a | |
561 backslash. In contrast to its use in strings, however, a backslash in | |
562 the name of a symbol simply quotes the single character that follows the | |
563 backslash. For example, in a string, @samp{\t} represents a tab | |
564 character; in the name of a symbol, however, @samp{\t} merely quotes the | |
565 letter @samp{t}. To have a symbol with a tab character in its name, you | |
566 must actually use a tab (preceded with a backslash). But it's rare to | |
567 do such a thing. | |
568 | |
569 @cindex CL note---case of letters | |
570 @quotation | |
571 @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, lower case letters are always | |
572 ``folded'' to upper case, unless they are explicitly escaped. In Emacs | |
573 Lisp, upper case and lower case letters are distinct. | |
574 @end quotation | |
575 | |
576 Here are several examples of symbol names. Note that the @samp{+} in | |
577 the fifth example is escaped to prevent it from being read as a number. | |
578 This is not necessary in the fourth example because the rest of the name | |
579 makes it invalid as a number. | |
580 | |
581 @example | |
582 @group | |
583 foo ; @r{A symbol named @samp{foo}.} | |
584 FOO ; @r{A symbol named @samp{FOO}, different from @samp{foo}.} | |
585 @end group | |
586 @group | |
587 1+ ; @r{A symbol named @samp{1+}} | |
588 ; @r{(not @samp{+1}, which is an integer).} | |
589 @end group | |
590 @group | |
591 \+1 ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+1}} | |
592 ; @r{(not a very readable name).} | |
593 @end group | |
594 @group | |
595 \(*\ 1\ 2\) ; @r{A symbol named @samp{(* 1 2)} (a worse name).} | |
596 @c the @'s in this next line use up three characters, hence the | |
597 @c apparent misalignment of the comment. | |
598 +-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@} ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@}}.} | |
599 ; @r{These characters need not be escaped.} | |
600 @end group | |
601 @end example | |
602 | |
603 @ifinfo | |
604 @c This uses ``colon'' instead of a literal `:' because Info cannot | |
605 @c cope with a `:' in a menu | |
606 @cindex @samp{#@var{colon}} read syntax | |
607 @end ifinfo | |
608 @ifnotinfo | |
609 @cindex @samp{#:} read syntax | |
610 @end ifnotinfo | |
611 Normally the Lisp reader interns all symbols (@pxref{Creating | |
612 Symbols}). To prevent interning, you can write @samp{#:} before the | |
613 name of the symbol. | |
614 | |
615 @node Sequence Type | |
616 @subsection Sequence Types | |
617 | |
618 A @dfn{sequence} is a Lisp object that represents an ordered set of | |
619 elements. There are two kinds of sequence in Emacs Lisp, lists and | |
620 arrays. Thus, an object of type list or of type array is also | |
621 considered a sequence. | |
622 | |
623 Arrays are further subdivided into strings, vectors, char-tables and | |
624 bool-vectors. Vectors can hold elements of any type, but string | |
625 elements must be characters, and bool-vector elements must be @code{t} | |
626 or @code{nil}. Char-tables are like vectors except that they are | |
627 indexed by any valid character code. The characters in a string can | |
628 have text properties like characters in a buffer (@pxref{Text | |
629 Properties}), but vectors do not support text properties, even when | |
630 their elements happen to be characters. | |
631 | |
632 Lists, strings and the other array types are different, but they have | |
633 important similarities. For example, all have a length @var{l}, and all | |
634 have elements which can be indexed from zero to @var{l} minus one. | |
635 Several functions, called sequence functions, accept any kind of | |
636 sequence. For example, the function @code{elt} can be used to extract | |
637 an element of a sequence, given its index. @xref{Sequences Arrays | |
638 Vectors}. | |
639 | |
640 It is generally impossible to read the same sequence twice, since | |
641 sequences are always created anew upon reading. If you read the read | |
642 syntax for a sequence twice, you get two sequences with equal contents. | |
643 There is one exception: the empty list @code{()} always stands for the | |
644 same object, @code{nil}. | |
645 | |
646 @node Cons Cell Type | |
647 @subsection Cons Cell and List Types | |
648 @cindex address field of register | |
649 @cindex decrement field of register | |
650 @cindex pointers | |
651 | |
652 A @dfn{cons cell} is an object that consists of two slots, called the | |
653 @sc{car} slot and the @sc{cdr} slot. Each slot can @dfn{hold} or | |
654 @dfn{refer to} any Lisp object. We also say that ``the @sc{car} of | |
655 this cons cell is'' whatever object its @sc{car} slot currently holds, | |
656 and likewise for the @sc{cdr}. | |
657 | |
658 @quotation | |
659 A note to C programmers: in Lisp, we do not distinguish between | |
660 ``holding'' a value and ``pointing to'' the value, because pointers in | |
661 Lisp are implicit. | |
662 @end quotation | |
663 | |
664 A @dfn{list} is a series of cons cells, linked together so that the | |
665 @sc{cdr} slot of each cons cell holds either the next cons cell or the | |
666 empty list. The empty list is actually the symbol @code{nil}. | |
667 @xref{Lists}, for functions that work on lists. Because most cons | |
668 cells are used as part of lists, the phrase @dfn{list structure} has | |
669 come to refer to any structure made out of cons cells. | |
670 | |
671 @cindex atoms | |
672 Because cons cells are so central to Lisp, we also have a word for | |
673 ``an object which is not a cons cell.'' These objects are called | |
674 @dfn{atoms}. | |
675 | |
676 @cindex parenthesis | |
677 @cindex @samp{(@dots{})} in lists | |
678 The read syntax and printed representation for lists are identical, and | |
679 consist of a left parenthesis, an arbitrary number of elements, and a | |
680 right parenthesis. Here are examples of lists: | |
681 | |
682 @example | |
683 (A 2 "A") ; @r{A list of three elements.} | |
684 () ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} | |
685 nil ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} | |
686 ("A ()") ; @r{A list of one element: the string @code{"A ()"}.} | |
687 (A ()) ; @r{A list of two elements: @code{A} and the empty list.} | |
688 (A nil) ; @r{Equivalent to the previous.} | |
689 ((A B C)) ; @r{A list of one element} | |
690 ; @r{(which is a list of three elements).} | |
691 @end example | |
692 | |
693 Upon reading, each object inside the parentheses becomes an element | |
694 of the list. That is, a cons cell is made for each element. The | |
695 @sc{car} slot of the cons cell holds the element, and its @sc{cdr} | |
696 slot refers to the next cons cell of the list, which holds the next | |
697 element in the list. The @sc{cdr} slot of the last cons cell is set to | |
698 hold @code{nil}. | |
699 | |
700 The names @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} derive from the history of Lisp. The | |
701 original Lisp implementation ran on an @w{IBM 704} computer which | |
702 divided words into two parts, called the ``address'' part and the | |
703 ``decrement''; @sc{car} was an instruction to extract the contents of | |
704 the address part of a register, and @sc{cdr} an instruction to extract | |
705 the contents of the decrement. By contrast, ``cons cells'' are named | |
706 for the function @code{cons} that creates them, which in turn was named | |
707 for its purpose, the construction of cells. | |
708 | |
709 @menu | |
710 * Box Diagrams:: Drawing pictures of lists. | |
711 * Dotted Pair Notation:: A general syntax for cons cells. | |
712 * Association List Type:: A specially constructed list. | |
713 @end menu | |
714 | |
715 @node Box Diagrams | |
716 @subsubsection Drawing Lists as Box Diagrams | |
717 @cindex box diagrams, for lists | |
718 @cindex diagrams, boxed, for lists | |
719 | |
720 A list can be illustrated by a diagram in which the cons cells are | |
721 shown as pairs of boxes, like dominoes. (The Lisp reader cannot read | |
722 such an illustration; unlike the textual notation, which can be | |
723 understood by both humans and computers, the box illustrations can be | |
724 understood only by humans.) This picture represents the three-element | |
725 list @code{(rose violet buttercup)}: | |
726 | |
727 @example | |
728 @group | |
729 --- --- --- --- --- --- | |
730 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil | |
731 --- --- --- --- --- --- | |
732 | | | | |
733 | | | | |
734 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup | |
735 @end group | |
736 @end example | |
737 | |
738 In this diagram, each box represents a slot that can hold or refer to | |
739 any Lisp object. Each pair of boxes represents a cons cell. Each arrow | |
740 represents a reference to a Lisp object, either an atom or another cons | |
741 cell. | |
742 | |
743 In this example, the first box, which holds the @sc{car} of the first | |
744 cons cell, refers to or ``holds'' @code{rose} (a symbol). The second | |
745 box, holding the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell, refers to the next | |
746 pair of boxes, the second cons cell. The @sc{car} of the second cons | |
747 cell is @code{violet}, and its @sc{cdr} is the third cons cell. The | |
748 @sc{cdr} of the third (and last) cons cell is @code{nil}. | |
749 | |
750 Here is another diagram of the same list, @code{(rose violet | |
751 buttercup)}, sketched in a different manner: | |
752 | |
753 @smallexample | |
754 @group | |
755 --------------- ---------------- ------------------- | |
756 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
757 | rose | o-------->| violet | o-------->| buttercup | nil | | |
758 | | | | | | | | | | |
759 --------------- ---------------- ------------------- | |
760 @end group | |
761 @end smallexample | |
762 | |
763 @cindex @code{nil} as a list | |
764 @cindex empty list | |
765 A list with no elements in it is the @dfn{empty list}; it is identical | |
766 to the symbol @code{nil}. In other words, @code{nil} is both a symbol | |
767 and a list. | |
768 | |
769 Here is the list @code{(A ())}, or equivalently @code{(A nil)}, | |
770 depicted with boxes and arrows: | |
771 | |
772 @example | |
773 @group | |
774 --- --- --- --- | |
775 | | |--> | | |--> nil | |
776 --- --- --- --- | |
777 | | | |
778 | | | |
779 --> A --> nil | |
780 @end group | |
781 @end example | |
782 | |
783 Here is a more complex illustration, showing the three-element list, | |
784 @code{((pine needles) oak maple)}, the first element of which is a | |
785 two-element list: | |
786 | |
787 @example | |
788 @group | |
789 --- --- --- --- --- --- | |
790 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil | |
791 --- --- --- --- --- --- | |
792 | | | | |
793 | | | | |
794 | --> oak --> maple | |
795 | | |
796 | --- --- --- --- | |
797 --> | | |--> | | |--> nil | |
798 --- --- --- --- | |
799 | | | |
800 | | | |
801 --> pine --> needles | |
802 @end group | |
803 @end example | |
804 | |
805 The same list represented in the second box notation looks like this: | |
806 | |
807 @example | |
808 @group | |
809 -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
810 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
811 | o | o------->| oak | o------->| maple | nil | | |
812 | | | | | | | | | | | |
813 -- | --------- -------------- -------------- | |
814 | | |
815 | | |
816 | -------------- ---------------- | |
817 | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
818 ------>| pine | o------->| needles | nil | | |
819 | | | | | | | |
820 -------------- ---------------- | |
821 @end group | |
822 @end example | |
823 | |
824 @node Dotted Pair Notation | |
825 @subsubsection Dotted Pair Notation | |
826 @cindex dotted pair notation | |
827 @cindex @samp{.} in lists | |
828 | |
829 @dfn{Dotted pair notation} is a general syntax for cons cells that | |
830 represents the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} explicitly. In this syntax, | |
831 @code{(@var{a} .@: @var{b})} stands for a cons cell whose @sc{car} is | |
832 the object @var{a} and whose @sc{cdr} is the object @var{b}. Dotted | |
833 pair notation is more general than list syntax because the @sc{cdr} | |
834 does not have to be a list. However, it is more cumbersome in cases | |
835 where list syntax would work. In dotted pair notation, the list | |
836 @samp{(1 2 3)} is written as @samp{(1 . (2 . (3 . nil)))}. For | |
837 @code{nil}-terminated lists, you can use either notation, but list | |
838 notation is usually clearer and more convenient. When printing a | |
839 list, the dotted pair notation is only used if the @sc{cdr} of a cons | |
840 cell is not a list. | |
841 | |
842 Here's an example using boxes to illustrate dotted pair notation. | |
843 This example shows the pair @code{(rose . violet)}: | |
844 | |
845 @example | |
846 @group | |
847 --- --- | |
848 | | |--> violet | |
849 --- --- | |
850 | | |
851 | | |
852 --> rose | |
853 @end group | |
854 @end example | |
855 | |
856 You can combine dotted pair notation with list notation to represent | |
857 conveniently a chain of cons cells with a non-@code{nil} final @sc{cdr}. | |
858 You write a dot after the last element of the list, followed by the | |
859 @sc{cdr} of the final cons cell. For example, @code{(rose violet | |
860 . buttercup)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . buttercup))}. | |
861 The object looks like this: | |
862 | |
863 @example | |
864 @group | |
865 --- --- --- --- | |
866 | | |--> | | |--> buttercup | |
867 --- --- --- --- | |
868 | | | |
869 | | | |
870 --> rose --> violet | |
871 @end group | |
872 @end example | |
873 | |
874 The syntax @code{(rose .@: violet .@: buttercup)} is invalid because | |
875 there is nothing that it could mean. If anything, it would say to put | |
876 @code{buttercup} in the @sc{cdr} of a cons cell whose @sc{cdr} is already | |
877 used for @code{violet}. | |
878 | |
879 The list @code{(rose violet)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet))}, | |
880 and looks like this: | |
881 | |
882 @example | |
883 @group | |
884 --- --- --- --- | |
885 | | |--> | | |--> nil | |
886 --- --- --- --- | |
887 | | | |
888 | | | |
889 --> rose --> violet | |
890 @end group | |
891 @end example | |
892 | |
893 Similarly, the three-element list @code{(rose violet buttercup)} | |
894 is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . (buttercup)))}. | |
895 @ifnottex | |
896 It looks like this: | |
897 | |
898 @example | |
899 @group | |
900 --- --- --- --- --- --- | |
901 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil | |
902 --- --- --- --- --- --- | |
903 | | | | |
904 | | | | |
905 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup | |
906 @end group | |
907 @end example | |
908 @end ifnottex | |
909 | |
910 @node Association List Type | |
911 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
912 @subsubsection Association List Type | |
913 | |
914 An @dfn{association list} or @dfn{alist} is a specially-constructed | |
915 list whose elements are cons cells. In each element, the @sc{car} is | |
916 considered a @dfn{key}, and the @sc{cdr} is considered an | |
917 @dfn{associated value}. (In some cases, the associated value is stored | |
918 in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr}.) Association lists are often used as | |
919 stacks, since it is easy to add or remove associations at the front of | |
920 the list. | |
921 | |
922 For example, | |
923 | |
924 @example | |
925 (setq alist-of-colors | |
926 '((rose . red) (lily . white) (buttercup . yellow))) | |
927 @end example | |
928 | |
929 @noindent | |
930 sets the variable @code{alist-of-colors} to an alist of three elements. In the | |
931 first element, @code{rose} is the key and @code{red} is the value. | |
932 | |
933 @xref{Association Lists}, for a further explanation of alists and for | |
934 functions that work on alists. @xref{Hash Tables}, for another kind of | |
935 lookup table, which is much faster for handling a large number of keys. | |
936 | |
937 @node Array Type | |
938 @subsection Array Type | |
939 | |
940 An @dfn{array} is composed of an arbitrary number of slots for | |
941 holding or referring to other Lisp objects, arranged in a contiguous block of | |
942 memory. Accessing any element of an array takes approximately the same | |
943 amount of time. In contrast, accessing an element of a list requires | |
944 time proportional to the position of the element in the list. (Elements | |
945 at the end of a list take longer to access than elements at the | |
946 beginning of a list.) | |
947 | |
948 Emacs defines four types of array: strings, vectors, bool-vectors, and | |
949 char-tables. | |
950 | |
951 A string is an array of characters and a vector is an array of | |
952 arbitrary objects. A bool-vector can hold only @code{t} or @code{nil}. | |
953 These kinds of array may have any length up to the largest integer. | |
954 Char-tables are sparse arrays indexed by any valid character code; they | |
955 can hold arbitrary objects. | |
956 | |
957 The first element of an array has index zero, the second element has | |
958 index 1, and so on. This is called @dfn{zero-origin} indexing. For | |
959 example, an array of four elements has indices 0, 1, 2, @w{and 3}. The | |
960 largest possible index value is one less than the length of the array. | |
961 Once an array is created, its length is fixed. | |
962 | |
963 All Emacs Lisp arrays are one-dimensional. (Most other programming | |
964 languages support multidimensional arrays, but they are not essential; | |
965 you can get the same effect with nested one-dimensional arrays.) Each | |
966 type of array has its own read syntax; see the following sections for | |
967 details. | |
968 | |
969 The array type is a subset of the sequence type, and contains the | |
970 string type, the vector type, the bool-vector type, and the char-table | |
971 type. | |
972 | |
973 @node String Type | |
974 @subsection String Type | |
975 | |
976 A @dfn{string} is an array of characters. Strings are used for many | |
977 purposes in Emacs, as can be expected in a text editor; for example, as | |
978 the names of Lisp symbols, as messages for the user, and to represent | |
979 text extracted from buffers. Strings in Lisp are constants: evaluation | |
980 of a string returns the same string. | |
981 | |
982 @xref{Strings and Characters}, for functions that operate on strings. | |
983 | |
984 @menu | |
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985 * Syntax for Strings:: How to specify Lisp strings. |
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986 * Non-ASCII in Strings:: International characters in strings. |
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987 * Nonprinting Characters:: Literal unprintable characters in strings. |
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988 * Text Props and Strings:: Strings with text properties. |
84092 | 989 @end menu |
990 | |
991 @node Syntax for Strings | |
992 @subsubsection Syntax for Strings | |
993 | |
994 @cindex @samp{"} in strings | |
995 @cindex double-quote in strings | |
996 @cindex @samp{\} in strings | |
997 @cindex backslash in strings | |
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998 The read syntax for a string is a double-quote, an arbitrary number |
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999 of characters, and another double-quote, @code{"like this"}. To |
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1000 include a double-quote in a string, precede it with a backslash; thus, |
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1001 @code{"\""} is a string containing just a single double-quote |
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1002 character. Likewise, you can include a backslash by preceding it with |
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1003 another backslash, like this: @code{"this \\ is a single embedded |
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1004 backslash"}. |
84092 | 1005 |
1006 @cindex newline in strings | |
1007 The newline character is not special in the read syntax for strings; | |
1008 if you write a new line between the double-quotes, it becomes a | |
1009 character in the string. But an escaped newline---one that is preceded | |
1010 by @samp{\}---does not become part of the string; i.e., the Lisp reader | |
1011 ignores an escaped newline while reading a string. An escaped space | |
1012 @w{@samp{\ }} is likewise ignored. | |
1013 | |
1014 @example | |
1015 "It is useful to include newlines | |
1016 in documentation strings, | |
1017 but the newline is \ | |
1018 ignored if escaped." | |
1019 @result{} "It is useful to include newlines | |
1020 in documentation strings, | |
1021 but the newline is ignored if escaped." | |
1022 @end example | |
1023 | |
1024 @node Non-ASCII in Strings | |
1025 @subsubsection Non-@acronym{ASCII} Characters in Strings | |
1026 | |
1027 You can include a non-@acronym{ASCII} international character in a string | |
1028 constant by writing it literally. There are two text representations | |
1029 for non-@acronym{ASCII} characters in Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte | |
1030 and multibyte. If the string constant is read from a multibyte source, | |
1031 such as a multibyte buffer or string, or a file that would be visited as | |
1032 multibyte, then the character is read as a multibyte character, and that | |
1033 makes the string multibyte. If the string constant is read from a | |
1034 unibyte source, then the character is read as unibyte and that makes the | |
1035 string unibyte. | |
1036 | |
1037 You can also represent a multibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character with its | |
1038 character code: use a hex escape, @samp{\x@var{nnnnnnn}}, with as many | |
1039 digits as necessary. (Multibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character codes are all | |
1040 greater than 256.) Any character which is not a valid hex digit | |
1041 terminates this construct. If the next character in the string could be | |
1042 interpreted as a hex digit, write @w{@samp{\ }} (backslash and space) to | |
1043 terminate the hex escape---for example, @w{@samp{\x8e0\ }} represents | |
1044 one character, @samp{a} with grave accent. @w{@samp{\ }} in a string | |
1045 constant is just like backslash-newline; it does not contribute any | |
1046 character to the string, but it does terminate the preceding hex escape. | |
1047 | |
1048 You can represent a unibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character with its | |
1049 character code, which must be in the range from 128 (0200 octal) to | |
1050 255 (0377 octal). If you write all such character codes in octal and | |
1051 the string contains no other characters forcing it to be multibyte, | |
1052 this produces a unibyte string. However, using any hex escape in a | |
1053 string (even for an @acronym{ASCII} character) forces the string to be | |
1054 multibyte. | |
1055 | |
1056 You can also specify characters in a string by their numeric values | |
1057 in Unicode, using @samp{\u} and @samp{\U} (@pxref{Character Type}). | |
1058 | |
1059 @xref{Text Representations}, for more information about the two | |
1060 text representations. | |
1061 | |
1062 @node Nonprinting Characters | |
1063 @subsubsection Nonprinting Characters in Strings | |
1064 | |
1065 You can use the same backslash escape-sequences in a string constant | |
1066 as in character literals (but do not use the question mark that begins a | |
1067 character constant). For example, you can write a string containing the | |
1068 nonprinting characters tab and @kbd{C-a}, with commas and spaces between | |
1069 them, like this: @code{"\t, \C-a"}. @xref{Character Type}, for a | |
1070 description of the read syntax for characters. | |
1071 | |
1072 However, not all of the characters you can write with backslash | |
1073 escape-sequences are valid in strings. The only control characters that | |
1074 a string can hold are the @acronym{ASCII} control characters. Strings do not | |
1075 distinguish case in @acronym{ASCII} control characters. | |
1076 | |
1077 Properly speaking, strings cannot hold meta characters; but when a | |
1078 string is to be used as a key sequence, there is a special convention | |
1079 that provides a way to represent meta versions of @acronym{ASCII} | |
1080 characters in a string. If you use the @samp{\M-} syntax to indicate | |
1081 a meta character in a string constant, this sets the | |
1082 @tex | |
1083 @math{2^{7}} | |
1084 @end tex | |
1085 @ifnottex | |
1086 2**7 | |
1087 @end ifnottex | |
1088 bit of the character in the string. If the string is used in | |
1089 @code{define-key} or @code{lookup-key}, this numeric code is translated | |
1090 into the equivalent meta character. @xref{Character Type}. | |
1091 | |
1092 Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super, or alt | |
1093 modifiers. | |
1094 | |
1095 @node Text Props and Strings | |
1096 @subsubsection Text Properties in Strings | |
1097 | |
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1098 @cindex @samp{#(} read syntax |
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1099 @cindex text properties, read syntax |
84092 | 1100 A string can hold properties for the characters it contains, in |
1101 addition to the characters themselves. This enables programs that copy | |
1102 text between strings and buffers to copy the text's properties with no | |
1103 special effort. @xref{Text Properties}, for an explanation of what text | |
1104 properties mean. Strings with text properties use a special read and | |
1105 print syntax: | |
1106 | |
1107 @example | |
1108 #("@var{characters}" @var{property-data}...) | |
1109 @end example | |
1110 | |
1111 @noindent | |
1112 where @var{property-data} consists of zero or more elements, in groups | |
1113 of three as follows: | |
1114 | |
1115 @example | |
1116 @var{beg} @var{end} @var{plist} | |
1117 @end example | |
1118 | |
1119 @noindent | |
1120 The elements @var{beg} and @var{end} are integers, and together specify | |
1121 a range of indices in the string; @var{plist} is the property list for | |
1122 that range. For example, | |
1123 | |
1124 @example | |
1125 #("foo bar" 0 3 (face bold) 3 4 nil 4 7 (face italic)) | |
1126 @end example | |
1127 | |
1128 @noindent | |
1129 represents a string whose textual contents are @samp{foo bar}, in which | |
1130 the first three characters have a @code{face} property with value | |
1131 @code{bold}, and the last three have a @code{face} property with value | |
1132 @code{italic}. (The fourth character has no text properties, so its | |
1133 property list is @code{nil}. It is not actually necessary to mention | |
1134 ranges with @code{nil} as the property list, since any characters not | |
1135 mentioned in any range will default to having no properties.) | |
1136 | |
1137 @node Vector Type | |
1138 @subsection Vector Type | |
1139 | |
1140 A @dfn{vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type. It | |
1141 takes a constant amount of time to access any element of a vector. (In | |
1142 a list, the access time of an element is proportional to the distance of | |
1143 the element from the beginning of the list.) | |
1144 | |
1145 The printed representation of a vector consists of a left square | |
1146 bracket, the elements, and a right square bracket. This is also the | |
1147 read syntax. Like numbers and strings, vectors are considered constants | |
1148 for evaluation. | |
1149 | |
1150 @example | |
1151 [1 "two" (three)] ; @r{A vector of three elements.} | |
1152 @result{} [1 "two" (three)] | |
1153 @end example | |
1154 | |
1155 @xref{Vectors}, for functions that work with vectors. | |
1156 | |
1157 @node Char-Table Type | |
1158 @subsection Char-Table Type | |
1159 | |
1160 A @dfn{char-table} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type, | |
1161 indexed by character codes. Char-tables have certain extra features to | |
1162 make them more useful for many jobs that involve assigning information | |
1163 to character codes---for example, a char-table can have a parent to | |
1164 inherit from, a default value, and a small number of extra slots to use for | |
1165 special purposes. A char-table can also specify a single value for | |
1166 a whole character set. | |
1167 | |
1168 The printed representation of a char-table is like a vector | |
1169 except that there is an extra @samp{#^} at the beginning. | |
1170 | |
1171 @xref{Char-Tables}, for special functions to operate on char-tables. | |
1172 Uses of char-tables include: | |
1173 | |
1174 @itemize @bullet | |
1175 @item | |
1176 Case tables (@pxref{Case Tables}). | |
1177 | |
1178 @item | |
1179 Character category tables (@pxref{Categories}). | |
1180 | |
1181 @item | |
1182 Display tables (@pxref{Display Tables}). | |
1183 | |
1184 @item | |
1185 Syntax tables (@pxref{Syntax Tables}). | |
1186 @end itemize | |
1187 | |
1188 @node Bool-Vector Type | |
1189 @subsection Bool-Vector Type | |
1190 | |
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1191 A @dfn{bool-vector} is a one-dimensional array whose elements must |
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1192 be @code{t} or @code{nil}. |
84092 | 1193 |
1194 The printed representation of a bool-vector is like a string, except | |
1195 that it begins with @samp{#&} followed by the length. The string | |
1196 constant that follows actually specifies the contents of the bool-vector | |
1197 as a bitmap---each ``character'' in the string contains 8 bits, which | |
1198 specify the next 8 elements of the bool-vector (1 stands for @code{t}, | |
1199 and 0 for @code{nil}). The least significant bits of the character | |
1200 correspond to the lowest indices in the bool-vector. | |
1201 | |
1202 @example | |
1203 (make-bool-vector 3 t) | |
1204 @result{} #&3"^G" | |
1205 (make-bool-vector 3 nil) | |
1206 @result{} #&3"^@@" | |
1207 @end example | |
1208 | |
1209 @noindent | |
1210 These results make sense, because the binary code for @samp{C-g} is | |
1211 111 and @samp{C-@@} is the character with code 0. | |
1212 | |
1213 If the length is not a multiple of 8, the printed representation | |
1214 shows extra elements, but these extras really make no difference. For | |
1215 instance, in the next example, the two bool-vectors are equal, because | |
1216 only the first 3 bits are used: | |
1217 | |
1218 @example | |
1219 (equal #&3"\377" #&3"\007") | |
1220 @result{} t | |
1221 @end example | |
1222 | |
1223 @node Hash Table Type | |
1224 @subsection Hash Table Type | |
1225 | |
1226 A hash table is a very fast kind of lookup table, somewhat like an | |
1227 alist in that it maps keys to corresponding values, but much faster. | |
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1228 The printed representation of a hash table specifies its properties |
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1229 and contents, like this: |
84092 | 1230 |
1231 @example | |
1232 (make-hash-table) | |
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1233 @result{} #s(hash-table size 65 test eql rehash-size 1.5 |
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1234 rehash-threshold 0.8 data ()) |
84092 | 1235 @end example |
1236 | |
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1237 @noindent |
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1238 @xref{Hash Tables}, for more information about hash tables. |
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1239 |
84092 | 1240 @node Function Type |
1241 @subsection Function Type | |
1242 | |
1243 Lisp functions are executable code, just like functions in other | |
1244 programming languages. In Lisp, unlike most languages, functions are | |
1245 also Lisp objects. A non-compiled function in Lisp is a lambda | |
1246 expression: that is, a list whose first element is the symbol | |
1247 @code{lambda} (@pxref{Lambda Expressions}). | |
1248 | |
1249 In most programming languages, it is impossible to have a function | |
1250 without a name. In Lisp, a function has no intrinsic name. A lambda | |
1251 expression can be called as a function even though it has no name; to | |
1252 emphasize this, we also call it an @dfn{anonymous function} | |
1253 (@pxref{Anonymous Functions}). A named function in Lisp is just a | |
1254 symbol with a valid function in its function cell (@pxref{Defining | |
1255 Functions}). | |
1256 | |
1257 Most of the time, functions are called when their names are written in | |
1258 Lisp expressions in Lisp programs. However, you can construct or obtain | |
1259 a function object at run time and then call it with the primitive | |
1260 functions @code{funcall} and @code{apply}. @xref{Calling Functions}. | |
1261 | |
1262 @node Macro Type | |
1263 @subsection Macro Type | |
1264 | |
1265 A @dfn{Lisp macro} is a user-defined construct that extends the Lisp | |
1266 language. It is represented as an object much like a function, but with | |
1267 different argument-passing semantics. A Lisp macro has the form of a | |
1268 list whose first element is the symbol @code{macro} and whose @sc{cdr} | |
1269 is a Lisp function object, including the @code{lambda} symbol. | |
1270 | |
1271 Lisp macro objects are usually defined with the built-in | |
1272 @code{defmacro} function, but any list that begins with @code{macro} is | |
1273 a macro as far as Emacs is concerned. @xref{Macros}, for an explanation | |
1274 of how to write a macro. | |
1275 | |
1276 @strong{Warning}: Lisp macros and keyboard macros (@pxref{Keyboard | |
1277 Macros}) are entirely different things. When we use the word ``macro'' | |
1278 without qualification, we mean a Lisp macro, not a keyboard macro. | |
1279 | |
1280 @node Primitive Function Type | |
1281 @subsection Primitive Function Type | |
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1282 @cindex primitive function |
84092 | 1283 |
1284 A @dfn{primitive function} is a function callable from Lisp but | |
1285 written in the C programming language. Primitive functions are also | |
1286 called @dfn{subrs} or @dfn{built-in functions}. (The word ``subr'' is | |
1287 derived from ``subroutine.'') Most primitive functions evaluate all | |
1288 their arguments when they are called. A primitive function that does | |
1289 not evaluate all its arguments is called a @dfn{special form} | |
1290 (@pxref{Special Forms}).@refill | |
1291 | |
1292 It does not matter to the caller of a function whether the function is | |
1293 primitive. However, this does matter if you try to redefine a primitive | |
1294 with a function written in Lisp. The reason is that the primitive | |
1295 function may be called directly from C code. Calls to the redefined | |
1296 function from Lisp will use the new definition, but calls from C code | |
1297 may still use the built-in definition. Therefore, @strong{we discourage | |
1298 redefinition of primitive functions}. | |
1299 | |
1300 The term @dfn{function} refers to all Emacs functions, whether written | |
1301 in Lisp or C. @xref{Function Type}, for information about the | |
1302 functions written in Lisp. | |
1303 | |
1304 Primitive functions have no read syntax and print in hash notation | |
1305 with the name of the subroutine. | |
1306 | |
1307 @example | |
1308 @group | |
1309 (symbol-function 'car) ; @r{Access the function cell} | |
1310 ; @r{of the symbol.} | |
1311 @result{} #<subr car> | |
1312 (subrp (symbol-function 'car)) ; @r{Is this a primitive function?} | |
1313 @result{} t ; @r{Yes.} | |
1314 @end group | |
1315 @end example | |
1316 | |
1317 @node Byte-Code Type | |
1318 @subsection Byte-Code Function Type | |
1319 | |
1320 The byte compiler produces @dfn{byte-code function objects}. | |
1321 Internally, a byte-code function object is much like a vector; however, | |
1322 the evaluator handles this data type specially when it appears as a | |
1323 function to be called. @xref{Byte Compilation}, for information about | |
1324 the byte compiler. | |
1325 | |
1326 The printed representation and read syntax for a byte-code function | |
1327 object is like that for a vector, with an additional @samp{#} before the | |
1328 opening @samp{[}. | |
1329 | |
1330 @node Autoload Type | |
1331 @subsection Autoload Type | |
1332 | |
1333 An @dfn{autoload object} is a list whose first element is the symbol | |
1334 @code{autoload}. It is stored as the function definition of a symbol, | |
1335 where it serves as a placeholder for the real definition. The autoload | |
1336 object says that the real definition is found in a file of Lisp code | |
1337 that should be loaded when necessary. It contains the name of the file, | |
1338 plus some other information about the real definition. | |
1339 | |
1340 After the file has been loaded, the symbol should have a new function | |
1341 definition that is not an autoload object. The new definition is then | |
1342 called as if it had been there to begin with. From the user's point of | |
1343 view, the function call works as expected, using the function definition | |
1344 in the loaded file. | |
1345 | |
1346 An autoload object is usually created with the function | |
1347 @code{autoload}, which stores the object in the function cell of a | |
1348 symbol. @xref{Autoload}, for more details. | |
1349 | |
1350 @node Editing Types | |
1351 @section Editing Types | |
1352 @cindex editing types | |
1353 | |
1354 The types in the previous section are used for general programming | |
1355 purposes, and most of them are common to most Lisp dialects. Emacs Lisp | |
1356 provides several additional data types for purposes connected with | |
1357 editing. | |
1358 | |
1359 @menu | |
1360 * Buffer Type:: The basic object of editing. | |
1361 * Marker Type:: A position in a buffer. | |
1362 * Window Type:: Buffers are displayed in windows. | |
100714 | 1363 * Frame Type:: Windows subdivide frames. |
1364 * Terminal Type:: A terminal device displays frames. | |
84092 | 1365 * Window Configuration Type:: Recording the way a frame is subdivided. |
1366 * Frame Configuration Type:: Recording the status of all frames. | |
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1367 * Process Type:: A subprocess of Emacs running on the underlying OS. |
84092 | 1368 * Stream Type:: Receive or send characters. |
1369 * Keymap Type:: What function a keystroke invokes. | |
1370 * Overlay Type:: How an overlay is represented. | |
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1371 * Font Type:: Fonts for displaying text. |
84092 | 1372 @end menu |
1373 | |
1374 @node Buffer Type | |
1375 @subsection Buffer Type | |
1376 | |
1377 A @dfn{buffer} is an object that holds text that can be edited | |
1378 (@pxref{Buffers}). Most buffers hold the contents of a disk file | |
1379 (@pxref{Files}) so they can be edited, but some are used for other | |
1380 purposes. Most buffers are also meant to be seen by the user, and | |
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1381 therefore displayed, at some time, in a window (@pxref{Windows}). But |
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1382 a buffer need not be displayed in any window. Each buffer has a |
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1383 designated position called @dfn{point} (@pxref{Positions}); most |
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1384 editing commands act on the contents of the current buffer in the |
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1385 neighborhood of point. At any time, one buffer is the @dfn{current |
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1386 buffer}. |
84092 | 1387 |
1388 The contents of a buffer are much like a string, but buffers are not | |
1389 used like strings in Emacs Lisp, and the available operations are | |
1390 different. For example, you can insert text efficiently into an | |
1391 existing buffer, altering the buffer's contents, whereas ``inserting'' | |
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1392 text into a string requires concatenating substrings, and the result |
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1393 is an entirely new string object. |
84092 | 1394 |
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1395 Many of the standard Emacs functions manipulate or test the |
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1396 characters in the current buffer; a whole chapter in this manual is |
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1397 devoted to describing these functions (@pxref{Text}). |
84092 | 1398 |
1399 Several other data structures are associated with each buffer: | |
1400 | |
1401 @itemize @bullet | |
1402 @item | |
1403 a local syntax table (@pxref{Syntax Tables}); | |
1404 | |
1405 @item | |
1406 a local keymap (@pxref{Keymaps}); and, | |
1407 | |
1408 @item | |
1409 a list of buffer-local variable bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local Variables}). | |
1410 | |
1411 @item | |
1412 overlays (@pxref{Overlays}). | |
1413 | |
1414 @item | |
1415 text properties for the text in the buffer (@pxref{Text Properties}). | |
1416 @end itemize | |
1417 | |
1418 @noindent | |
1419 The local keymap and variable list contain entries that individually | |
1420 override global bindings or values. These are used to customize the | |
1421 behavior of programs in different buffers, without actually changing the | |
1422 programs. | |
1423 | |
1424 A buffer may be @dfn{indirect}, which means it shares the text | |
1425 of another buffer, but presents it differently. @xref{Indirect Buffers}. | |
1426 | |
1427 Buffers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, showing the | |
1428 buffer name. | |
1429 | |
1430 @example | |
1431 @group | |
1432 (current-buffer) | |
1433 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> | |
1434 @end group | |
1435 @end example | |
1436 | |
1437 @node Marker Type | |
1438 @subsection Marker Type | |
1439 | |
1440 A @dfn{marker} denotes a position in a specific buffer. Markers | |
1441 therefore have two components: one for the buffer, and one for the | |
1442 position. Changes in the buffer's text automatically relocate the | |
1443 position value as necessary to ensure that the marker always points | |
1444 between the same two characters in the buffer. | |
1445 | |
1446 Markers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1447 current character position and the name of the buffer. | |
1448 | |
1449 @example | |
1450 @group | |
1451 (point-marker) | |
1452 @result{} #<marker at 10779 in objects.texi> | |
1453 @end group | |
1454 @end example | |
1455 | |
1456 @xref{Markers}, for information on how to test, create, copy, and move | |
1457 markers. | |
1458 | |
1459 @node Window Type | |
1460 @subsection Window Type | |
1461 | |
1462 A @dfn{window} describes the portion of the terminal screen that Emacs | |
1463 uses to display a buffer. Every window has one associated buffer, whose | |
1464 contents appear in the window. By contrast, a given buffer may appear | |
1465 in one window, no window, or several windows. | |
1466 | |
1467 Though many windows may exist simultaneously, at any time one window | |
1468 is designated the @dfn{selected window}. This is the window where the | |
1469 cursor is (usually) displayed when Emacs is ready for a command. The | |
1470 selected window usually displays the current buffer, but this is not | |
1471 necessarily the case. | |
1472 | |
1473 Windows are grouped on the screen into frames; each window belongs to | |
1474 one and only one frame. @xref{Frame Type}. | |
1475 | |
1476 Windows have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1477 window number and the name of the buffer being displayed. The window | |
1478 numbers exist to identify windows uniquely, since the buffer displayed | |
1479 in any given window can change frequently. | |
1480 | |
1481 @example | |
1482 @group | |
1483 (selected-window) | |
1484 @result{} #<window 1 on objects.texi> | |
1485 @end group | |
1486 @end example | |
1487 | |
1488 @xref{Windows}, for a description of the functions that work on windows. | |
1489 | |
1490 @node Frame Type | |
1491 @subsection Frame Type | |
1492 | |
1493 A @dfn{frame} is a screen area that contains one or more Emacs | |
1494 windows; we also use the term ``frame'' to refer to the Lisp object | |
1495 that Emacs uses to refer to the screen area. | |
1496 | |
1497 Frames have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1498 frame's title, plus its address in core (useful to identify the frame | |
1499 uniquely). | |
1500 | |
1501 @example | |
1502 @group | |
1503 (selected-frame) | |
1504 @result{} #<frame emacs@@psilocin.gnu.org 0xdac80> | |
1505 @end group | |
1506 @end example | |
1507 | |
1508 @xref{Frames}, for a description of the functions that work on frames. | |
1509 | |
100714 | 1510 @node Terminal Type |
1511 @subsection Terminal Type | |
1512 @cindex terminal type | |
1513 | |
1514 A @dfn{terminal} is a device capable of displaying one or more | |
1515 Emacs frames (@pxref{Frame Type}). | |
1516 | |
1517 Terminals have no read syntax. They print in hash notation giving | |
1518 the terminal's ordinal number and its TTY device file name. | |
1519 | |
1520 @example | |
1521 @group | |
1522 (get-device-terminal nil) | |
1523 @result{} #<terminal 1 on /dev/tty> | |
1524 @end group | |
1525 @end example | |
1526 | |
1527 @c FIXME: add an xref to where terminal-related primitives are described. | |
1528 | |
84092 | 1529 @node Window Configuration Type |
1530 @subsection Window Configuration Type | |
1531 @cindex window layout in a frame | |
1532 | |
1533 A @dfn{window configuration} stores information about the positions, | |
1534 sizes, and contents of the windows in a frame, so you can recreate the | |
1535 same arrangement of windows later. | |
1536 | |
1537 Window configurations do not have a read syntax; their print syntax | |
1538 looks like @samp{#<window-configuration>}. @xref{Window | |
1539 Configurations}, for a description of several functions related to | |
1540 window configurations. | |
1541 | |
1542 @node Frame Configuration Type | |
1543 @subsection Frame Configuration Type | |
1544 @cindex screen layout | |
1545 @cindex window layout, all frames | |
1546 | |
1547 A @dfn{frame configuration} stores information about the positions, | |
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1548 sizes, and contents of the windows in all frames. It is not a |
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1549 primitive type---it is actually a list whose @sc{car} is |
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1550 @code{frame-configuration} and whose @sc{cdr} is an alist. Each alist |
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1551 element describes one frame, which appears as the @sc{car} of that |
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1552 element. |
84092 | 1553 |
1554 @xref{Frame Configurations}, for a description of several functions | |
1555 related to frame configurations. | |
1556 | |
1557 @node Process Type | |
1558 @subsection Process Type | |
1559 | |
1560 The word @dfn{process} usually means a running program. Emacs itself | |
1561 runs in a process of this sort. However, in Emacs Lisp, a process is a | |
1562 Lisp object that designates a subprocess created by the Emacs process. | |
1563 Programs such as shells, GDB, ftp, and compilers, running in | |
1564 subprocesses of Emacs, extend the capabilities of Emacs. | |
1565 | |
1566 An Emacs subprocess takes textual input from Emacs and returns textual | |
1567 output to Emacs for further manipulation. Emacs can also send signals | |
1568 to the subprocess. | |
1569 | |
1570 Process objects have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, | |
1571 giving the name of the process: | |
1572 | |
1573 @example | |
1574 @group | |
1575 (process-list) | |
1576 @result{} (#<process shell>) | |
1577 @end group | |
1578 @end example | |
1579 | |
1580 @xref{Processes}, for information about functions that create, delete, | |
1581 return information about, send input or signals to, and receive output | |
1582 from processes. | |
1583 | |
1584 @node Stream Type | |
1585 @subsection Stream Type | |
1586 | |
1587 A @dfn{stream} is an object that can be used as a source or sink for | |
1588 characters---either to supply characters for input or to accept them as | |
1589 output. Many different types can be used this way: markers, buffers, | |
1590 strings, and functions. Most often, input streams (character sources) | |
1591 obtain characters from the keyboard, a buffer, or a file, and output | |
1592 streams (character sinks) send characters to a buffer, such as a | |
1593 @file{*Help*} buffer, or to the echo area. | |
1594 | |
1595 The object @code{nil}, in addition to its other meanings, may be used | |
1596 as a stream. It stands for the value of the variable | |
1597 @code{standard-input} or @code{standard-output}. Also, the object | |
1598 @code{t} as a stream specifies input using the minibuffer | |
1599 (@pxref{Minibuffers}) or output in the echo area (@pxref{The Echo | |
1600 Area}). | |
1601 | |
1602 Streams have no special printed representation or read syntax, and | |
1603 print as whatever primitive type they are. | |
1604 | |
1605 @xref{Read and Print}, for a description of functions | |
1606 related to streams, including parsing and printing functions. | |
1607 | |
1608 @node Keymap Type | |
1609 @subsection Keymap Type | |
1610 | |
1611 A @dfn{keymap} maps keys typed by the user to commands. This mapping | |
1612 controls how the user's command input is executed. A keymap is actually | |
1613 a list whose @sc{car} is the symbol @code{keymap}. | |
1614 | |
1615 @xref{Keymaps}, for information about creating keymaps, handling prefix | |
1616 keys, local as well as global keymaps, and changing key bindings. | |
1617 | |
1618 @node Overlay Type | |
1619 @subsection Overlay Type | |
1620 | |
1621 An @dfn{overlay} specifies properties that apply to a part of a | |
1622 buffer. Each overlay applies to a specified range of the buffer, and | |
1623 contains a property list (a list whose elements are alternating property | |
1624 names and values). Overlay properties are used to present parts of the | |
1625 buffer temporarily in a different display style. Overlays have no read | |
1626 syntax, and print in hash notation, giving the buffer name and range of | |
1627 positions. | |
1628 | |
1629 @xref{Overlays}, for how to create and use overlays. | |
1630 | |
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1631 @node Font Type |
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1632 @subsection Font Type |
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1633 |
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1634 A @dfn{font} specifies how to display text on a graphical terminal. |
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1635 There are actually three separate font types---@dfn{font objects}, |
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1636 @dfn{font specs}, and @dfn{font entities}---each of which has slightly |
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1637 different properties. None of them have a read syntax; their print |
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1638 syntax looks like @samp{#<font-object>}, @samp{#<font-spec>}, and |
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1639 @samp{#<font-entity>} respectively. @xref{Low-Level Font}, for a |
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1640 description of these Lisp objects. |
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1641 |
84092 | 1642 @node Circular Objects |
1643 @section Read Syntax for Circular Objects | |
1644 @cindex circular structure, read syntax | |
1645 @cindex shared structure, read syntax | |
1646 @cindex @samp{#@var{n}=} read syntax | |
1647 @cindex @samp{#@var{n}#} read syntax | |
1648 | |
1649 To represent shared or circular structures within a complex of Lisp | |
1650 objects, you can use the reader constructs @samp{#@var{n}=} and | |
1651 @samp{#@var{n}#}. | |
1652 | |
1653 Use @code{#@var{n}=} before an object to label it for later reference; | |
1654 subsequently, you can use @code{#@var{n}#} to refer the same object in | |
1655 another place. Here, @var{n} is some integer. For example, here is how | |
1656 to make a list in which the first element recurs as the third element: | |
1657 | |
1658 @example | |
1659 (#1=(a) b #1#) | |
1660 @end example | |
1661 | |
1662 @noindent | |
1663 This differs from ordinary syntax such as this | |
1664 | |
1665 @example | |
1666 ((a) b (a)) | |
1667 @end example | |
1668 | |
1669 @noindent | |
1670 which would result in a list whose first and third elements | |
1671 look alike but are not the same Lisp object. This shows the difference: | |
1672 | |
1673 @example | |
1674 (prog1 nil | |
1675 (setq x '(#1=(a) b #1#))) | |
1676 (eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x)) | |
1677 @result{} t | |
1678 (setq x '((a) b (a))) | |
1679 (eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x)) | |
1680 @result{} nil | |
1681 @end example | |
1682 | |
1683 You can also use the same syntax to make a circular structure, which | |
1684 appears as an ``element'' within itself. Here is an example: | |
1685 | |
1686 @example | |
1687 #1=(a #1#) | |
1688 @end example | |
1689 | |
1690 @noindent | |
1691 This makes a list whose second element is the list itself. | |
1692 Here's how you can see that it really works: | |
1693 | |
1694 @example | |
1695 (prog1 nil | |
1696 (setq x '#1=(a #1#))) | |
1697 (eq x (cadr x)) | |
1698 @result{} t | |
1699 @end example | |
1700 | |
1701 The Lisp printer can produce this syntax to record circular and shared | |
1702 structure in a Lisp object, if you bind the variable @code{print-circle} | |
1703 to a non-@code{nil} value. @xref{Output Variables}. | |
1704 | |
1705 @node Type Predicates | |
1706 @section Type Predicates | |
1707 @cindex type checking | |
1708 @kindex wrong-type-argument | |
1709 | |
1710 The Emacs Lisp interpreter itself does not perform type checking on | |
1711 the actual arguments passed to functions when they are called. It could | |
1712 not do so, since function arguments in Lisp do not have declared data | |
1713 types, as they do in other programming languages. It is therefore up to | |
1714 the individual function to test whether each actual argument belongs to | |
1715 a type that the function can use. | |
1716 | |
1717 All built-in functions do check the types of their actual arguments | |
1718 when appropriate, and signal a @code{wrong-type-argument} error if an | |
1719 argument is of the wrong type. For example, here is what happens if you | |
1720 pass an argument to @code{+} that it cannot handle: | |
1721 | |
1722 @example | |
1723 @group | |
1724 (+ 2 'a) | |
1725 @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, a | |
1726 @end group | |
1727 @end example | |
1728 | |
1729 @cindex type predicates | |
1730 @cindex testing types | |
1731 If you want your program to handle different types differently, you | |
1732 must do explicit type checking. The most common way to check the type | |
1733 of an object is to call a @dfn{type predicate} function. Emacs has a | |
1734 type predicate for each type, as well as some predicates for | |
1735 combinations of types. | |
1736 | |
1737 A type predicate function takes one argument; it returns @code{t} if | |
1738 the argument belongs to the appropriate type, and @code{nil} otherwise. | |
1739 Following a general Lisp convention for predicate functions, most type | |
1740 predicates' names end with @samp{p}. | |
1741 | |
1742 Here is an example which uses the predicates @code{listp} to check for | |
1743 a list and @code{symbolp} to check for a symbol. | |
1744 | |
1745 @example | |
1746 (defun add-on (x) | |
1747 (cond ((symbolp x) | |
1748 ;; If X is a symbol, put it on LIST. | |
1749 (setq list (cons x list))) | |
1750 ((listp x) | |
1751 ;; If X is a list, add its elements to LIST. | |
1752 (setq list (append x list))) | |
1753 (t | |
1754 ;; We handle only symbols and lists. | |
1755 (error "Invalid argument %s in add-on" x)))) | |
1756 @end example | |
1757 | |
1758 Here is a table of predefined type predicates, in alphabetical order, | |
1759 with references to further information. | |
1760 | |
1761 @table @code | |
1762 @item atom | |
1763 @xref{List-related Predicates, atom}. | |
1764 | |
1765 @item arrayp | |
1766 @xref{Array Functions, arrayp}. | |
1767 | |
1768 @item bool-vector-p | |
1769 @xref{Bool-Vectors, bool-vector-p}. | |
1770 | |
1771 @item bufferp | |
1772 @xref{Buffer Basics, bufferp}. | |
1773 | |
1774 @item byte-code-function-p | |
1775 @xref{Byte-Code Type, byte-code-function-p}. | |
1776 | |
1777 @item case-table-p | |
1778 @xref{Case Tables, case-table-p}. | |
1779 | |
1780 @item char-or-string-p | |
1781 @xref{Predicates for Strings, char-or-string-p}. | |
1782 | |
1783 @item char-table-p | |
1784 @xref{Char-Tables, char-table-p}. | |
1785 | |
1786 @item commandp | |
1787 @xref{Interactive Call, commandp}. | |
1788 | |
1789 @item consp | |
1790 @xref{List-related Predicates, consp}. | |
1791 | |
1792 @item display-table-p | |
1793 @xref{Display Tables, display-table-p}. | |
1794 | |
1795 @item floatp | |
1796 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, floatp}. | |
1797 | |
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1798 @item fontp |
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1799 @xref{Low-Level Font}. |
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1800 |
84092 | 1801 @item frame-configuration-p |
1802 @xref{Frame Configurations, frame-configuration-p}. | |
1803 | |
1804 @item frame-live-p | |
1805 @xref{Deleting Frames, frame-live-p}. | |
1806 | |
1807 @item framep | |
1808 @xref{Frames, framep}. | |
1809 | |
1810 @item functionp | |
1811 @xref{Functions, functionp}. | |
1812 | |
1813 @item hash-table-p | |
1814 @xref{Other Hash, hash-table-p}. | |
1815 | |
1816 @item integer-or-marker-p | |
1817 @xref{Predicates on Markers, integer-or-marker-p}. | |
1818 | |
1819 @item integerp | |
1820 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, integerp}. | |
1821 | |
1822 @item keymapp | |
1823 @xref{Creating Keymaps, keymapp}. | |
1824 | |
1825 @item keywordp | |
1826 @xref{Constant Variables}. | |
1827 | |
1828 @item listp | |
1829 @xref{List-related Predicates, listp}. | |
1830 | |
1831 @item markerp | |
1832 @xref{Predicates on Markers, markerp}. | |
1833 | |
1834 @item wholenump | |
1835 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, wholenump}. | |
1836 | |
1837 @item nlistp | |
1838 @xref{List-related Predicates, nlistp}. | |
1839 | |
1840 @item numberp | |
1841 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, numberp}. | |
1842 | |
1843 @item number-or-marker-p | |
1844 @xref{Predicates on Markers, number-or-marker-p}. | |
1845 | |
1846 @item overlayp | |
1847 @xref{Overlays, overlayp}. | |
1848 | |
1849 @item processp | |
1850 @xref{Processes, processp}. | |
1851 | |
1852 @item sequencep | |
1853 @xref{Sequence Functions, sequencep}. | |
1854 | |
1855 @item stringp | |
1856 @xref{Predicates for Strings, stringp}. | |
1857 | |
1858 @item subrp | |
1859 @xref{Function Cells, subrp}. | |
1860 | |
1861 @item symbolp | |
1862 @xref{Symbols, symbolp}. | |
1863 | |
1864 @item syntax-table-p | |
1865 @xref{Syntax Tables, syntax-table-p}. | |
1866 | |
1867 @item user-variable-p | |
1868 @xref{Defining Variables, user-variable-p}. | |
1869 | |
1870 @item vectorp | |
1871 @xref{Vectors, vectorp}. | |
1872 | |
1873 @item window-configuration-p | |
1874 @xref{Window Configurations, window-configuration-p}. | |
1875 | |
1876 @item window-live-p | |
1877 @xref{Deleting Windows, window-live-p}. | |
1878 | |
1879 @item windowp | |
1880 @xref{Basic Windows, windowp}. | |
1881 | |
1882 @item booleanp | |
1883 @xref{nil and t, booleanp}. | |
1884 | |
1885 @item string-or-null-p | |
1886 @xref{Predicates for Strings, string-or-null-p}. | |
1887 @end table | |
1888 | |
1889 The most general way to check the type of an object is to call the | |
1890 function @code{type-of}. Recall that each object belongs to one and | |
1891 only one primitive type; @code{type-of} tells you which one (@pxref{Lisp | |
1892 Data Types}). But @code{type-of} knows nothing about non-primitive | |
1893 types. In most cases, it is more convenient to use type predicates than | |
1894 @code{type-of}. | |
1895 | |
1896 @defun type-of object | |
1897 This function returns a symbol naming the primitive type of | |
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1898 @var{object}. The value is one of the symbols @code{bool-vector}, |
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1899 @code{buffer}, @code{char-table}, @code{compiled-function}, |
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1900 @code{cons}, @code{float}, @code{font-entity}, @code{font-object}, |
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1901 @code{font-spec}, @code{frame}, @code{hash-table}, @code{integer}, |
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1902 @code{marker}, @code{overlay}, @code{process}, @code{string}, |
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1903 @code{subr}, @code{symbol}, @code{vector}, @code{window}, or |
84092 | 1904 @code{window-configuration}. |
1905 | |
1906 @example | |
1907 (type-of 1) | |
1908 @result{} integer | |
1909 @group | |
1910 (type-of 'nil) | |
1911 @result{} symbol | |
1912 (type-of '()) ; @r{@code{()} is @code{nil}.} | |
1913 @result{} symbol | |
1914 (type-of '(x)) | |
1915 @result{} cons | |
1916 @end group | |
1917 @end example | |
1918 @end defun | |
1919 | |
1920 @node Equality Predicates | |
1921 @section Equality Predicates | |
1922 @cindex equality | |
1923 | |
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1924 Here we describe functions that test for equality between any two |
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1925 objects. Other functions test equality of contents between objects of specific |
84092 | 1926 types, e.g., strings. For these predicates, see the appropriate chapter |
1927 describing the data type. | |
1928 | |
1929 @defun eq object1 object2 | |
1930 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are | |
1931 the same object, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
1932 | |
1933 @code{eq} returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are | |
1934 integers with the same value. Also, since symbol names are normally | |
1935 unique, if the arguments are symbols with the same name, they are | |
1936 @code{eq}. For other types (e.g., lists, vectors, strings), two | |
1937 arguments with the same contents or elements are not necessarily | |
1938 @code{eq} to each other: they are @code{eq} only if they are the same | |
1939 object, meaning that a change in the contents of one will be reflected | |
1940 by the same change in the contents of the other. | |
1941 | |
1942 @example | |
1943 @group | |
1944 (eq 'foo 'foo) | |
1945 @result{} t | |
1946 @end group | |
1947 | |
1948 @group | |
1949 (eq 456 456) | |
1950 @result{} t | |
1951 @end group | |
1952 | |
1953 @group | |
1954 (eq "asdf" "asdf") | |
1955 @result{} nil | |
1956 @end group | |
1957 | |
1958 @group | |
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1959 (eq "" "") |
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1960 @result{} t |
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1961 ;; @r{This exception occurs because Emacs Lisp} |
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1962 ;; @r{makes just one multibyte empty string, to save space.} |
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1963 @end group |
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1964 |
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1965 @group |
84092 | 1966 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) |
1967 @result{} nil | |
1968 @end group | |
1969 | |
1970 @group | |
1971 (setq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1972 @result{} (1 (2 (3))) | |
1973 (eq foo foo) | |
1974 @result{} t | |
1975 (eq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1976 @result{} nil | |
1977 @end group | |
1978 | |
1979 @group | |
1980 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1981 @result{} nil | |
1982 @end group | |
1983 | |
1984 @group | |
1985 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1986 @result{} nil | |
1987 @end group | |
1988 @end example | |
1989 | |
1990 The @code{make-symbol} function returns an uninterned symbol, distinct | |
1991 from the symbol that is used if you write the name in a Lisp expression. | |
1992 Distinct symbols with the same name are not @code{eq}. @xref{Creating | |
1993 Symbols}. | |
1994 | |
1995 @example | |
1996 @group | |
1997 (eq (make-symbol "foo") 'foo) | |
1998 @result{} nil | |
1999 @end group | |
2000 @end example | |
2001 @end defun | |
2002 | |
2003 @defun equal object1 object2 | |
2004 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} have | |
2005 equal components, @code{nil} otherwise. Whereas @code{eq} tests if its | |
2006 arguments are the same object, @code{equal} looks inside nonidentical | |
2007 arguments to see if their elements or contents are the same. So, if two | |
2008 objects are @code{eq}, they are @code{equal}, but the converse is not | |
2009 always true. | |
2010 | |
2011 @example | |
2012 @group | |
2013 (equal 'foo 'foo) | |
2014 @result{} t | |
2015 @end group | |
2016 | |
2017 @group | |
2018 (equal 456 456) | |
2019 @result{} t | |
2020 @end group | |
2021 | |
2022 @group | |
2023 (equal "asdf" "asdf") | |
2024 @result{} t | |
2025 @end group | |
2026 @group | |
2027 (eq "asdf" "asdf") | |
2028 @result{} nil | |
2029 @end group | |
2030 | |
2031 @group | |
2032 (equal '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
2033 @result{} t | |
2034 @end group | |
2035 @group | |
2036 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
2037 @result{} nil | |
2038 @end group | |
2039 | |
2040 @group | |
2041 (equal [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
2042 @result{} t | |
2043 @end group | |
2044 @group | |
2045 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
2046 @result{} nil | |
2047 @end group | |
2048 | |
2049 @group | |
2050 (equal (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
2051 @result{} t | |
2052 @end group | |
2053 | |
2054 @group | |
2055 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
2056 @result{} nil | |
2057 @end group | |
2058 @end example | |
2059 | |
2060 Comparison of strings is case-sensitive, but does not take account of | |
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2061 text properties---it compares only the characters in the strings. Use |
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2062 @code{equal-including-properties} to also compare text properties. For |
84092 | 2063 technical reasons, a unibyte string and a multibyte string are |
2064 @code{equal} if and only if they contain the same sequence of | |
2065 character codes and all these codes are either in the range 0 through | |
2066 127 (@acronym{ASCII}) or 160 through 255 (@code{eight-bit-graphic}). | |
2067 (@pxref{Text Representations}). | |
2068 | |
2069 @example | |
2070 @group | |
2071 (equal "asdf" "ASDF") | |
2072 @result{} nil | |
2073 @end group | |
2074 @end example | |
2075 | |
2076 However, two distinct buffers are never considered @code{equal}, even if | |
2077 their textual contents are the same. | |
2078 @end defun | |
2079 | |
2080 The test for equality is implemented recursively; for example, given | |
2081 two cons cells @var{x} and @var{y}, @code{(equal @var{x} @var{y})} | |
2082 returns @code{t} if and only if both the expressions below return | |
2083 @code{t}: | |
2084 | |
2085 @example | |
2086 (equal (car @var{x}) (car @var{y})) | |
2087 (equal (cdr @var{x}) (cdr @var{y})) | |
2088 @end example | |
2089 | |
2090 Because of this recursive method, circular lists may therefore cause | |
2091 infinite recursion (leading to an error). | |
2092 | |
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2093 @defun equal-including-properties object1 object2 |
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2094 This function behaves like @code{equal} in all cases but also requires |
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2095 that for two strings to be equal, they have the same text properties. |
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2096 |
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2097 @example |
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2098 @group |
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2099 (equal "asdf" (propertize "asdf" '(asdf t))) |
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2100 @result{} t |
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2101 @end group |
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2102 @group |
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2103 (equal-including-properties "asdf" |
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2104 (propertize "asdf" '(asdf t))) |
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2105 @result{} nil |
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2106 @end group |
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2107 @end example |
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2108 @end defun |