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annotate lispref/numbers.texi @ 31321:648bbc1ab413
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author | Dave Love <fx@gnu.org> |
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date | Fri, 01 Sep 2000 14:06:45 +0000 |
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6510 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
27189 | 3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999 |
4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc. | |
6510 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/numbers | |
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7 @node Numbers, Strings and Characters, Lisp Data Types, Top |
6510 | 8 @chapter Numbers |
9 @cindex integers | |
10 @cindex numbers | |
11 | |
12 GNU Emacs supports two numeric data types: @dfn{integers} and | |
13 @dfn{floating point numbers}. Integers are whole numbers such as | |
14 @minus{}3, 0, 7, 13, and 511. Their values are exact. Floating point | |
15 numbers are numbers with fractional parts, such as @minus{}4.5, 0.0, or | |
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16 2.71828. They can also be expressed in exponential notation: 1.5e2 |
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17 equals 150; in this example, @samp{e2} stands for ten to the second |
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18 power, and that is multiplied by 1.5. Floating point values are not |
6510 | 19 exact; they have a fixed, limited amount of precision. |
20 | |
21 @menu | |
22 * Integer Basics:: Representation and range of integers. | |
23 * Float Basics:: Representation and range of floating point. | |
24 * Predicates on Numbers:: Testing for numbers. | |
25 * Comparison of Numbers:: Equality and inequality predicates. | |
26 * Numeric Conversions:: Converting float to integer and vice versa. | |
27 * Arithmetic Operations:: How to add, subtract, multiply and divide. | |
28 * Rounding Operations:: Explicitly rounding floating point numbers. | |
29 * Bitwise Operations:: Logical and, or, not, shifting. | |
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30 * Math Functions:: Trig, exponential and logarithmic functions. |
6510 | 31 * Random Numbers:: Obtaining random integers, predictable or not. |
32 @end menu | |
33 | |
34 @node Integer Basics | |
35 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
36 @section Integer Basics | |
37 | |
38 The range of values for an integer depends on the machine. The | |
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39 minimum range is @minus{}134217728 to 134217727 (28 bits; i.e., |
27193 | 40 @ifnottex |
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41 -2**27 |
27193 | 42 @end ifnottex |
6510 | 43 @tex |
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44 @math{-2^{27}} |
6510 | 45 @end tex |
46 to | |
27193 | 47 @ifnottex |
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48 2**27 - 1), |
27193 | 49 @end ifnottex |
6510 | 50 @tex |
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51 @math{2^{27}-1}), |
6510 | 52 @end tex |
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53 but some machines may provide a wider range. Many examples in this |
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54 chapter assume an integer has 28 bits. |
6510 | 55 @cindex overflow |
56 | |
57 The Lisp reader reads an integer as a sequence of digits with optional | |
58 initial sign and optional final period. | |
59 | |
60 @example | |
61 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
62 1. ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
63 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} | |
64 -1 ; @r{The integer @minus{}1.} | |
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65 268435457 ; @r{Also the integer 1, due to overflow.} |
6510 | 66 0 ; @r{The integer 0.} |
67 -0 ; @r{The integer 0.} | |
68 @end example | |
69 | |
70 To understand how various functions work on integers, especially the | |
71 bitwise operators (@pxref{Bitwise Operations}), it is often helpful to | |
72 view the numbers in their binary form. | |
73 | |
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74 In 28-bit binary, the decimal integer 5 looks like this: |
6510 | 75 |
76 @example | |
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77 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101 |
6510 | 78 @end example |
79 | |
80 @noindent | |
81 (We have inserted spaces between groups of 4 bits, and two spaces | |
82 between groups of 8 bits, to make the binary integer easier to read.) | |
83 | |
84 The integer @minus{}1 looks like this: | |
85 | |
86 @example | |
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87 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 88 @end example |
89 | |
90 @noindent | |
91 @cindex two's complement | |
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92 @minus{}1 is represented as 28 ones. (This is called @dfn{two's |
6510 | 93 complement} notation.) |
94 | |
95 The negative integer, @minus{}5, is creating by subtracting 4 from | |
96 @minus{}1. In binary, the decimal integer 4 is 100. Consequently, | |
97 @minus{}5 looks like this: | |
98 | |
99 @example | |
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100 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011 |
6510 | 101 @end example |
102 | |
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103 In this implementation, the largest 28-bit binary integer value is |
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104 134,217,727 in decimal. In binary, it looks like this: |
6510 | 105 |
106 @example | |
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107 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 108 @end example |
109 | |
110 Since the arithmetic functions do not check whether integers go | |
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111 outside their range, when you add 1 to 134,217,727, the value is the |
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112 negative integer @minus{}134,217,728: |
6510 | 113 |
114 @example | |
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115 (+ 1 134217727) |
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116 @result{} -134217728 |
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117 @result{} 1000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 |
6510 | 118 @end example |
119 | |
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120 Many of the functions described in this chapter accept markers for |
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121 arguments in place of numbers. (@xref{Markers}.) Since the actual |
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122 arguments to such functions may be either numbers or markers, we often |
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123 give these arguments the name @var{number-or-marker}. When the argument |
6510 | 124 value is a marker, its position value is used and its buffer is ignored. |
125 | |
126 @node Float Basics | |
127 @section Floating Point Basics | |
128 | |
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129 Floating point numbers are useful for representing numbers that are |
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130 not integral. The precise range of floating point numbers is |
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131 machine-specific; it is the same as the range of the C data type |
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132 @code{double} on the machine you are using. |
6510 | 133 |
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134 The read-syntax for floating point numbers requires either a decimal |
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135 point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or both. For |
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136 example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, @samp{1.5e3}, and |
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137 @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point number whose |
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138 value is 1500. They are all equivalent. You can also use a minus sign |
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139 to write negative floating point numbers, as in @samp{-1.0}. |
6510 | 140 |
141 @cindex IEEE floating point | |
142 @cindex positive infinity | |
143 @cindex negative infinity | |
144 @cindex infinity | |
145 @cindex NaN | |
146 Most modern computers support the IEEE floating point standard, which | |
147 provides for positive infinity and negative infinity as floating point | |
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148 values. It also provides for a class of values called NaN or |
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149 ``not-a-number''; numerical functions return such values in cases where |
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150 there is no correct answer. For example, @code{(sqrt -1.0)} returns a |
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151 NaN. For practical purposes, there's no significant difference between |
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152 different NaN values in Emacs Lisp, and there's no rule for precisely |
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153 which NaN value should be used in a particular case, so Emacs Lisp |
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154 doesn't try to distinguish them. Here are the read syntaxes for |
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155 these special floating point values: |
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156 |
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157 @table @asis |
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158 @item positive infinity |
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159 @samp{1.0e+INF} |
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160 @item negative infinity |
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161 @samp{-1.0e+INF} |
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162 @item Not-a-number |
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163 @samp{0.0e+NaN}. |
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164 @end table |
6510 | 165 |
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166 In addition, the value @code{-0.0} is distinguishable from ordinary |
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167 zero in IEEE floating point (although @code{equal} and @code{=} consider |
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168 them equal values). |
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169 |
6510 | 170 You can use @code{logb} to extract the binary exponent of a floating |
171 point number (or estimate the logarithm of an integer): | |
172 | |
173 @defun logb number | |
174 This function returns the binary exponent of @var{number}. More | |
175 precisely, the value is the logarithm of @var{number} base 2, rounded | |
176 down to an integer. | |
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177 |
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178 @example |
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179 (logb 10) |
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180 @result{} 3 |
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181 (logb 10.0e20) |
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182 @result{} 69 |
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183 @end example |
6510 | 184 @end defun |
185 | |
186 @node Predicates on Numbers | |
187 @section Type Predicates for Numbers | |
188 | |
189 The functions in this section test whether the argument is a number or | |
190 whether it is a certain sort of number. The functions @code{integerp} | |
191 and @code{floatp} can take any type of Lisp object as argument (the | |
192 predicates would not be of much use otherwise); but the @code{zerop} | |
193 predicate requires a number as its argument. See also | |
194 @code{integer-or-marker-p} and @code{number-or-marker-p}, in | |
195 @ref{Predicates on Markers}. | |
196 | |
197 @defun floatp object | |
198 This predicate tests whether its argument is a floating point | |
199 number and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
200 | |
201 @code{floatp} does not exist in Emacs versions 18 and earlier. | |
202 @end defun | |
203 | |
204 @defun integerp object | |
205 This predicate tests whether its argument is an integer, and returns | |
206 @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
207 @end defun | |
208 | |
209 @defun numberp object | |
210 This predicate tests whether its argument is a number (either integer or | |
211 floating point), and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
212 @end defun | |
213 | |
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214 @defun wholenump object |
6510 | 215 @cindex natural numbers |
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216 The @code{wholenump} predicate (whose name comes from the phrase |
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217 ``whole-number-p'') tests to see whether its argument is a nonnegative |
6510 | 218 integer, and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. 0 is |
219 considered non-negative. | |
220 | |
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221 @findex natnump |
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222 @code{natnump} is an obsolete synonym for @code{wholenump}. |
6510 | 223 @end defun |
224 | |
225 @defun zerop number | |
226 This predicate tests whether its argument is zero, and returns @code{t} | |
227 if so, @code{nil} otherwise. The argument must be a number. | |
228 | |
229 These two forms are equivalent: @code{(zerop x)} @equiv{} @code{(= x 0)}. | |
230 @end defun | |
231 | |
232 @node Comparison of Numbers | |
233 @section Comparison of Numbers | |
234 @cindex number equality | |
235 | |
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236 To test numbers for numerical equality, you should normally use |
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237 @code{=}, not @code{eq}. There can be many distinct floating point |
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238 number objects with the same numeric value. If you use @code{eq} to |
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239 compare them, then you test whether two values are the same |
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240 @emph{object}. By contrast, @code{=} compares only the numeric values |
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241 of the objects. |
6510 | 242 |
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243 At present, each integer value has a unique Lisp object in Emacs Lisp. |
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244 Therefore, @code{eq} is equivalent to @code{=} where integers are |
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245 concerned. It is sometimes convenient to use @code{eq} for comparing an |
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246 unknown value with an integer, because @code{eq} does not report an |
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247 error if the unknown value is not a number---it accepts arguments of any |
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248 type. By contrast, @code{=} signals an error if the arguments are not |
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249 numbers or markers. However, it is a good idea to use @code{=} if you |
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250 can, even for comparing integers, just in case we change the |
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251 representation of integers in a future Emacs version. |
6510 | 252 |
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253 Sometimes it is useful to compare numbers with @code{equal}; it treats |
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254 two numbers as equal if they have the same data type (both integers, or |
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255 both floating point) and the same value. By contrast, @code{=} can |
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256 treat an integer and a floating point number as equal. |
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257 |
6510 | 258 There is another wrinkle: because floating point arithmetic is not |
259 exact, it is often a bad idea to check for equality of two floating | |
260 point values. Usually it is better to test for approximate equality. | |
261 Here's a function to do this: | |
262 | |
263 @example | |
264 (defvar fuzz-factor 1.0e-6) | |
265 (defun approx-equal (x y) | |
12098 | 266 (or (and (= x 0) (= y 0)) |
267 (< (/ (abs (- x y)) | |
268 (max (abs x) (abs y))) | |
269 fuzz-factor))) | |
6510 | 270 @end example |
271 | |
272 @cindex CL note---integers vrs @code{eq} | |
273 @quotation | |
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274 @b{Common Lisp note:} Comparing numbers in Common Lisp always requires |
6510 | 275 @code{=} because Common Lisp implements multi-word integers, and two |
276 distinct integer objects can have the same numeric value. Emacs Lisp | |
277 can have just one integer object for any given value because it has a | |
278 limited range of integer values. | |
279 @end quotation | |
280 | |
281 @defun = number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
282 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and | |
283 returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
284 @end defun | |
285 | |
286 @defun /= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
287 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and | |
288 returns @code{t} if they are not, and @code{nil} if they are. | |
289 @end defun | |
290 | |
291 @defun < number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
292 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly less than | |
293 its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
294 @end defun | |
295 | |
296 @defun <= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
297 This function tests whether its first argument is less than or equal | |
298 to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
299 otherwise. | |
300 @end defun | |
301 | |
302 @defun > number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
303 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly greater | |
304 than its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
305 otherwise. | |
306 @end defun | |
307 | |
308 @defun >= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
309 This function tests whether its first argument is greater than or | |
310 equal to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
311 otherwise. | |
312 @end defun | |
313 | |
314 @defun max number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers | |
315 This function returns the largest of its arguments. | |
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316 If any of the argument is floating-point, the value is returned |
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317 as floating point, even if it was given as an integer. |
6510 | 318 |
319 @example | |
320 (max 20) | |
321 @result{} 20 | |
322 (max 1 2.5) | |
323 @result{} 2.5 | |
324 (max 1 3 2.5) | |
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325 @result{} 3.0 |
6510 | 326 @end example |
327 @end defun | |
328 | |
329 @defun min number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers | |
330 This function returns the smallest of its arguments. | |
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331 If any of the argument is floating-point, the value is returned |
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332 as floating point, even if it was given as an integer. |
6510 | 333 |
334 @example | |
335 (min -4 1) | |
336 @result{} -4 | |
337 @end example | |
338 @end defun | |
339 | |
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340 @defun abs number |
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341 This function returns the absolute value of @var{number}. |
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342 @end defun |
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343 |
6510 | 344 @node Numeric Conversions |
345 @section Numeric Conversions | |
346 @cindex rounding in conversions | |
347 | |
348 To convert an integer to floating point, use the function @code{float}. | |
349 | |
350 @defun float number | |
351 This returns @var{number} converted to floating point. | |
352 If @var{number} is already a floating point number, @code{float} returns | |
353 it unchanged. | |
354 @end defun | |
355 | |
356 There are four functions to convert floating point numbers to integers; | |
357 they differ in how they round. These functions accept integer arguments | |
358 also, and return such arguments unchanged. | |
359 | |
360 @defun truncate number | |
361 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards | |
362 zero. | |
363 @end defun | |
364 | |
365 @defun floor number &optional divisor | |
366 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding downward | |
367 (towards negative infinity). | |
368 | |
369 If @var{divisor} is specified, @var{number} is divided by @var{divisor} | |
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370 before the floor is taken; this uses the kind of division operation that |
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371 corresponds to @code{mod}, rounding downward. An @code{arith-error} |
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372 results if @var{divisor} is 0. |
6510 | 373 @end defun |
374 | |
375 @defun ceiling number | |
376 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding upward | |
377 (towards positive infinity). | |
378 @end defun | |
379 | |
380 @defun round number | |
381 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards the | |
12098 | 382 nearest integer. Rounding a value equidistant between two integers |
383 may choose the integer closer to zero, or it may prefer an even integer, | |
384 depending on your machine. | |
6510 | 385 @end defun |
386 | |
387 @node Arithmetic Operations | |
388 @section Arithmetic Operations | |
389 | |
390 Emacs Lisp provides the traditional four arithmetic operations: | |
391 addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Remainder and modulus | |
392 functions supplement the division functions. The functions to | |
393 add or subtract 1 are provided because they are traditional in Lisp and | |
394 commonly used. | |
395 | |
396 All of these functions except @code{%} return a floating point value | |
397 if any argument is floating. | |
398 | |
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399 It is important to note that in Emacs Lisp, arithmetic functions |
12067 | 400 do not check for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 134217727)} may evaluate to |
401 @minus{}134217728, depending on your hardware. | |
6510 | 402 |
403 @defun 1+ number-or-marker | |
404 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} plus 1. | |
405 For example, | |
406 | |
407 @example | |
408 (setq foo 4) | |
409 @result{} 4 | |
410 (1+ foo) | |
411 @result{} 5 | |
412 @end example | |
413 | |
12098 | 414 This function is not analogous to the C operator @code{++}---it does not |
415 increment a variable. It just computes a sum. Thus, if we continue, | |
6510 | 416 |
417 @example | |
418 foo | |
419 @result{} 4 | |
420 @end example | |
421 | |
422 If you want to increment the variable, you must use @code{setq}, | |
423 like this: | |
424 | |
425 @example | |
426 (setq foo (1+ foo)) | |
427 @result{} 5 | |
428 @end example | |
429 @end defun | |
430 | |
431 @defun 1- number-or-marker | |
432 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} minus 1. | |
433 @end defun | |
434 | |
435 @defun + &rest numbers-or-markers | |
436 This function adds its arguments together. When given no arguments, | |
12098 | 437 @code{+} returns 0. |
6510 | 438 |
439 @example | |
440 (+) | |
441 @result{} 0 | |
442 (+ 1) | |
443 @result{} 1 | |
444 (+ 1 2 3 4) | |
445 @result{} 10 | |
446 @end example | |
447 @end defun | |
448 | |
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449 @defun - &optional number-or-marker &rest more-numbers-or-markers |
6510 | 450 The @code{-} function serves two purposes: negation and subtraction. |
451 When @code{-} has a single argument, the value is the negative of the | |
452 argument. When there are multiple arguments, @code{-} subtracts each of | |
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453 the @var{more-numbers-or-markers} from @var{number-or-marker}, |
12098 | 454 cumulatively. If there are no arguments, the result is 0. |
6510 | 455 |
456 @example | |
457 (- 10 1 2 3 4) | |
458 @result{} 0 | |
459 (- 10) | |
460 @result{} -10 | |
461 (-) | |
462 @result{} 0 | |
463 @end example | |
464 @end defun | |
465 | |
466 @defun * &rest numbers-or-markers | |
467 This function multiplies its arguments together, and returns the | |
12098 | 468 product. When given no arguments, @code{*} returns 1. |
6510 | 469 |
470 @example | |
471 (*) | |
472 @result{} 1 | |
473 (* 1) | |
474 @result{} 1 | |
475 (* 1 2 3 4) | |
476 @result{} 24 | |
477 @end example | |
478 @end defun | |
479 | |
480 @defun / dividend divisor &rest divisors | |
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481 This function divides @var{dividend} by @var{divisor} and returns the |
6510 | 482 quotient. If there are additional arguments @var{divisors}, then it |
483 divides @var{dividend} by each divisor in turn. Each argument may be a | |
484 number or a marker. | |
485 | |
486 If all the arguments are integers, then the result is an integer too. | |
487 This means the result has to be rounded. On most machines, the result | |
488 is rounded towards zero after each division, but some machines may round | |
489 differently with negative arguments. This is because the Lisp function | |
490 @code{/} is implemented using the C division operator, which also | |
491 permits machine-dependent rounding. As a practical matter, all known | |
492 machines round in the standard fashion. | |
493 | |
494 @cindex @code{arith-error} in division | |
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495 If you divide an integer by 0, an @code{arith-error} error is signaled. |
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496 (@xref{Errors}.) Floating point division by zero returns either |
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497 infinity or a NaN if your machine supports IEEE floating point; |
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498 otherwise, it signals an @code{arith-error} error. |
6510 | 499 |
500 @example | |
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501 @group |
6510 | 502 (/ 6 2) |
503 @result{} 3 | |
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504 @end group |
6510 | 505 (/ 5 2) |
506 @result{} 2 | |
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507 (/ 5.0 2) |
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508 @result{} 2.5 |
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509 (/ 5 2.0) |
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510 @result{} 2.5 |
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511 (/ 5.0 2.0) |
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512 @result{} 2.5 |
6510 | 513 (/ 25 3 2) |
514 @result{} 4 | |
515 (/ -17 6) | |
516 @result{} -2 | |
517 @end example | |
518 | |
519 The result of @code{(/ -17 6)} could in principle be -3 on some | |
520 machines. | |
521 @end defun | |
522 | |
523 @defun % dividend divisor | |
524 @cindex remainder | |
525 This function returns the integer remainder after division of @var{dividend} | |
526 by @var{divisor}. The arguments must be integers or markers. | |
527 | |
528 For negative arguments, the remainder is in principle machine-dependent | |
529 since the quotient is; but in practice, all known machines behave alike. | |
530 | |
531 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. | |
532 | |
533 @example | |
534 (% 9 4) | |
535 @result{} 1 | |
536 (% -9 4) | |
537 @result{} -1 | |
538 (% 9 -4) | |
539 @result{} 1 | |
540 (% -9 -4) | |
541 @result{} -1 | |
542 @end example | |
543 | |
544 For any two integers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor}, | |
545 | |
546 @example | |
547 @group | |
548 (+ (% @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) | |
549 (* (/ @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor})) | |
550 @end group | |
551 @end example | |
552 | |
553 @noindent | |
554 always equals @var{dividend}. | |
555 @end defun | |
556 | |
557 @defun mod dividend divisor | |
558 @cindex modulus | |
559 This function returns the value of @var{dividend} modulo @var{divisor}; | |
560 in other words, the remainder after division of @var{dividend} | |
561 by @var{divisor}, but with the same sign as @var{divisor}. | |
562 The arguments must be numbers or markers. | |
563 | |
564 Unlike @code{%}, @code{mod} returns a well-defined result for negative | |
565 arguments. It also permits floating point arguments; it rounds the | |
566 quotient downward (towards minus infinity) to an integer, and uses that | |
567 quotient to compute the remainder. | |
568 | |
569 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. | |
570 | |
571 @example | |
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572 @group |
6510 | 573 (mod 9 4) |
574 @result{} 1 | |
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575 @end group |
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576 @group |
6510 | 577 (mod -9 4) |
578 @result{} 3 | |
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579 @end group |
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580 @group |
6510 | 581 (mod 9 -4) |
582 @result{} -3 | |
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583 @end group |
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584 @group |
6510 | 585 (mod -9 -4) |
586 @result{} -1 | |
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587 @end group |
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588 @group |
6510 | 589 (mod 5.5 2.5) |
590 @result{} .5 | |
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591 @end group |
6510 | 592 @end example |
593 | |
594 For any two numbers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor}, | |
595 | |
596 @example | |
597 @group | |
598 (+ (mod @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) | |
599 (* (floor @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor})) | |
600 @end group | |
601 @end example | |
602 | |
603 @noindent | |
12098 | 604 always equals @var{dividend}, subject to rounding error if either |
605 argument is floating point. For @code{floor}, see @ref{Numeric | |
606 Conversions}. | |
6510 | 607 @end defun |
608 | |
609 @node Rounding Operations | |
610 @section Rounding Operations | |
611 @cindex rounding without conversion | |
612 | |
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613 The functions @code{ffloor}, @code{fceiling}, @code{fround}, and |
6510 | 614 @code{ftruncate} take a floating point argument and return a floating |
615 point result whose value is a nearby integer. @code{ffloor} returns the | |
8017 | 616 nearest integer below; @code{fceiling}, the nearest integer above; |
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617 @code{ftruncate}, the nearest integer in the direction towards zero; |
6510 | 618 @code{fround}, the nearest integer. |
619 | |
620 @defun ffloor float | |
621 This function rounds @var{float} to the next lower integral value, and | |
622 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
623 @end defun | |
624 | |
8017 | 625 @defun fceiling float |
6510 | 626 This function rounds @var{float} to the next higher integral value, and |
627 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
628 @end defun | |
629 | |
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630 @defun ftruncate float |
6510 | 631 This function rounds @var{float} towards zero to an integral value, and |
632 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
633 @end defun | |
634 | |
635 @defun fround float | |
636 This function rounds @var{float} to the nearest integral value, | |
637 and returns that value as a floating point number. | |
638 @end defun | |
639 | |
640 @node Bitwise Operations | |
641 @section Bitwise Operations on Integers | |
642 | |
643 In a computer, an integer is represented as a binary number, a | |
644 sequence of @dfn{bits} (digits which are either zero or one). A bitwise | |
645 operation acts on the individual bits of such a sequence. For example, | |
646 @dfn{shifting} moves the whole sequence left or right one or more places, | |
647 reproducing the same pattern ``moved over''. | |
648 | |
649 The bitwise operations in Emacs Lisp apply only to integers. | |
650 | |
651 @defun lsh integer1 count | |
652 @cindex logical shift | |
653 @code{lsh}, which is an abbreviation for @dfn{logical shift}, shifts the | |
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654 bits in @var{integer1} to the left @var{count} places, or to the right |
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655 if @var{count} is negative, bringing zeros into the vacated bits. If |
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656 @var{count} is negative, @code{lsh} shifts zeros into the leftmost |
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657 (most-significant) bit, producing a positive result even if |
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658 @var{integer1} is negative. Contrast this with @code{ash}, below. |
6510 | 659 |
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660 Here are two examples of @code{lsh}, shifting a pattern of bits one |
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661 place to the left. We show only the low-order eight bits of the binary |
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662 pattern; the rest are all zero. |
6510 | 663 |
664 @example | |
665 @group | |
666 (lsh 5 1) | |
667 @result{} 10 | |
668 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 10.} | |
669 00000101 @result{} 00001010 | |
670 | |
671 (lsh 7 1) | |
672 @result{} 14 | |
673 ;; @r{Decimal 7 becomes decimal 14.} | |
674 00000111 @result{} 00001110 | |
675 @end group | |
676 @end example | |
677 | |
678 @noindent | |
679 As the examples illustrate, shifting the pattern of bits one place to | |
680 the left produces a number that is twice the value of the previous | |
681 number. | |
682 | |
12098 | 683 Shifting a pattern of bits two places to the left produces results |
684 like this (with 8-bit binary numbers): | |
685 | |
686 @example | |
687 @group | |
688 (lsh 3 2) | |
689 @result{} 12 | |
690 ;; @r{Decimal 3 becomes decimal 12.} | |
691 00000011 @result{} 00001100 | |
692 @end group | |
693 @end example | |
694 | |
695 On the other hand, shifting one place to the right looks like this: | |
696 | |
697 @example | |
698 @group | |
699 (lsh 6 -1) | |
700 @result{} 3 | |
701 ;; @r{Decimal 6 becomes decimal 3.} | |
702 00000110 @result{} 00000011 | |
703 @end group | |
704 | |
705 @group | |
706 (lsh 5 -1) | |
707 @result{} 2 | |
708 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 2.} | |
709 00000101 @result{} 00000010 | |
710 @end group | |
711 @end example | |
712 | |
713 @noindent | |
714 As the example illustrates, shifting one place to the right divides the | |
715 value of a positive integer by two, rounding downward. | |
716 | |
7115
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717 The function @code{lsh}, like all Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions, does |
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718 not check for overflow, so shifting left can discard significant bits |
12067 | 719 and change the sign of the number. For example, left shifting |
720 134,217,727 produces @minus{}2 on a 28-bit machine: | |
6510 | 721 |
722 @example | |
12067 | 723 (lsh 134217727 1) ; @r{left shift} |
6510 | 724 @result{} -2 |
725 @end example | |
726 | |
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727 In binary, in the 28-bit implementation, the argument looks like this: |
6510 | 728 |
729 @example | |
730 @group | |
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731 ;; @r{Decimal 134,217,727} |
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732 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 733 @end group |
734 @end example | |
735 | |
736 @noindent | |
737 which becomes the following when left shifted: | |
738 | |
739 @example | |
740 @group | |
741 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}2} | |
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742 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 |
6510 | 743 @end group |
744 @end example | |
745 @end defun | |
746 | |
747 @defun ash integer1 count | |
748 @cindex arithmetic shift | |
749 @code{ash} (@dfn{arithmetic shift}) shifts the bits in @var{integer1} | |
750 to the left @var{count} places, or to the right if @var{count} | |
751 is negative. | |
752 | |
753 @code{ash} gives the same results as @code{lsh} except when | |
754 @var{integer1} and @var{count} are both negative. In that case, | |
12098 | 755 @code{ash} puts ones in the empty bit positions on the left, while |
756 @code{lsh} puts zeros in those bit positions. | |
6510 | 757 |
758 Thus, with @code{ash}, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right | |
759 looks like this: | |
760 | |
761 @example | |
762 @group | |
763 (ash -6 -1) @result{} -3 | |
764 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal @minus{}3.} | |
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765 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010 |
6510 | 766 @result{} |
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767 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101 |
6510 | 768 @end group |
769 @end example | |
770 | |
771 In contrast, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right with | |
772 @code{lsh} looks like this: | |
773 | |
774 @example | |
775 @group | |
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776 (lsh -6 -1) @result{} 134217725 |
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777 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal 134,217,725.} |
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778 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010 |
6510 | 779 @result{} |
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780 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101 |
6510 | 781 @end group |
782 @end example | |
783 | |
784 Here are other examples: | |
785 | |
786 @c !!! Check if lined up in smallbook format! XDVI shows problem | |
787 @c with smallbook but not with regular book! --rjc 16mar92 | |
788 @smallexample | |
789 @group | |
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790 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 791 |
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792 (lsh 5 2) ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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793 @result{} 20 ; = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001 0100} |
6510 | 794 @end group |
795 @group | |
796 (ash 5 2) | |
797 @result{} 20 | |
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798 (lsh -5 2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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799 @result{} -20 ; = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 1100} |
6510 | 800 (ash -5 2) |
801 @result{} -20 | |
802 @end group | |
803 @group | |
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804 (lsh 5 -2) ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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805 @result{} 1 ; = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001} |
6510 | 806 @end group |
807 @group | |
808 (ash 5 -2) | |
809 @result{} 1 | |
810 @end group | |
811 @group | |
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812 (lsh -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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813 @result{} 4194302 ; = @r{0011 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110} |
6510 | 814 @end group |
815 @group | |
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816 (ash -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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817 @result{} -2 ; = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110} |
6510 | 818 @end group |
819 @end smallexample | |
820 @end defun | |
821 | |
822 @defun logand &rest ints-or-markers | |
823 @cindex logical and | |
824 @cindex bitwise and | |
825 This function returns the ``logical and'' of the arguments: the | |
826 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is | |
827 set in all the arguments. (``Set'' means that the value of the bit is 1 | |
828 rather than 0.) | |
829 | |
830 For example, using 4-bit binary numbers, the ``logical and'' of 13 and | |
831 12 is 12: 1101 combined with 1100 produces 1100. | |
832 In both the binary numbers, the leftmost two bits are set (i.e., they | |
833 are 1's), so the leftmost two bits of the returned value are set. | |
834 However, for the rightmost two bits, each is zero in at least one of | |
835 the arguments, so the rightmost two bits of the returned value are 0's. | |
836 | |
837 @noindent | |
838 Therefore, | |
839 | |
840 @example | |
841 @group | |
842 (logand 13 12) | |
843 @result{} 12 | |
844 @end group | |
845 @end example | |
846 | |
847 If @code{logand} is not passed any argument, it returns a value of | |
848 @minus{}1. This number is an identity element for @code{logand} | |
849 because its binary representation consists entirely of ones. If | |
850 @code{logand} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument. | |
851 | |
852 @smallexample | |
853 @group | |
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854 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 855 |
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856 (logand 14 13) ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
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857 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
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858 @result{} 12 ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
6510 | 859 @end group |
860 | |
861 @group | |
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862 (logand 14 13 4) ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
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863 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
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864 ; 4 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100} |
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|
865 @result{} 4 ; 4 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100} |
6510 | 866 @end group |
867 | |
868 @group | |
869 (logand) | |
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870 @result{} -1 ; -1 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111} |
6510 | 871 @end group |
872 @end smallexample | |
873 @end defun | |
874 | |
875 @defun logior &rest ints-or-markers | |
876 @cindex logical inclusive or | |
877 @cindex bitwise or | |
878 This function returns the ``inclusive or'' of its arguments: the @var{n}th bit | |
879 is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is set in at least | |
880 one of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the result is zero, | |
881 which is an identity element for this operation. If @code{logior} is | |
882 passed just one argument, it returns that argument. | |
883 | |
884 @smallexample | |
885 @group | |
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886 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 887 |
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888 (logior 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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889 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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890 @result{} 13 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
6510 | 891 @end group |
892 | |
893 @group | |
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894 (logior 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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895 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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896 ; 7 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111} |
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897 @result{} 15 ; 15 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111} |
6510 | 898 @end group |
899 @end smallexample | |
900 @end defun | |
901 | |
902 @defun logxor &rest ints-or-markers | |
903 @cindex bitwise exclusive or | |
904 @cindex logical exclusive or | |
905 This function returns the ``exclusive or'' of its arguments: the | |
7115
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906 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is |
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907 set in an odd number of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the |
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908 result is 0, which is an identity element for this operation. If |
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909 @code{logxor} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument. |
6510 | 910 |
911 @smallexample | |
912 @group | |
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913 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 914 |
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915 (logxor 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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916 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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917 @result{} 9 ; 9 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1001} |
6510 | 918 @end group |
919 | |
920 @group | |
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921 (logxor 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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922 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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923 ; 7 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111} |
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924 @result{} 14 ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
6510 | 925 @end group |
926 @end smallexample | |
927 @end defun | |
928 | |
929 @defun lognot integer | |
930 @cindex logical not | |
931 @cindex bitwise not | |
932 This function returns the logical complement of its argument: the @var{n}th | |
933 bit is one in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is zero in | |
934 @var{integer}, and vice-versa. | |
935 | |
936 @example | |
937 (lognot 5) | |
938 @result{} -6 | |
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939 ;; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
6510 | 940 ;; @r{becomes} |
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941 ;; -6 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010} |
6510 | 942 @end example |
943 @end defun | |
944 | |
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945 @node Math Functions |
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946 @section Standard Mathematical Functions |
6510 | 947 @cindex transcendental functions |
948 @cindex mathematical functions | |
949 | |
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950 These mathematical functions allow integers as well as floating point |
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951 numbers as arguments. |
6510 | 952 |
953 @defun sin arg | |
954 @defunx cos arg | |
955 @defunx tan arg | |
956 These are the ordinary trigonometric functions, with argument measured | |
957 in radians. | |
958 @end defun | |
959 | |
960 @defun asin arg | |
25454 | 961 The value of @code{(asin @var{arg})} is a number between |
27193 | 962 @ifnottex |
25454 | 963 @minus{}pi/2 |
27193 | 964 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 965 @tex |
25751
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966 @math{-\pi/2} |
25454 | 967 @end tex |
968 and | |
27193 | 969 @ifnottex |
25454 | 970 pi/2 |
27193 | 971 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 972 @tex |
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973 @math{\pi/2} |
25454 | 974 @end tex |
975 (inclusive) whose sine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} | |
6510 | 976 is out of range (outside [-1, 1]), then the result is a NaN. |
977 @end defun | |
978 | |
979 @defun acos arg | |
25454 | 980 The value of @code{(acos @var{arg})} is a number between 0 and |
27193 | 981 @ifnottex |
25454 | 982 pi |
27193 | 983 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 984 @tex |
25751
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985 @math{\pi} |
25454 | 986 @end tex |
6510 | 987 (inclusive) whose cosine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} |
988 is out of range (outside [-1, 1]), then the result is a NaN. | |
989 @end defun | |
990 | |
991 @defun atan arg | |
25454 | 992 The value of @code{(atan @var{arg})} is a number between |
27193 | 993 @ifnottex |
25454 | 994 @minus{}pi/2 |
27193 | 995 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 996 @tex |
25751
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997 @math{-\pi/2} |
25454 | 998 @end tex |
999 and | |
27193 | 1000 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1001 pi/2 |
27193 | 1002 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1003 @tex |
25751
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1004 @math{\pi/2} |
25454 | 1005 @end tex |
1006 (exclusive) whose tangent is @var{arg}. | |
6510 | 1007 @end defun |
1008 | |
1009 @defun exp arg | |
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1010 This is the exponential function; it returns |
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1011 @tex |
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1012 @math{e} |
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1013 @end tex |
27193 | 1014 @ifnottex |
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1015 @i{e} |
27193 | 1016 @end ifnottex |
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1017 to the power @var{arg}. |
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1018 @tex |
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1019 @math{e} |
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1020 @end tex |
27193 | 1021 @ifnottex |
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1022 @i{e} |
27193 | 1023 @end ifnottex |
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1024 is a fundamental mathematical constant also called the base of natural |
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1025 logarithms. |
6510 | 1026 @end defun |
1027 | |
1028 @defun log arg &optional base | |
1029 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base @var{base}. | |
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1030 If you don't specify @var{base}, the base |
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1031 @tex |
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1032 @math{e} |
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1033 @end tex |
27193 | 1034 @ifnottex |
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1035 @i{e} |
27193 | 1036 @end ifnottex |
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1037 is used. If @var{arg} |
6510 | 1038 is negative, the result is a NaN. |
1039 @end defun | |
1040 | |
1041 @ignore | |
1042 @defun expm1 arg | |
1043 This function returns @code{(1- (exp @var{arg}))}, but it is more | |
1044 accurate than that when @var{arg} is negative and @code{(exp @var{arg})} | |
1045 is close to 1. | |
1046 @end defun | |
1047 | |
1048 @defun log1p arg | |
1049 This function returns @code{(log (1+ @var{arg}))}, but it is more | |
1050 accurate than that when @var{arg} is so small that adding 1 to it would | |
1051 lose accuracy. | |
1052 @end defun | |
1053 @end ignore | |
1054 | |
1055 @defun log10 arg | |
1056 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base 10. If | |
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1057 @var{arg} is negative, the result is a NaN. @code{(log10 @var{x})} |
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1058 @equiv{} @code{(log @var{x} 10)}, at least approximately. |
6510 | 1059 @end defun |
1060 | |
1061 @defun expt x y | |
10306
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1062 This function returns @var{x} raised to power @var{y}. If both |
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1063 arguments are integers and @var{y} is positive, the result is an |
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1064 integer; in this case, it is truncated to fit the range of possible |
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1065 integer values. |
6510 | 1066 @end defun |
1067 | |
1068 @defun sqrt arg | |
1069 This returns the square root of @var{arg}. If @var{arg} is negative, | |
1070 the value is a NaN. | |
1071 @end defun | |
1072 | |
1073 @node Random Numbers | |
1074 @section Random Numbers | |
1075 @cindex random numbers | |
1076 | |
1077 A deterministic computer program cannot generate true random numbers. | |
1078 For most purposes, @dfn{pseudo-random numbers} suffice. A series of | |
1079 pseudo-random numbers is generated in a deterministic fashion. The | |
1080 numbers are not truly random, but they have certain properties that | |
1081 mimic a random series. For example, all possible values occur equally | |
1082 often in a pseudo-random series. | |
1083 | |
1084 In Emacs, pseudo-random numbers are generated from a ``seed'' number. | |
1085 Starting from any given seed, the @code{random} function always | |
1086 generates the same sequence of numbers. Emacs always starts with the | |
1087 same seed value, so the sequence of values of @code{random} is actually | |
1088 the same in each Emacs run! For example, in one operating system, the | |
1089 first call to @code{(random)} after you start Emacs always returns | |
1090 -1457731, and the second one always returns -7692030. This | |
1091 repeatability is helpful for debugging. | |
1092 | |
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1093 If you want random numbers that don't always come out the same, execute |
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1094 @code{(random t)}. This chooses a new seed based on the current time of |
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1095 day and on Emacs's process @sc{id} number. |
6510 | 1096 |
1097 @defun random &optional limit | |
1098 This function returns a pseudo-random integer. Repeated calls return a | |
1099 series of pseudo-random integers. | |
1100 | |
12067 | 1101 If @var{limit} is a positive integer, the value is chosen to be |
12098 | 1102 nonnegative and less than @var{limit}. |
6510 | 1103 |
1104 If @var{limit} is @code{t}, it means to choose a new seed based on the | |
1105 current time of day and on Emacs's process @sc{id} number. | |
1106 @c "Emacs'" is incorrect usage! | |
1107 | |
1108 On some machines, any integer representable in Lisp may be the result | |
1109 of @code{random}. On other machines, the result can never be larger | |
1110 than a certain maximum or less than a certain (negative) minimum. | |
1111 @end defun |