Mercurial > emacs
annotate lispref/functions.texi @ 8580:648f78c8ecf5
Fixed bug in tcl-guess-application.
author | Tom Tromey <tromey@redhat.com> |
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date | Sun, 21 Aug 1994 20:33:05 +0000 |
parents | 03103053974d |
children | a6eb5f12b0f3 |
rev | line source |
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6455 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc. | |
4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. | |
5 @setfilename ../info/functions | |
6 @node Functions, Macros, Variables, Top | |
7 @chapter Functions | |
8 | |
9 A Lisp program is composed mainly of Lisp functions. This chapter | |
10 explains what functions are, how they accept arguments, and how to | |
11 define them. | |
12 | |
13 @menu | |
14 * What Is a Function:: Lisp functions vs. primitives; terminology. | |
15 * Lambda Expressions:: How functions are expressed as Lisp objects. | |
16 * Function Names:: A symbol can serve as the name of a function. | |
17 * Defining Functions:: Lisp expressions for defining functions. | |
18 * Calling Functions:: How to use an existing function. | |
19 * Mapping Functions:: Applying a function to each element of a list, etc. | |
20 * Anonymous Functions:: Lambda expressions are functions with no names. | |
21 * Function Cells:: Accessing or setting the function definition | |
22 of a symbol. | |
23 * Inline Functions:: Defining functions that the compiler will open code. | |
24 * Related Topics:: Cross-references to specific Lisp primitives | |
25 that have a special bearing on how functions work. | |
26 @end menu | |
27 | |
28 @node What Is a Function | |
29 @section What Is a Function? | |
30 | |
31 In a general sense, a function is a rule for carrying on a computation | |
32 given several values called @dfn{arguments}. The result of the | |
33 computation is called the value of the function. The computation can | |
34 also have side effects: lasting changes in the values of variables or | |
35 the contents of data structures. | |
36 | |
37 Here are important terms for functions in Emacs Lisp and for other | |
38 function-like objects. | |
39 | |
40 @table @dfn | |
41 @item function | |
42 @cindex function | |
43 In Emacs Lisp, a @dfn{function} is anything that can be applied to | |
44 arguments in a Lisp program. In some cases, we use it more | |
45 specifically to mean a function written in Lisp. Special forms and | |
46 macros are not functions. | |
47 | |
48 @item primitive | |
49 @cindex primitive | |
50 @cindex subr | |
51 @cindex built-in function | |
52 A @dfn{primitive} is a function callable from Lisp that is written in C, | |
53 such as @code{car} or @code{append}. These functions are also called | |
54 @dfn{built-in} functions or @dfn{subrs}. (Special forms are also | |
55 considered primitives.) | |
56 | |
57 Usually the reason that a function is a primitives is because it is | |
58 fundamental, because it provides a low-level interface to operating | |
59 system services, or because it needs to run fast. Primitives can be | |
60 modified or added only by changing the C sources and recompiling the | |
61 editor. See @ref{Writing Emacs Primitives}. | |
62 | |
63 @item lambda expression | |
64 A @dfn{lambda expression} is a function written in Lisp. | |
65 These are described in the following section. | |
66 @ifinfo | |
67 @xref{Lambda Expressions}. | |
68 @end ifinfo | |
69 | |
70 @item special form | |
71 A @dfn{special form} is a primitive that is like a function but does not | |
72 evaluate all of its arguments in the usual way. It may evaluate only | |
73 some of the arguments, or may evaluate them in an unusual order, or | |
74 several times. Many special forms are described in @ref{Control | |
75 Structures}. | |
76 | |
77 @item macro | |
78 @cindex macro | |
79 A @dfn{macro} is a construct defined in Lisp by the programmer. It | |
80 differs from a function in that it translates a Lisp expression that you | |
81 write into an equivalent expression to be evaluated instead of the | |
82 original expression. @xref{Macros}, for how to define and use macros. | |
83 | |
84 @item command | |
85 @cindex command | |
86 A @dfn{command} is an object that @code{command-execute} can invoke; it | |
87 is a possible definition for a key sequence. Some functions are | |
88 commands; a function written in Lisp is a command if it contains an | |
89 interactive declaration (@pxref{Defining Commands}). Such a function | |
90 can be called from Lisp expressions like other functions; in this case, | |
91 the fact that the function is a command makes no difference. | |
92 | |
93 Keyboard macros (strings and vectors) are commands also, even though | |
94 they are not functions. A symbol is a command if its function | |
95 definition is a command; such symbols can be invoked with @kbd{M-x}. | |
96 The symbol is a function as well if the definition is a function. | |
97 @xref{Command Overview}. | |
98 | |
99 @item keystroke command | |
100 @cindex keystroke command | |
101 A @dfn{keystroke command} is a command that is bound to a key sequence | |
102 (typically one to three keystrokes). The distinction is made here | |
103 merely to avoid confusion with the meaning of ``command'' in non-Emacs | |
104 editors; for Lisp programs, the distinction is normally unimportant. | |
105 | |
106 @item byte-code function | |
107 A @dfn{byte-code function} is a function that has been compiled by the | |
108 byte compiler. @xref{Byte-Code Type}. | |
109 @end table | |
110 | |
111 @defun subrp object | |
112 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a built-in function | |
113 (i.e., a Lisp primitive). | |
114 | |
115 @example | |
116 @group | |
117 (subrp 'message) ; @r{@code{message} is a symbol,} | |
118 @result{} nil ; @r{not a subr object.} | |
119 @end group | |
120 @group | |
121 (subrp (symbol-function 'message)) | |
122 @result{} t | |
123 @end group | |
124 @end example | |
125 @end defun | |
126 | |
127 @defun byte-code-function-p object | |
128 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a byte-code | |
129 function. For example: | |
130 | |
131 @example | |
132 @group | |
133 (byte-code-function-p (symbol-function 'next-line)) | |
134 @result{} t | |
135 @end group | |
136 @end example | |
137 @end defun | |
138 | |
139 @node Lambda Expressions | |
140 @section Lambda Expressions | |
141 @cindex lambda expression | |
142 | |
143 A function written in Lisp is a list that looks like this: | |
144 | |
145 @example | |
146 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{}) | |
147 @r{[}@var{documentation-string}@r{]} | |
148 @r{[}@var{interactive-declaration}@r{]} | |
149 @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
150 @end example | |
151 | |
152 @noindent | |
153 (Such a list is called a @dfn{lambda expression} for historical reasons, | |
154 even though it is not really an expression at all---it is not a form | |
155 that can be evaluated meaningfully.) | |
156 | |
157 @menu | |
158 * Lambda Components:: The parts of a lambda expression. | |
159 * Simple Lambda:: A simple example. | |
160 * Argument List:: Details and special features of argument lists. | |
161 * Function Documentation:: How to put documentation in a function. | |
162 @end menu | |
163 | |
164 @node Lambda Components | |
165 @subsection Components of a Lambda Expression | |
166 | |
167 @ifinfo | |
168 | |
169 A function written in Lisp (a ``lambda expression'') is a list that | |
170 looks like this: | |
171 | |
172 @example | |
173 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{}) | |
174 [@var{documentation-string}] | |
175 [@var{interactive-declaration}] | |
176 @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
177 @end example | |
178 @end ifinfo | |
179 | |
180 @cindex lambda list | |
181 The first element of a lambda expression is always the symbol | |
182 @code{lambda}. This indicates that the list represents a function. The | |
183 reason functions are defined to start with @code{lambda} is so that | |
184 other lists, intended for other uses, will not accidentally be valid as | |
185 functions. | |
186 | |
187 The second element is a list of symbols--the argument variable names. | |
188 This is called the @dfn{lambda list}. When a Lisp function is called, | |
189 the argument values are matched up against the variables in the lambda | |
190 list, which are given local bindings with the values provided. | |
191 @xref{Local Variables}. | |
192 | |
7193 | 193 The documentation string is a Lisp string object placed within the |
194 function definition to describe the function for the Emacs help | |
195 facilities. @xref{Function Documentation}. | |
6455 | 196 |
197 The interactive declaration is a list of the form @code{(interactive | |
198 @var{code-string})}. This declares how to provide arguments if the | |
199 function is used interactively. Functions with this declaration are called | |
200 @dfn{commands}; they can be called using @kbd{M-x} or bound to a key. | |
201 Functions not intended to be called in this way should not have interactive | |
202 declarations. @xref{Defining Commands}, for how to write an interactive | |
203 declaration. | |
204 | |
205 @cindex body of function | |
206 The rest of the elements are the @dfn{body} of the function: the Lisp | |
207 code to do the work of the function (or, as a Lisp programmer would say, | |
208 ``a list of Lisp forms to evaluate''). The value returned by the | |
209 function is the value returned by the last element of the body. | |
210 | |
211 @node Simple Lambda | |
212 @subsection A Simple Lambda-Expression Example | |
213 | |
214 Consider for example the following function: | |
215 | |
216 @example | |
217 (lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
218 @end example | |
219 | |
220 @noindent | |
221 We can call this function by writing it as the @sc{car} of an | |
222 expression, like this: | |
223 | |
224 @example | |
225 @group | |
226 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
227 1 2 3) | |
228 @end group | |
229 @end example | |
230 | |
231 @noindent | |
232 This call evaluates the body of the lambda expression with the variable | |
233 @code{a} bound to 1, @code{b} bound to 2, and @code{c} bound to 3. | |
234 Evaluation of the body adds these three numbers, producing the result 6; | |
235 therefore, this call to the function returns the value 6. | |
236 | |
237 Note that the arguments can be the results of other function calls, as in | |
238 this example: | |
239 | |
240 @example | |
241 @group | |
242 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
243 1 (* 2 3) (- 5 4)) | |
244 @end group | |
245 @end example | |
246 | |
247 @noindent | |
248 This evaluates the arguments @code{1}, @code{(* 2 3)}, and @code{(- 5 | |
7193 | 249 4)} from left to right. Then it applies the lambda expression to the |
250 argument values 1, 6 and 1 to produce the value 8. | |
6455 | 251 |
252 It is not often useful to write a lambda expression as the @sc{car} of | |
253 a form in this way. You can get the same result, of making local | |
254 variables and giving them values, using the special form @code{let} | |
255 (@pxref{Local Variables}). And @code{let} is clearer and easier to use. | |
256 In practice, lambda expressions are either stored as the function | |
257 definitions of symbols, to produce named functions, or passed as | |
258 arguments to other functions (@pxref{Anonymous Functions}). | |
259 | |
260 However, calls to explicit lambda expressions were very useful in the | |
261 old days of Lisp, before the special form @code{let} was invented. At | |
262 that time, they were the only way to bind and initialize local | |
263 variables. | |
264 | |
265 @node Argument List | |
266 @subsection Advanced Features of Argument Lists | |
267 @kindex wrong-number-of-arguments | |
268 @cindex argument binding | |
269 @cindex binding arguments | |
270 | |
271 Our simple sample function, @code{(lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))}, | |
272 specifies three argument variables, so it must be called with three | |
273 arguments: if you try to call it with only two arguments or four | |
274 arguments, you get a @code{wrong-number-of-arguments} error. | |
275 | |
276 It is often convenient to write a function that allows certain | |
277 arguments to be omitted. For example, the function @code{substring} | |
278 accepts three arguments---a string, the start index and the end | |
279 index---but the third argument defaults to the @var{length} of the | |
280 string if you omit it. It is also convenient for certain functions to | |
7193 | 281 accept an indefinite number of arguments, as the functions @code{list} |
6455 | 282 and @code{+} do. |
283 | |
284 @cindex optional arguments | |
285 @cindex rest arguments | |
286 @kindex &optional | |
287 @kindex &rest | |
288 To specify optional arguments that may be omitted when a function | |
289 is called, simply include the keyword @code{&optional} before the optional | |
290 arguments. To specify a list of zero or more extra arguments, include the | |
291 keyword @code{&rest} before one final argument. | |
292 | |
293 Thus, the complete syntax for an argument list is as follows: | |
294 | |
295 @example | |
296 @group | |
297 (@var{required-vars}@dots{} | |
298 @r{[}&optional @var{optional-vars}@dots{}@r{]} | |
299 @r{[}&rest @var{rest-var}@r{]}) | |
300 @end group | |
301 @end example | |
302 | |
303 @noindent | |
304 The square brackets indicate that the @code{&optional} and @code{&rest} | |
305 clauses, and the variables that follow them, are optional. | |
306 | |
307 A call to the function requires one actual argument for each of the | |
308 @var{required-vars}. There may be actual arguments for zero or more of | |
309 the @var{optional-vars}, and there cannot be any actual arguments beyond | |
310 that unless the lambda list uses @code{&rest}. In that case, there may | |
311 be any number of extra actual arguments. | |
312 | |
313 If actual arguments for the optional and rest variables are omitted, | |
7193 | 314 then they always default to @code{nil}. There is no way for the |
6455 | 315 function to distinguish between an explicit argument of @code{nil} and |
7193 | 316 an omitted argument. However, the body of the function is free to |
317 consider @code{nil} an abbreviation for some other meaningful value. | |
318 This is what @code{substring} does; @code{nil} as the third argument to | |
319 @code{substring} means to use the length of the string supplied. | |
6455 | 320 |
321 @cindex CL note---default optional arg | |
322 @quotation | |
323 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp allows the function to specify what | |
324 default value to use when an optional argument is omitted; Emacs Lisp | |
325 always uses @code{nil}. | |
326 @end quotation | |
327 | |
328 For example, an argument list that looks like this: | |
329 | |
330 @example | |
331 (a b &optional c d &rest e) | |
332 @end example | |
333 | |
334 @noindent | |
335 binds @code{a} and @code{b} to the first two actual arguments, which are | |
336 required. If one or two more arguments are provided, @code{c} and | |
337 @code{d} are bound to them respectively; any arguments after the first | |
338 four are collected into a list and @code{e} is bound to that list. If | |
339 there are only two arguments, @code{c} is @code{nil}; if two or three | |
340 arguments, @code{d} is @code{nil}; if four arguments or fewer, @code{e} | |
341 is @code{nil}. | |
342 | |
343 There is no way to have required arguments following optional | |
344 ones---it would not make sense. To see why this must be so, suppose | |
345 that @code{c} in the example were optional and @code{d} were required. | |
346 Suppose three actual arguments are given; which variable would the third | |
347 argument be for? Similarly, it makes no sense to have any more | |
348 arguments (either required or optional) after a @code{&rest} argument. | |
349 | |
350 Here are some examples of argument lists and proper calls: | |
351 | |
352 @smallexample | |
353 ((lambda (n) (1+ n)) ; @r{One required:} | |
354 1) ; @r{requires exactly one argument.} | |
355 @result{} 2 | |
356 ((lambda (n &optional n1) ; @r{One required and one optional:} | |
357 (if n1 (+ n n1) (1+ n))) ; @r{1 or 2 arguments.} | |
358 1 2) | |
359 @result{} 3 | |
360 ((lambda (n &rest ns) ; @r{One required and one rest:} | |
361 (+ n (apply '+ ns))) ; @r{1 or more arguments.} | |
362 1 2 3 4 5) | |
363 @result{} 15 | |
364 @end smallexample | |
365 | |
366 @node Function Documentation | |
367 @subsection Documentation Strings of Functions | |
368 @cindex documentation of function | |
369 | |
370 A lambda expression may optionally have a @dfn{documentation string} just | |
371 after the lambda list. This string does not affect execution of the | |
372 function; it is a kind of comment, but a systematized comment which | |
373 actually appears inside the Lisp world and can be used by the Emacs help | |
374 facilities. @xref{Documentation}, for how the @var{documentation-string} is | |
375 accessed. | |
376 | |
377 It is a good idea to provide documentation strings for all commands, | |
378 and for all other functions in your program that users of your program | |
379 should know about; internal functions might as well have only comments, | |
380 since comments don't take up any room when your program is loaded. | |
381 | |
382 The first line of the documentation string should stand on its own, | |
383 because @code{apropos} displays just this first line. It should consist | |
384 of one or two complete sentences that summarize the function's purpose. | |
385 | |
386 The start of the documentation string is usually indented, but since | |
387 these spaces come before the starting double-quote, they are not part of | |
388 the string. Some people make a practice of indenting any additional | |
7193 | 389 lines of the string so that the text lines up in the program source. |
390 @emph{This is a mistake.} The indentation of the following lines is | |
391 inside the string; what looks nice in the source code will look ugly | |
392 when displayed by the help commands. | |
6455 | 393 |
394 You may wonder how the documentation string could be optional, since | |
395 there are required components of the function that follow it (the body). | |
396 Since evaluation of a string returns that string, without any side effects, | |
397 it has no effect if it is not the last form in the body. Thus, in | |
398 practice, there is no confusion between the first form of the body and the | |
399 documentation string; if the only body form is a string then it serves both | |
400 as the return value and as the documentation. | |
401 | |
402 @node Function Names | |
403 @section Naming a Function | |
404 @cindex function definition | |
405 @cindex named function | |
406 @cindex function name | |
407 | |
408 In most computer languages, every function has a name; the idea of a | |
409 function without a name is nonsensical. In Lisp, a function in the | |
410 strictest sense has no name. It is simply a list whose first element is | |
411 @code{lambda}, or a primitive subr-object. | |
412 | |
413 However, a symbol can serve as the name of a function. This happens | |
414 when you put the function in the symbol's @dfn{function cell} | |
415 (@pxref{Symbol Components}). Then the symbol itself becomes a valid, | |
416 callable function, equivalent to the list or subr-object that its | |
417 function cell refers to. The contents of the function cell are also | |
418 called the symbol's @dfn{function definition}. The procedure of using a | |
419 symbol's function definition in place of the symbol is called | |
420 @dfn{symbol function indirection}; see @ref{Function Indirection}. | |
421 | |
422 In practice, nearly all functions are given names in this way and | |
423 referred to through their names. For example, the symbol @code{car} works | |
424 as a function and does what it does because the primitive subr-object | |
425 @code{#<subr car>} is stored in its function cell. | |
426 | |
427 We give functions names because it is convenient to refer to them by | |
428 their names in Lisp expressions. For primitive subr-objects such as | |
429 @code{#<subr car>}, names are the only way you can refer to them: there | |
430 is no read syntax for such objects. For functions written in Lisp, the | |
431 name is more convenient to use in a call than an explicit lambda | |
432 expression. Also, a function with a name can refer to itself---it can | |
433 be recursive. Writing the function's name in its own definition is much | |
434 more convenient than making the function definition point to itself | |
435 (something that is not impossible but that has various disadvantages in | |
436 practice). | |
437 | |
438 We often identify functions with the symbols used to name them. For | |
439 example, we often speak of ``the function @code{car}'', not | |
440 distinguishing between the symbol @code{car} and the primitive | |
441 subr-object that is its function definition. For most purposes, there | |
442 is no need to distinguish. | |
443 | |
444 Even so, keep in mind that a function need not have a unique name. While | |
445 a given function object @emph{usually} appears in the function cell of only | |
446 one symbol, this is just a matter of convenience. It is easy to store | |
447 it in several symbols using @code{fset}; then each of the symbols is | |
448 equally well a name for the same function. | |
449 | |
450 A symbol used as a function name may also be used as a variable; | |
451 these two uses of a symbol are independent and do not conflict. | |
452 | |
453 @node Defining Functions | |
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454 @section Defining Functions |
6455 | 455 @cindex defining a function |
456 | |
457 We usually give a name to a function when it is first created. This | |
458 is called @dfn{defining a function}, and it is done with the | |
459 @code{defun} special form. | |
460 | |
461 @defspec defun name argument-list body-forms | |
462 @code{defun} is the usual way to define new Lisp functions. It | |
463 defines the symbol @var{name} as a function that looks like this: | |
464 | |
465 @example | |
466 (lambda @var{argument-list} . @var{body-forms}) | |
467 @end example | |
468 | |
469 @code{defun} stores this lambda expression in the function cell of | |
470 @var{name}. It returns the value @var{name}, but usually we ignore this | |
471 value. | |
472 | |
473 As described previously (@pxref{Lambda Expressions}), | |
474 @var{argument-list} is a list of argument names and may include the | |
475 keywords @code{&optional} and @code{&rest}. Also, the first two forms | |
476 in @var{body-forms} may be a documentation string and an interactive | |
477 declaration. | |
478 | |
479 There is no conflict if the same symbol @var{name} is also used as a | |
480 variable, since the symbol's value cell is independent of the function | |
481 cell. @xref{Symbol Components}. | |
482 | |
483 Here are some examples: | |
484 | |
485 @example | |
486 @group | |
487 (defun foo () 5) | |
488 @result{} foo | |
489 @end group | |
490 @group | |
491 (foo) | |
492 @result{} 5 | |
493 @end group | |
494 | |
495 @group | |
496 (defun bar (a &optional b &rest c) | |
497 (list a b c)) | |
498 @result{} bar | |
499 @end group | |
500 @group | |
501 (bar 1 2 3 4 5) | |
502 @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5)) | |
503 @end group | |
504 @group | |
505 (bar 1) | |
506 @result{} (1 nil nil) | |
507 @end group | |
508 @group | |
509 (bar) | |
510 @error{} Wrong number of arguments. | |
511 @end group | |
512 | |
513 @group | |
514 (defun capitalize-backwards () | |
515 "Upcase the last letter of a word." | |
516 (interactive) | |
517 (backward-word 1) | |
518 (forward-word 1) | |
519 (backward-char 1) | |
520 (capitalize-word 1)) | |
521 @result{} capitalize-backwards | |
522 @end group | |
523 @end example | |
524 | |
525 Be careful not to redefine existing functions unintentionally. | |
526 @code{defun} redefines even primitive functions such as @code{car} | |
527 without any hesitation or notification. Redefining a function already | |
528 defined is often done deliberately, and there is no way to distinguish | |
529 deliberate redefinition from unintentional redefinition. | |
530 @end defspec | |
531 | |
532 @defun defalias name definition | |
533 This special form defines the symbol @var{name} as a function, with | |
7193 | 534 definition @var{definition} (which can be any valid Lisp function). |
535 It's best to use this rather than @code{fset} when defining a function | |
536 in a file, because @code{defalias} records which file defined the | |
537 function (@pxref{Unloading}), while @code{fset} does not. | |
6455 | 538 @end defun |
539 | |
540 @node Calling Functions | |
541 @section Calling Functions | |
542 @cindex function invocation | |
543 @cindex calling a function | |
544 | |
545 Defining functions is only half the battle. Functions don't do | |
546 anything until you @dfn{call} them, i.e., tell them to run. Calling a | |
547 function is also known as @dfn{invocation}. | |
548 | |
7193 | 549 The most common way of invoking a function is by evaluating a list. |
550 For example, evaluating the list @code{(concat "a" "b")} calls the | |
551 function @code{concat} with arguments @code{"a"} and @code{"b"}. | |
552 @xref{Evaluation}, for a description of evaluation. | |
6455 | 553 |
554 When you write a list as an expression in your program, the function | |
555 name is part of the program. This means that you choose which function | |
556 to call, and how many arguments to give it, when you write the program. | |
557 Usually that's just what you want. Occasionally you need to decide at | |
558 run time which function to call. To do that, use the functions | |
559 @code{funcall} and @code{apply}. | |
560 | |
561 @defun funcall function &rest arguments | |
562 @code{funcall} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, and returns | |
563 whatever @var{function} returns. | |
564 | |
565 Since @code{funcall} is a function, all of its arguments, including | |
566 @var{function}, are evaluated before @code{funcall} is called. This | |
567 means that you can use any expression to obtain the function to be | |
568 called. It also means that @code{funcall} does not see the expressions | |
569 you write for the @var{arguments}, only their values. These values are | |
570 @emph{not} evaluated a second time in the act of calling @var{function}; | |
571 @code{funcall} enters the normal procedure for calling a function at the | |
572 place where the arguments have already been evaluated. | |
573 | |
574 The argument @var{function} must be either a Lisp function or a | |
575 primitive function. Special forms and macros are not allowed, because | |
576 they make sense only when given the ``unevaluated'' argument | |
577 expressions. @code{funcall} cannot provide these because, as we saw | |
578 above, it never knows them in the first place. | |
579 | |
580 @example | |
581 @group | |
582 (setq f 'list) | |
583 @result{} list | |
584 @end group | |
585 @group | |
586 (funcall f 'x 'y 'z) | |
587 @result{} (x y z) | |
588 @end group | |
589 @group | |
590 (funcall f 'x 'y '(z)) | |
591 @result{} (x y (z)) | |
592 @end group | |
593 @group | |
594 (funcall 'and t nil) | |
595 @error{} Invalid function: #<subr and> | |
596 @end group | |
597 @end example | |
598 | |
599 Compare these example with the examples of @code{apply}. | |
600 @end defun | |
601 | |
602 @defun apply function &rest arguments | |
603 @code{apply} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, just like | |
604 @code{funcall} but with one difference: the last of @var{arguments} is a | |
605 list of arguments to give to @var{function}, rather than a single | |
7193 | 606 argument. We also say that @code{apply} @dfn{spreads} this list so that |
607 each individual element becomes an argument. | |
6455 | 608 |
609 @code{apply} returns the result of calling @var{function}. As with | |
610 @code{funcall}, @var{function} must either be a Lisp function or a | |
611 primitive function; special forms and macros do not make sense in | |
612 @code{apply}. | |
613 | |
614 @example | |
615 @group | |
616 (setq f 'list) | |
617 @result{} list | |
618 @end group | |
619 @group | |
620 (apply f 'x 'y 'z) | |
621 @error{} Wrong type argument: listp, z | |
622 @end group | |
623 @group | |
624 (apply '+ 1 2 '(3 4)) | |
625 @result{} 10 | |
626 @end group | |
627 @group | |
628 (apply '+ '(1 2 3 4)) | |
629 @result{} 10 | |
630 @end group | |
631 | |
632 @group | |
633 (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil)) | |
634 @result{} (a b c x y z) | |
635 @end group | |
636 @end example | |
637 | |
638 For an interesting example of using @code{apply}, see the description of | |
639 @code{mapcar}, in @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
640 @end defun | |
641 | |
642 @cindex functionals | |
643 It is common for Lisp functions to accept functions as arguments or | |
644 find them in data structures (especially in hook variables and property | |
645 lists) and call them using @code{funcall} or @code{apply}. Functions | |
646 that accept function arguments are often called @dfn{functionals}. | |
647 | |
648 Sometimes, when you call such a function, it is useful to supply a | |
649 no-op function as the argument. Here are two different kinds of no-op | |
650 function: | |
651 | |
652 @defun identity arg | |
653 This function returns @var{arg} and has no side effects. | |
654 @end defun | |
655 | |
656 @defun ignore &rest args | |
657 This function ignores any arguments and returns @code{nil}. | |
658 @end defun | |
659 | |
660 @node Mapping Functions | |
661 @section Mapping Functions | |
662 @cindex mapping functions | |
663 | |
664 A @dfn{mapping function} applies a given function to each element of a | |
665 list or other collection. Emacs Lisp has three such functions; | |
666 @code{mapcar} and @code{mapconcat}, which scan a list, are described | |
667 here. For the third mapping function, @code{mapatoms}, see | |
668 @ref{Creating Symbols}. | |
669 | |
670 @defun mapcar function sequence | |
7193 | 671 @code{mapcar} applies @var{function} to each element of @var{sequence} |
672 in turn, and returns a list of the results. | |
6455 | 673 |
7193 | 674 The argument @var{sequence} may be a list, a vector, or a string. The |
6455 | 675 result is always a list. The length of the result is the same as the |
676 length of @var{sequence}. | |
677 | |
678 @smallexample | |
679 @group | |
680 @exdent @r{For example:} | |
681 | |
682 (mapcar 'car '((a b) (c d) (e f))) | |
683 @result{} (a c e) | |
684 (mapcar '1+ [1 2 3]) | |
685 @result{} (2 3 4) | |
686 (mapcar 'char-to-string "abc") | |
687 @result{} ("a" "b" "c") | |
688 @end group | |
689 | |
690 @group | |
691 ;; @r{Call each function in @code{my-hooks}.} | |
692 (mapcar 'funcall my-hooks) | |
693 @end group | |
694 | |
695 @group | |
696 (defun mapcar* (f &rest args) | |
697 "Apply FUNCTION to successive cars of all ARGS. | |
698 Return the list of results." | |
699 ;; @r{If no list is exhausted,} | |
700 (if (not (memq 'nil args)) | |
701 ;; @r{apply function to @sc{CAR}s.} | |
702 (cons (apply f (mapcar 'car args)) | |
703 (apply 'mapcar* f | |
704 ;; @r{Recurse for rest of elements.} | |
705 (mapcar 'cdr args))))) | |
706 @end group | |
707 | |
708 @group | |
709 (mapcar* 'cons '(a b c) '(1 2 3 4)) | |
710 @result{} ((a . 1) (b . 2) (c . 3)) | |
711 @end group | |
712 @end smallexample | |
713 @end defun | |
714 | |
715 @defun mapconcat function sequence separator | |
716 @code{mapconcat} applies @var{function} to each element of | |
717 @var{sequence}: the results, which must be strings, are concatenated. | |
718 Between each pair of result strings, @code{mapconcat} inserts the string | |
719 @var{separator}. Usually @var{separator} contains a space or comma or | |
720 other suitable punctuation. | |
721 | |
722 The argument @var{function} must be a function that can take one | |
723 argument and return a string. | |
724 | |
725 @smallexample | |
726 @group | |
727 (mapconcat 'symbol-name | |
728 '(The cat in the hat) | |
729 " ") | |
730 @result{} "The cat in the hat" | |
731 @end group | |
732 | |
733 @group | |
734 (mapconcat (function (lambda (x) (format "%c" (1+ x)))) | |
735 "HAL-8000" | |
736 "") | |
737 @result{} "IBM.9111" | |
738 @end group | |
739 @end smallexample | |
740 @end defun | |
741 | |
742 @node Anonymous Functions | |
743 @section Anonymous Functions | |
744 @cindex anonymous function | |
745 | |
746 In Lisp, a function is a list that starts with @code{lambda}, a | |
747 byte-code function compiled from such a list, or alternatively a | |
748 primitive subr-object; names are ``extra''. Although usually functions | |
749 are defined with @code{defun} and given names at the same time, it is | |
750 occasionally more concise to use an explicit lambda expression---an | |
751 anonymous function. Such a list is valid wherever a function name is. | |
752 | |
753 Any method of creating such a list makes a valid function. Even this: | |
754 | |
755 @smallexample | |
756 @group | |
757 (setq silly (append '(lambda (x)) (list (list '+ (* 3 4) 'x)))) | |
758 @result{} (lambda (x) (+ 12 x)) | |
759 @end group | |
760 @end smallexample | |
761 | |
762 @noindent | |
763 This computes a list that looks like @code{(lambda (x) (+ 12 x))} and | |
764 makes it the value (@emph{not} the function definition!) of | |
765 @code{silly}. | |
766 | |
767 Here is how we might call this function: | |
768 | |
769 @example | |
770 @group | |
771 (funcall silly 1) | |
772 @result{} 13 | |
773 @end group | |
774 @end example | |
775 | |
776 @noindent | |
777 (It does @emph{not} work to write @code{(silly 1)}, because this function | |
778 is not the @emph{function definition} of @code{silly}. We have not given | |
779 @code{silly} any function definition, just a value as a variable.) | |
780 | |
781 Most of the time, anonymous functions are constants that appear in | |
782 your program. For example, you might want to pass one as an argument | |
783 to the function @code{mapcar}, which applies any given function to each | |
784 element of a list. Here we pass an anonymous function that multiplies | |
785 a number by two: | |
786 | |
787 @example | |
788 @group | |
789 (defun double-each (list) | |
790 (mapcar '(lambda (x) (* 2 x)) list)) | |
791 @result{} double-each | |
792 @end group | |
793 @group | |
794 (double-each '(2 11)) | |
795 @result{} (4 22) | |
796 @end group | |
797 @end example | |
798 | |
799 @noindent | |
800 In such cases, we usually use the special form @code{function} instead | |
801 of simple quotation to quote the anonymous function. | |
802 | |
803 @defspec function function-object | |
804 @cindex function quoting | |
805 This special form returns @var{function-object} without evaluating it. | |
806 In this, it is equivalent to @code{quote}. However, it serves as a | |
807 note to the Emacs Lisp compiler that @var{function-object} is intended | |
808 to be used only as a function, and therefore can safely be compiled. | |
809 Contrast this with @code{quote}, in @ref{Quoting}. | |
810 @end defspec | |
811 | |
812 Using @code{function} instead of @code{quote} makes a difference | |
813 inside a function or macro that you are going to compile. For example: | |
814 | |
815 @example | |
816 @group | |
817 (defun double-each (list) | |
818 (mapcar (function (lambda (x) (* 2 x))) list)) | |
819 @result{} double-each | |
820 @end group | |
821 @group | |
822 (double-each '(2 11)) | |
823 @result{} (4 22) | |
824 @end group | |
825 @end example | |
826 | |
827 @noindent | |
828 If this definition of @code{double-each} is compiled, the anonymous | |
829 function is compiled as well. By contrast, in the previous definition | |
830 where ordinary @code{quote} is used, the argument passed to | |
831 @code{mapcar} is the precise list shown: | |
832 | |
833 @example | |
834 (lambda (x) (* x 2)) | |
835 @end example | |
836 | |
837 @noindent | |
838 The Lisp compiler cannot assume this list is a function, even though it | |
839 looks like one, since it does not know what @code{mapcar} does with the | |
840 list. Perhaps @code{mapcar} will check that the @sc{car} of the third | |
841 element is the symbol @code{*}! The advantage of @code{function} is | |
842 that it tells the compiler to go ahead and compile the constant | |
843 function. | |
844 | |
845 We sometimes write @code{function} instead of @code{quote} when | |
846 quoting the name of a function, but this usage is just a sort of | |
847 comment. | |
848 | |
849 @example | |
850 (function @var{symbol}) @equiv{} (quote @var{symbol}) @equiv{} '@var{symbol} | |
851 @end example | |
852 | |
853 See @code{documentation} in @ref{Accessing Documentation}, for a | |
854 realistic example using @code{function} and an anonymous function. | |
855 | |
856 @node Function Cells | |
857 @section Accessing Function Cell Contents | |
858 | |
859 The @dfn{function definition} of a symbol is the object stored in the | |
860 function cell of the symbol. The functions described here access, test, | |
861 and set the function cell of symbols. | |
862 | |
7193 | 863 See also the function @code{indirect-function} in @ref{Function |
864 Indirection}. | |
865 | |
6455 | 866 @defun symbol-function symbol |
867 @kindex void-function | |
868 This returns the object in the function cell of @var{symbol}. If the | |
869 symbol's function cell is void, a @code{void-function} error is | |
870 signaled. | |
871 | |
872 This function does not check that the returned object is a legitimate | |
873 function. | |
874 | |
875 @example | |
876 @group | |
877 (defun bar (n) (+ n 2)) | |
878 @result{} bar | |
879 @end group | |
880 @group | |
881 (symbol-function 'bar) | |
882 @result{} (lambda (n) (+ n 2)) | |
883 @end group | |
884 @group | |
885 (fset 'baz 'bar) | |
886 @result{} bar | |
887 @end group | |
888 @group | |
889 (symbol-function 'baz) | |
890 @result{} bar | |
891 @end group | |
892 @end example | |
893 @end defun | |
894 | |
895 @cindex void function cell | |
896 If you have never given a symbol any function definition, we say that | |
897 that symbol's function cell is @dfn{void}. In other words, the function | |
898 cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to call such a symbol | |
899 as a function, it signals a @code{void-function} error. | |
900 | |
901 Note that void is not the same as @code{nil} or the symbol | |
902 @code{void}. The symbols @code{nil} and @code{void} are Lisp objects, | |
903 and can be stored into a function cell just as any other object can be | |
904 (and they can be valid functions if you define them in turn with | |
7193 | 905 @code{defun}). A void function cell contains no object whatsoever. |
6455 | 906 |
907 You can test the voidness of a symbol's function definition with | |
908 @code{fboundp}. After you have given a symbol a function definition, you | |
909 can make it void once more using @code{fmakunbound}. | |
910 | |
911 @defun fboundp symbol | |
912 This function returns @code{t} if the symbol has an object in its | |
913 function cell, @code{nil} otherwise. It does not check that the object | |
914 is a legitimate function. | |
915 @end defun | |
916 | |
917 @defun fmakunbound symbol | |
918 This function makes @var{symbol}'s function cell void, so that a | |
919 subsequent attempt to access this cell will cause a @code{void-function} | |
920 error. (See also @code{makunbound}, in @ref{Local Variables}.) | |
921 | |
922 @example | |
923 @group | |
924 (defun foo (x) x) | |
925 @result{} x | |
926 @end group | |
927 @group | |
7193 | 928 (foo 1) |
929 @result{}1 | |
930 @end group | |
931 @group | |
6455 | 932 (fmakunbound 'foo) |
933 @result{} x | |
934 @end group | |
935 @group | |
936 (foo 1) | |
937 @error{} Symbol's function definition is void: foo | |
938 @end group | |
939 @end example | |
940 @end defun | |
941 | |
942 @defun fset symbol object | |
943 This function stores @var{object} in the function cell of @var{symbol}. | |
944 The result is @var{object}. Normally @var{object} should be a function | |
945 or the name of a function, but this is not checked. | |
946 | |
947 There are three normal uses of this function: | |
948 | |
949 @itemize @bullet | |
950 @item | |
951 Copying one symbol's function definition to another. (In other words, | |
952 making an alternate name for a function.) | |
953 | |
954 @item | |
955 Giving a symbol a function definition that is not a list and therefore | |
7193 | 956 cannot be made with @code{defun}. For example, you can use @code{fset} |
957 to give a symbol @code{s1} a function definition which is another symbol | |
958 @code{s2}; then @code{s1} serves as an alias for whatever definition | |
959 @code{s2} presently has. | |
6455 | 960 |
961 @item | |
962 In constructs for defining or altering functions. If @code{defun} | |
963 were not a primitive, it could be written in Lisp (as a macro) using | |
964 @code{fset}. | |
965 @end itemize | |
966 | |
967 Here are examples of the first two uses: | |
968 | |
969 @example | |
970 @group | |
971 ;; @r{Give @code{first} the same definition @code{car} has.} | |
972 (fset 'first (symbol-function 'car)) | |
973 @result{} #<subr car> | |
974 @end group | |
975 @group | |
976 (first '(1 2 3)) | |
977 @result{} 1 | |
978 @end group | |
979 | |
980 @group | |
981 ;; @r{Make the symbol @code{car} the function definition of @code{xfirst}.} | |
982 (fset 'xfirst 'car) | |
983 @result{} car | |
984 @end group | |
985 @group | |
986 (xfirst '(1 2 3)) | |
987 @result{} 1 | |
988 @end group | |
989 @group | |
990 (symbol-function 'xfirst) | |
991 @result{} car | |
992 @end group | |
993 @group | |
994 (symbol-function (symbol-function 'xfirst)) | |
995 @result{} #<subr car> | |
996 @end group | |
997 | |
998 @group | |
999 ;; @r{Define a named keyboard macro.} | |
1000 (fset 'kill-two-lines "\^u2\^k") | |
1001 @result{} "\^u2\^k" | |
1002 @end group | |
1003 @end example | |
7193 | 1004 |
1005 See also the related function @code{defalias}, in @ref{Defining | |
1006 Functions}. | |
6455 | 1007 @end defun |
1008 | |
1009 When writing a function that extends a previously defined function, | |
1010 the following idiom is often used: | |
1011 | |
1012 @example | |
1013 (fset 'old-foo (symbol-function 'foo)) | |
1014 (defun foo () | |
1015 "Just like old-foo, except more so." | |
1016 @group | |
1017 (old-foo) | |
1018 (more-so)) | |
1019 @end group | |
1020 @end example | |
1021 | |
1022 @noindent | |
1023 This does not work properly if @code{foo} has been defined to autoload. | |
1024 In such a case, when @code{foo} calls @code{old-foo}, Lisp attempts | |
1025 to define @code{old-foo} by loading a file. Since this presumably | |
1026 defines @code{foo} rather than @code{old-foo}, it does not produce the | |
1027 proper results. The only way to avoid this problem is to make sure the | |
1028 file is loaded before moving aside the old definition of @code{foo}. | |
1029 | |
1030 @node Inline Functions | |
1031 @section Inline Functions | |
1032 @cindex inline functions | |
1033 | |
1034 @findex defsubst | |
1035 You can define an @dfn{inline function} by using @code{defsubst} instead | |
1036 of @code{defun}. An inline function works just like an ordinary | |
1037 function except for one thing: when you compile a call to the function, | |
1038 the function's definition is open-coded into the caller. | |
1039 | |
1040 Making a function inline makes explicit calls run faster. But it also | |
1041 has disadvantages. For one thing, it reduces flexibility; if you change | |
1042 the definition of the function, calls already inlined still use the old | |
1043 definition until you recompile them. Since the flexibility of | |
1044 redefining functions is an important feature of Emacs, you should not | |
1045 make a function inline unless its speed is really crucial. | |
1046 | |
1047 Another disadvantage is that making a large function inline can increase | |
1048 the size of compiled code both in files and in memory. Since the speed | |
1049 advantage of inline functions is greatest for small functions, you | |
1050 generally should not make large functions inline. | |
1051 | |
1052 It's possible to define a macro to expand into the same code that an | |
1053 inline function would execute. But the macro would have a limitation: | |
1054 you can use it only explicitly---a macro cannot be called with | |
1055 @code{apply}, @code{mapcar} and so on. Also, it takes some work to | |
1056 convert an ordinary function into a macro. (@xref{Macros}.) To convert | |
1057 it into an inline function is very easy; simply replace @code{defun} | |
1058 with @code{defsubst}. Since each argument of an inline function is | |
1059 evaluated exactly once, you needn't worry about how many times the | |
1060 body uses the arguments, as you do for macros. (@xref{Argument | |
1061 Evaluation}.) | |
1062 | |
7193 | 1063 Inline functions can be used and open-coded later on in the same file, |
6455 | 1064 following the definition, just like macros. |
1065 | |
1066 Emacs versions prior to 19 did not have inline functions. | |
1067 | |
1068 @node Related Topics | |
1069 @section Other Topics Related to Functions | |
1070 | |
1071 Here is a table of several functions that do things related to | |
1072 function calling and function definitions. They are documented | |
1073 elsewhere, but we provide cross references here. | |
1074 | |
1075 @table @code | |
1076 @item apply | |
1077 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1078 | |
1079 @item autoload | |
1080 See @ref{Autoload}. | |
1081 | |
1082 @item call-interactively | |
1083 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1084 | |
1085 @item commandp | |
1086 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1087 | |
1088 @item documentation | |
1089 See @ref{Accessing Documentation}. | |
1090 | |
1091 @item eval | |
1092 See @ref{Eval}. | |
1093 | |
1094 @item funcall | |
1095 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1096 | |
1097 @item ignore | |
1098 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1099 | |
1100 @item indirect-function | |
1101 See @ref{Function Indirection}. | |
1102 | |
1103 @item interactive | |
1104 See @ref{Using Interactive}. | |
1105 | |
1106 @item interactive-p | |
1107 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1108 | |
1109 @item mapatoms | |
1110 See @ref{Creating Symbols}. | |
1111 | |
1112 @item mapcar | |
1113 See @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
1114 | |
1115 @item mapconcat | |
1116 See @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
1117 | |
1118 @item undefined | |
1119 See @ref{Key Lookup}. | |
1120 @end table | |
1121 |