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annotate lispref/lists.texi @ 56773:6764baacc7a3
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author | Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu> |
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date | Sun, 22 Aug 2004 21:11:43 +0000 |
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6558 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
56215 | 3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, |
4 @c 2003, 2004 | |
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5 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6558 | 6 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
7 @setfilename ../info/lists | |
8 @node Lists, Sequences Arrays Vectors, Strings and Characters, Top | |
9 @chapter Lists | |
10 @cindex list | |
11 @cindex element (of list) | |
12 | |
13 A @dfn{list} represents a sequence of zero or more elements (which may | |
14 be any Lisp objects). The important difference between lists and | |
15 vectors is that two or more lists can share part of their structure; in | |
16 addition, you can insert or delete elements in a list without copying | |
17 the whole list. | |
18 | |
19 @menu | |
20 * Cons Cells:: How lists are made out of cons cells. | |
21 * Lists as Boxes:: Graphical notation to explain lists. | |
22 * List-related Predicates:: Is this object a list? Comparing two lists. | |
23 * List Elements:: Extracting the pieces of a list. | |
24 * Building Lists:: Creating list structure. | |
25 * Modifying Lists:: Storing new pieces into an existing list. | |
26 * Sets And Lists:: A list can represent a finite mathematical set. | |
27 * Association Lists:: A list can represent a finite relation or mapping. | |
28 @end menu | |
29 | |
30 @node Cons Cells | |
31 @section Lists and Cons Cells | |
32 @cindex lists and cons cells | |
33 @cindex @code{nil} and lists | |
34 | |
35 Lists in Lisp are not a primitive data type; they are built up from | |
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36 @dfn{cons cells}. A cons cell is a data object that represents an |
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37 ordered pair. That is, it has two slots, and each slot @dfn{holds}, or |
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38 @dfn{refers to}, some Lisp object. One slot is known as the @sc{car}, |
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39 and the other is known as the @sc{cdr}. (These names are traditional; |
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40 see @ref{Cons Cell Type}.) @sc{cdr} is pronounced ``could-er.'' |
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41 |
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42 We say that ``the @sc{car} of this cons cell is'' whatever object |
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43 its @sc{car} slot currently holds, and likewise for the @sc{cdr}. |
6558 | 44 |
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45 A list is a series of cons cells ``chained together,'' so that each |
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46 cell refers to the next one. There is one cons cell for each element of |
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47 the list. By convention, the @sc{car}s of the cons cells hold the |
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48 elements of the list, and the @sc{cdr}s are used to chain the list: the |
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49 @sc{cdr} slot of each cons cell refers to the following cons cell. The |
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50 @sc{cdr} of the last cons cell is @code{nil}. This asymmetry between |
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51 the @sc{car} and the @sc{cdr} is entirely a matter of convention; at the |
6558 | 52 level of cons cells, the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} slots have the same |
53 characteristics. | |
54 | |
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55 @cindex true list |
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56 Since @code{nil} is the conventional value to put in the @sc{cdr} of |
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57 the last cons cell in the list, we call that case a @dfn{true list}. |
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58 |
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59 In Lisp, we consider the symbol @code{nil} a list as well as a |
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60 symbol; it is the list with no elements. For convenience, the symbol |
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61 @code{nil} is considered to have @code{nil} as its @sc{cdr} (and also |
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62 as its @sc{car}). Therefore, the @sc{cdr} of a true list is always a |
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63 true list. |
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64 |
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65 @cindex dotted list |
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66 @cindex circular list |
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67 If the @sc{cdr} of a list's last cons cell is some other value, |
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68 neither @code{nil} nor another cons cell, we call the structure a |
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69 @dfn{dotted list}, since its printed representation would use |
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70 @samp{.}. There is one other possibility: some cons cell's @sc{cdr} |
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71 could point to one of the previous cons cells in the list. We call |
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72 that structure a @dfn{circular list}. |
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73 |
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74 For some purposes, it does not matter whether a list is true, |
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75 circular or dotted. If the program doesn't look far enough down the |
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76 list to see the @sc{cdr} of the final cons cell, it won't care. |
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77 However, some functions that operate on lists demand true lists and |
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78 signal errors if given a dotted list. Most functions that try to find |
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79 the end of a list enter infinite loops if given a circular list. |
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80 |
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81 @cindex list structure |
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82 Because most cons cells are used as part of lists, the phrase |
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83 @dfn{list structure} has come to mean any structure made out of cons |
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84 cells. |
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85 |
6558 | 86 The @sc{cdr} of any nonempty list @var{l} is a list containing all the |
87 elements of @var{l} except the first. | |
88 | |
89 @node Lists as Boxes | |
90 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
91 @section Lists as Linked Pairs of Boxes | |
92 @cindex box representation for lists | |
93 @cindex lists represented as boxes | |
94 @cindex cons cell as box | |
95 | |
96 A cons cell can be illustrated as a pair of boxes. The first box | |
97 represents the @sc{car} and the second box represents the @sc{cdr}. | |
98 Here is an illustration of the two-element list, @code{(tulip lily)}, | |
99 made from two cons cells: | |
100 | |
101 @example | |
102 @group | |
103 --------------- --------------- | |
104 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
105 | tulip | o---------->| lily | nil | | |
106 | | | | | | | |
107 --------------- --------------- | |
108 @end group | |
109 @end example | |
110 | |
111 Each pair of boxes represents a cons cell. Each box ``refers to'', | |
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112 ``points to'' or ``holds'' a Lisp object. (These terms are |
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113 synonymous.) The first box, which describes the @sc{car} of the first |
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114 cons cell, contains the symbol @code{tulip}. The arrow from the |
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115 @sc{cdr} box of the first cons cell to the second cons cell indicates |
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116 that the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell is the second cons cell. |
6558 | 117 |
118 The same list can be illustrated in a different sort of box notation | |
119 like this: | |
120 | |
121 @example | |
122 @group | |
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123 --- --- --- --- |
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124 | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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125 --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 126 | | |
127 | | | |
128 --> tulip --> lily | |
129 @end group | |
130 @end example | |
131 | |
132 Here is a more complex illustration, showing the three-element list, | |
133 @code{((pine needles) oak maple)}, the first element of which is a | |
134 two-element list: | |
135 | |
136 @example | |
137 @group | |
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138 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
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139 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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140 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 141 | | | |
142 | | | | |
143 | --> oak --> maple | |
144 | | |
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145 | --- --- --- --- |
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146 --> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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147 --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 148 | | |
149 | | | |
150 --> pine --> needles | |
151 @end group | |
152 @end example | |
153 | |
154 The same list represented in the first box notation looks like this: | |
155 | |
156 @example | |
157 @group | |
158 -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
159 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
160 | o | o------->| oak | o------->| maple | nil | | |
161 | | | | | | | | | | | |
162 -- | --------- -------------- -------------- | |
163 | | |
164 | | |
165 | -------------- ---------------- | |
166 | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
167 ------>| pine | o------->| needles | nil | | |
168 | | | | | | | |
169 -------------- ---------------- | |
170 @end group | |
171 @end example | |
172 | |
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173 @xref{Cons Cell Type}, for the read and print syntax of cons cells and |
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174 lists, and for more ``box and arrow'' illustrations of lists. |
6558 | 175 |
176 @node List-related Predicates | |
177 @section Predicates on Lists | |
178 | |
179 The following predicates test whether a Lisp object is an atom, is a | |
180 cons cell or is a list, or whether it is the distinguished object | |
181 @code{nil}. (Many of these predicates can be defined in terms of the | |
182 others, but they are used so often that it is worth having all of them.) | |
183 | |
184 @defun consp object | |
185 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} | |
186 otherwise. @code{nil} is not a cons cell, although it @emph{is} a list. | |
187 @end defun | |
188 | |
189 @defun atom object | |
190 @cindex atoms | |
191 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is an atom, @code{nil} | |
192 otherwise. All objects except cons cells are atoms. The symbol | |
193 @code{nil} is an atom and is also a list; it is the only Lisp object | |
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194 that is both. |
6558 | 195 |
196 @example | |
197 (atom @var{object}) @equiv{} (not (consp @var{object})) | |
198 @end example | |
199 @end defun | |
200 | |
201 @defun listp object | |
202 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a cons cell or | |
203 @code{nil}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
204 | |
205 @example | |
206 @group | |
207 (listp '(1)) | |
208 @result{} t | |
209 @end group | |
210 @group | |
211 (listp '()) | |
212 @result{} t | |
213 @end group | |
214 @end example | |
215 @end defun | |
216 | |
217 @defun nlistp object | |
218 This function is the opposite of @code{listp}: it returns @code{t} if | |
219 @var{object} is not a list. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
220 | |
221 @example | |
222 (listp @var{object}) @equiv{} (not (nlistp @var{object})) | |
223 @end example | |
224 @end defun | |
225 | |
226 @defun null object | |
227 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is @code{nil}, and | |
228 returns @code{nil} otherwise. This function is identical to @code{not}, | |
229 but as a matter of clarity we use @code{null} when @var{object} is | |
230 considered a list and @code{not} when it is considered a truth value | |
231 (see @code{not} in @ref{Combining Conditions}). | |
232 | |
233 @example | |
234 @group | |
235 (null '(1)) | |
236 @result{} nil | |
237 @end group | |
238 @group | |
239 (null '()) | |
240 @result{} t | |
241 @end group | |
242 @end example | |
243 @end defun | |
244 | |
7734 | 245 @need 2000 |
6558 | 246 |
247 @node List Elements | |
248 @section Accessing Elements of Lists | |
249 @cindex list elements | |
250 | |
251 @defun car cons-cell | |
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252 This function returns the value referred to by the first slot of the |
6558 | 253 cons cell @var{cons-cell}. Expressed another way, this function |
254 returns the @sc{car} of @var{cons-cell}. | |
255 | |
256 As a special case, if @var{cons-cell} is @code{nil}, then @code{car} | |
257 is defined to return @code{nil}; therefore, any list is a valid argument | |
258 for @code{car}. An error is signaled if the argument is not a cons cell | |
259 or @code{nil}. | |
260 | |
261 @example | |
262 @group | |
263 (car '(a b c)) | |
264 @result{} a | |
265 @end group | |
266 @group | |
267 (car '()) | |
268 @result{} nil | |
269 @end group | |
270 @end example | |
271 @end defun | |
272 | |
273 @defun cdr cons-cell | |
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274 This function returns the value referred to by the second slot of |
6558 | 275 the cons cell @var{cons-cell}. Expressed another way, this function |
276 returns the @sc{cdr} of @var{cons-cell}. | |
277 | |
278 As a special case, if @var{cons-cell} is @code{nil}, then @code{cdr} | |
279 is defined to return @code{nil}; therefore, any list is a valid argument | |
280 for @code{cdr}. An error is signaled if the argument is not a cons cell | |
281 or @code{nil}. | |
282 | |
283 @example | |
284 @group | |
285 (cdr '(a b c)) | |
286 @result{} (b c) | |
287 @end group | |
288 @group | |
289 (cdr '()) | |
290 @result{} nil | |
291 @end group | |
292 @end example | |
293 @end defun | |
294 | |
295 @defun car-safe object | |
296 This function lets you take the @sc{car} of a cons cell while avoiding | |
297 errors for other data types. It returns the @sc{car} of @var{object} if | |
298 @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} otherwise. This is in contrast | |
299 to @code{car}, which signals an error if @var{object} is not a list. | |
300 | |
301 @example | |
302 @group | |
303 (car-safe @var{object}) | |
304 @equiv{} | |
305 (let ((x @var{object})) | |
306 (if (consp x) | |
307 (car x) | |
308 nil)) | |
309 @end group | |
310 @end example | |
311 @end defun | |
312 | |
313 @defun cdr-safe object | |
314 This function lets you take the @sc{cdr} of a cons cell while | |
315 avoiding errors for other data types. It returns the @sc{cdr} of | |
316 @var{object} if @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
317 This is in contrast to @code{cdr}, which signals an error if | |
318 @var{object} is not a list. | |
319 | |
320 @example | |
321 @group | |
322 (cdr-safe @var{object}) | |
323 @equiv{} | |
324 (let ((x @var{object})) | |
325 (if (consp x) | |
326 (cdr x) | |
327 nil)) | |
328 @end group | |
329 @end example | |
330 @end defun | |
331 | |
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332 @tindex pop |
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333 @defmac pop listname |
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334 This macro is a way of examining the @sc{car} of a list, |
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335 and taking it off the list, all at once. It is new in Emacs 21. |
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336 |
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337 It operates on the list which is stored in the symbol @var{listname}. |
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338 It removes this element from the list by setting @var{listname} |
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339 to the @sc{cdr} of its old value---but it also returns the @sc{car} |
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340 of that list, which is the element being removed. |
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341 |
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342 @example |
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343 x |
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344 @result{} (a b c) |
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345 (pop x) |
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346 @result{} a |
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347 x |
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348 @result{} (b c) |
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349 @end example |
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350 @end defmac |
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351 |
56215 | 352 @defun nth n list |
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353 @anchor{Definition of nth} |
6558 | 354 This function returns the @var{n}th element of @var{list}. Elements |
355 are numbered starting with zero, so the @sc{car} of @var{list} is | |
356 element number zero. If the length of @var{list} is @var{n} or less, | |
357 the value is @code{nil}. | |
358 | |
359 If @var{n} is negative, @code{nth} returns the first element of | |
360 @var{list}. | |
361 | |
362 @example | |
363 @group | |
364 (nth 2 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
365 @result{} 3 | |
366 @end group | |
367 @group | |
368 (nth 10 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
369 @result{} nil | |
370 @end group | |
371 @group | |
372 (nth -3 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
373 @result{} 1 | |
374 | |
375 (nth n x) @equiv{} (car (nthcdr n x)) | |
376 @end group | |
377 @end example | |
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378 |
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379 The function @code{elt} is similar, but applies to any kind of sequence. |
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380 For historical reasons, it takes its arguments in the opposite order. |
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381 @xref{Sequence Functions}. |
6558 | 382 @end defun |
383 | |
384 @defun nthcdr n list | |
385 This function returns the @var{n}th @sc{cdr} of @var{list}. In other | |
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386 words, it skips past the first @var{n} links of @var{list} and returns |
6558 | 387 what follows. |
388 | |
389 If @var{n} is zero or negative, @code{nthcdr} returns all of | |
390 @var{list}. If the length of @var{list} is @var{n} or less, | |
391 @code{nthcdr} returns @code{nil}. | |
392 | |
393 @example | |
394 @group | |
395 (nthcdr 1 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
396 @result{} (2 3 4) | |
397 @end group | |
398 @group | |
399 (nthcdr 10 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
400 @result{} nil | |
401 @end group | |
402 @group | |
403 (nthcdr -3 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
404 @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
405 @end group | |
406 @end example | |
407 @end defun | |
408 | |
31131 | 409 @defun last list &optional n |
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410 This function returns the last link of @var{list}. The @code{car} of |
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411 this link is the list's last element. If @var{list} is null, |
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412 @code{nil} is returned. If @var{n} is non-@code{nil}, the |
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413 @var{n}th-to-last link is returned instead, or the whole of @var{list} |
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414 if @var{n} is bigger than @var{list}'s length. |
31131 | 415 @end defun |
416 | |
56215 | 417 @defun safe-length list |
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418 @anchor{Definition of safe-length} |
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419 This function returns the length of @var{list}, with no risk of either |
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420 an error or an infinite loop. It generally returns the number of |
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421 distinct cons cells in the list. However, for circular lists, |
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422 the value is just an upper bound; it is often too large. |
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423 |
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424 If @var{list} is not @code{nil} or a cons cell, @code{safe-length} |
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425 returns 0. |
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426 @end defun |
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427 |
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428 The most common way to compute the length of a list, when you are not |
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429 worried that it may be circular, is with @code{length}. @xref{Sequence |
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430 Functions}. |
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431 |
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432 @defun caar cons-cell |
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433 This is the same as @code{(car (car @var{cons-cell}))}. |
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434 @end defun |
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435 |
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436 @defun cadr cons-cell |
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437 This is the same as @code{(car (cdr @var{cons-cell}))} |
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438 or @code{(nth 1 @var{cons-cell})}. |
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439 @end defun |
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440 |
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441 @defun cdar cons-cell |
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442 This is the same as @code{(cdr (car @var{cons-cell}))}. |
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443 @end defun |
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444 |
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445 @defun cddr cons-cell |
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446 This is the same as @code{(cdr (cdr @var{cons-cell}))} |
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447 or @code{(nthcdr 2 @var{cons-cell})}. |
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448 @end defun |
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449 |
35090 | 450 @defun butlast x &optional n |
451 This function returns the list @var{x} with the last element, | |
452 or the last @var{n} elements, removed. If @var{n} is greater | |
453 than zero it makes a copy of the list so as not to damage the | |
454 original list. In general, @code{(append (butlast @var{x} @var{n}) | |
455 (last @var{x} @var{n}))} will return a list equal to @var{x}. | |
456 @end defun | |
457 | |
458 @defun nbutlast x &optional n | |
459 This is a version of @code{butlast} that works by destructively | |
460 modifying the @code{cdr} of the appropriate element, rather than | |
461 making a copy of the list. | |
462 @end defun | |
463 | |
6558 | 464 @node Building Lists |
465 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
466 @section Building Cons Cells and Lists | |
467 @cindex cons cells | |
468 @cindex building lists | |
469 | |
470 Many functions build lists, as lists reside at the very heart of Lisp. | |
471 @code{cons} is the fundamental list-building function; however, it is | |
472 interesting to note that @code{list} is used more times in the source | |
473 code for Emacs than @code{cons}. | |
474 | |
475 @defun cons object1 object2 | |
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476 This function is the most basic function for building new list |
6558 | 477 structure. It creates a new cons cell, making @var{object1} the |
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478 @sc{car}, and @var{object2} the @sc{cdr}. It then returns the new |
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479 cons cell. The arguments @var{object1} and @var{object2} may be any |
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480 Lisp objects, but most often @var{object2} is a list. |
6558 | 481 |
482 @example | |
483 @group | |
484 (cons 1 '(2)) | |
485 @result{} (1 2) | |
486 @end group | |
487 @group | |
488 (cons 1 '()) | |
489 @result{} (1) | |
490 @end group | |
491 @group | |
492 (cons 1 2) | |
493 @result{} (1 . 2) | |
494 @end group | |
495 @end example | |
496 | |
497 @cindex consing | |
498 @code{cons} is often used to add a single element to the front of a | |
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499 list. This is called @dfn{consing the element onto the list}. |
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500 @footnote{There is no strictly equivalent way to add an element to |
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501 the end of a list. You can use @code{(append @var{listname} (list |
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502 @var{newelt}))}, which creates a whole new list by copying @var{listname} |
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503 and adding @var{newelt} to its end. Or you can use @code{(nconc |
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504 @var{listname} (list @var{newelt}))}, which modifies @var{listname} |
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505 by following all the @sc{cdr}s and then replacing the terminating |
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506 @code{nil}. Compare this to adding an element to the beginning of a |
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507 list with @code{cons}, which neither copies nor modifies the list.} |
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508 For example: |
6558 | 509 |
510 @example | |
511 (setq list (cons newelt list)) | |
512 @end example | |
513 | |
514 Note that there is no conflict between the variable named @code{list} | |
515 used in this example and the function named @code{list} described below; | |
516 any symbol can serve both purposes. | |
517 @end defun | |
518 | |
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519 @tindex push |
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520 @defmac push newelt listname |
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521 This macro provides an alternative way to write |
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522 @code{(setq @var{listname} (cons @var{newelt} @var{listname}))}. |
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523 It is new in Emacs 21. |
38786 | 524 |
525 @example | |
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526 (setq l '(a b)) |
38786 | 527 @result{} (a b) |
528 (push 'c l) | |
529 @result{} (c a b) | |
530 l | |
531 @result{} (c a b) | |
532 @end example | |
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533 @end defmac |
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534 |
6558 | 535 @defun list &rest objects |
536 This function creates a list with @var{objects} as its elements. The | |
537 resulting list is always @code{nil}-terminated. If no @var{objects} | |
538 are given, the empty list is returned. | |
539 | |
540 @example | |
541 @group | |
542 (list 1 2 3 4 5) | |
543 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
544 @end group | |
545 @group | |
546 (list 1 2 '(3 4 5) 'foo) | |
547 @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5) foo) | |
548 @end group | |
549 @group | |
550 (list) | |
551 @result{} nil | |
552 @end group | |
553 @end example | |
554 @end defun | |
555 | |
556 @defun make-list length object | |
38786 | 557 This function creates a list of @var{length} elements, in which each |
558 element is @var{object}. Compare @code{make-list} with | |
559 @code{make-string} (@pxref{Creating Strings}). | |
6558 | 560 |
561 @example | |
562 @group | |
563 (make-list 3 'pigs) | |
564 @result{} (pigs pigs pigs) | |
565 @end group | |
566 @group | |
567 (make-list 0 'pigs) | |
568 @result{} nil | |
569 @end group | |
38786 | 570 @group |
571 (setq l (make-list 3 '(a b)) | |
572 @result{} ((a b) (a b) (a b)) | |
573 (eq (car l) (cadr l)) | |
574 @result{} t | |
575 @end group | |
6558 | 576 @end example |
577 @end defun | |
578 | |
579 @defun append &rest sequences | |
580 @cindex copying lists | |
581 This function returns a list containing all the elements of | |
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582 @var{sequences}. The @var{sequences} may be lists, vectors, |
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583 bool-vectors, or strings, but the last one should usually be a list. |
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584 All arguments except the last one are copied, so none of the arguments |
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585 is altered. (See @code{nconc} in @ref{Rearrangement}, for a way to join |
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586 lists with no copying.) |
6558 | 587 |
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588 More generally, the final argument to @code{append} may be any Lisp |
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589 object. The final argument is not copied or converted; it becomes the |
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590 @sc{cdr} of the last cons cell in the new list. If the final argument |
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591 is itself a list, then its elements become in effect elements of the |
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592 result list. If the final element is not a list, the result is a |
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593 dotted list since its final @sc{cdr} is not @code{nil} as required |
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594 in a true list. |
6558 | 595 |
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596 In Emacs 20 and before, the @code{append} function also allowed |
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597 integers as (non last) arguments. It converted them to strings of |
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598 digits, making up the decimal print representation of the integer, and |
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599 then used the strings instead of the original integers. This obsolete |
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600 usage no longer works. The proper way to convert an integer to a |
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601 decimal number in this way is with @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting |
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602 Strings}) or @code{number-to-string} (@pxref{String Conversion}). |
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603 @end defun |
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604 |
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605 Here is an example of using @code{append}: |
6558 | 606 |
607 @example | |
608 @group | |
609 (setq trees '(pine oak)) | |
610 @result{} (pine oak) | |
611 (setq more-trees (append '(maple birch) trees)) | |
612 @result{} (maple birch pine oak) | |
613 @end group | |
614 | |
615 @group | |
616 trees | |
617 @result{} (pine oak) | |
618 more-trees | |
619 @result{} (maple birch pine oak) | |
620 @end group | |
621 @group | |
622 (eq trees (cdr (cdr more-trees))) | |
623 @result{} t | |
624 @end group | |
625 @end example | |
626 | |
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627 You can see how @code{append} works by looking at a box diagram. The |
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628 variable @code{trees} is set to the list @code{(pine oak)} and then the |
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629 variable @code{more-trees} is set to the list @code{(maple birch pine |
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630 oak)}. However, the variable @code{trees} continues to refer to the |
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631 original list: |
6558 | 632 |
633 @smallexample | |
634 @group | |
635 more-trees trees | |
636 | | | |
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637 | --- --- --- --- -> --- --- --- --- |
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638 --> | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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639 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 640 | | | | |
641 | | | | | |
642 --> maple -->birch --> pine --> oak | |
643 @end group | |
644 @end smallexample | |
645 | |
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646 An empty sequence contributes nothing to the value returned by |
6558 | 647 @code{append}. As a consequence of this, a final @code{nil} argument |
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648 forces a copy of the previous argument: |
6558 | 649 |
650 @example | |
651 @group | |
652 trees | |
653 @result{} (pine oak) | |
654 @end group | |
655 @group | |
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656 (setq wood (append trees nil)) |
6558 | 657 @result{} (pine oak) |
658 @end group | |
659 @group | |
660 wood | |
661 @result{} (pine oak) | |
662 @end group | |
663 @group | |
664 (eq wood trees) | |
665 @result{} nil | |
666 @end group | |
667 @end example | |
668 | |
669 @noindent | |
670 This once was the usual way to copy a list, before the function | |
671 @code{copy-sequence} was invented. @xref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}. | |
672 | |
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673 Here we show the use of vectors and strings as arguments to @code{append}: |
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674 |
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675 @example |
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676 @group |
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677 (append [a b] "cd" nil) |
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678 @result{} (a b 99 100) |
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679 @end group |
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680 @end example |
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681 |
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682 With the help of @code{apply} (@pxref{Calling Functions}), we can append |
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683 all the lists in a list of lists: |
6558 | 684 |
685 @example | |
686 @group | |
687 (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil)) | |
688 @result{} (a b c x y z) | |
689 @end group | |
690 @end example | |
691 | |
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692 If no @var{sequences} are given, @code{nil} is returned: |
6558 | 693 |
694 @example | |
695 @group | |
696 (append) | |
697 @result{} nil | |
698 @end group | |
699 @end example | |
700 | |
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701 Here are some examples where the final argument is not a list: |
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702 |
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703 @example |
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704 (append '(x y) 'z) |
12098 | 705 @result{} (x y . z) |
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706 (append '(x y) [z]) |
12098 | 707 @result{} (x y . [z]) |
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708 @end example |
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709 |
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710 @noindent |
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711 The second example shows that when the final argument is a sequence but |
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712 not a list, the sequence's elements do not become elements of the |
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713 resulting list. Instead, the sequence becomes the final @sc{cdr}, like |
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714 any other non-list final argument. |
6558 | 715 |
716 @defun reverse list | |
717 This function creates a new list whose elements are the elements of | |
718 @var{list}, but in reverse order. The original argument @var{list} is | |
719 @emph{not} altered. | |
720 | |
721 @example | |
722 @group | |
723 (setq x '(1 2 3 4)) | |
724 @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
725 @end group | |
726 @group | |
727 (reverse x) | |
728 @result{} (4 3 2 1) | |
729 x | |
730 @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
731 @end group | |
732 @end example | |
733 @end defun | |
734 | |
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735 @defun copy-tree tree &optional vecp |
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736 This function returns a copy of the tree @code{tree}. If @var{tree} is a |
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737 cons cell, this makes a new cons cell with the same @sc{car} and |
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738 @sc{cdr}, then recursively copies the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} in the |
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739 same way. |
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740 |
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741 Normally, when @var{tree} is anything other than a cons cell, |
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742 @code{copy-tree} simply returns @var{tree}. However, if @var{vecp} is |
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743 non-@code{nil}, it copies vectors too (and operates recursively on |
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744 their elements). |
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745 @end defun |
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746 |
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747 @defun number-sequence from &optional to separation |
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748 This returns a list of numbers starting with @var{from} and |
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749 incrementing by @var{separation}, and ending at or just before |
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750 @var{to}. @var{separation} can be positive or negative and defaults |
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751 to 1. If @var{to} is @code{nil} or numerically equal to @var{from}, |
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752 the one element list @code{(from)} is returned. If @var{separation} |
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753 is 0 and @var{to} is neither @code{nil} nor numerically equal to |
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754 @var{from}, an error is signaled. |
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755 |
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756 All arguments can be integers or floating point numbers. However, |
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757 floating point arguments can be tricky, because floating point |
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758 arithmetic is inexact. For instance, depending on the machine, it may |
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759 quite well happen that @code{(number-sequence 0.4 0.6 0.2)} returns |
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760 the one element list @code{(0.4)}, whereas |
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761 @code{(number-sequence 0.4 0.8 0.2)} returns a list with three |
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762 elements. The @var{n}th element of the list is computed by the exact |
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763 formula @code{(+ @var{from} (* @var{n} @var{separation}))}. Thus, if |
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764 one wants to make sure that @var{to} is included in the list, one can |
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765 pass an expression of this exact type for @var{to}. Alternatively, |
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766 one can replace @var{to} with a slightly larger value (or a slightly |
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767 more negative value if @var{separation} is negative). |
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768 |
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769 Some examples: |
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770 |
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771 @example |
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772 (number-sequence 4 9) |
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773 @result{} (4 5 6 7 8 9) |
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774 (number-sequence 9 4 -1) |
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775 @result{} (9 8 7 6 5 4) |
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776 (number-sequence 9 4 -2) |
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777 @result{} (9 7 5) |
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778 (number-sequence 8) |
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779 @result{} (8) |
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780 (number-sequence 8 5) |
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781 @result{} nil |
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782 (number-sequence 5 8 -1) |
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783 @result{} nil |
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784 (number-sequence 1.5 6 2) |
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785 @result{} (1.5 3.5 5.5) |
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786 @end example |
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787 @end defun |
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788 |
6558 | 789 @node Modifying Lists |
790 @section Modifying Existing List Structure | |
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791 @cindex destructive list operations |
6558 | 792 |
793 You can modify the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} contents of a cons cell with the | |
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794 primitives @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr}. We call these ``destructive'' |
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795 operations because they change existing list structure. |
6558 | 796 |
797 @cindex CL note---@code{rplaca} vrs @code{setcar} | |
798 @quotation | |
799 @findex rplaca | |
800 @findex rplacd | |
801 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp uses functions @code{rplaca} and | |
802 @code{rplacd} to alter list structure; they change structure the same | |
803 way as @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr}, but the Common Lisp functions | |
804 return the cons cell while @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr} return the | |
805 new @sc{car} or @sc{cdr}. | |
806 @end quotation | |
807 | |
808 @menu | |
809 * Setcar:: Replacing an element in a list. | |
810 * Setcdr:: Replacing part of the list backbone. | |
811 This can be used to remove or add elements. | |
812 * Rearrangement:: Reordering the elements in a list; combining lists. | |
813 @end menu | |
814 | |
815 @node Setcar | |
816 @subsection Altering List Elements with @code{setcar} | |
817 | |
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818 Changing the @sc{car} of a cons cell is done with @code{setcar}. When |
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819 used on a list, @code{setcar} replaces one element of a list with a |
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820 different element. |
6558 | 821 |
822 @defun setcar cons object | |
823 This function stores @var{object} as the new @sc{car} of @var{cons}, | |
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824 replacing its previous @sc{car}. In other words, it changes the |
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825 @sc{car} slot of @var{cons} to refer to @var{object}. It returns the |
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826 value @var{object}. For example: |
6558 | 827 |
828 @example | |
829 @group | |
830 (setq x '(1 2)) | |
831 @result{} (1 2) | |
832 @end group | |
833 @group | |
834 (setcar x 4) | |
835 @result{} 4 | |
836 @end group | |
837 @group | |
838 x | |
839 @result{} (4 2) | |
840 @end group | |
841 @end example | |
842 @end defun | |
843 | |
844 When a cons cell is part of the shared structure of several lists, | |
845 storing a new @sc{car} into the cons changes one element of each of | |
846 these lists. Here is an example: | |
847 | |
848 @example | |
849 @group | |
850 ;; @r{Create two lists that are partly shared.} | |
851 (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
852 @result{} (a b c) | |
853 (setq x2 (cons 'z (cdr x1))) | |
854 @result{} (z b c) | |
855 @end group | |
856 | |
857 @group | |
858 ;; @r{Replace the @sc{car} of a shared link.} | |
859 (setcar (cdr x1) 'foo) | |
860 @result{} foo | |
861 x1 ; @r{Both lists are changed.} | |
862 @result{} (a foo c) | |
863 x2 | |
864 @result{} (z foo c) | |
865 @end group | |
866 | |
867 @group | |
868 ;; @r{Replace the @sc{car} of a link that is not shared.} | |
869 (setcar x1 'baz) | |
870 @result{} baz | |
871 x1 ; @r{Only one list is changed.} | |
872 @result{} (baz foo c) | |
873 x2 | |
874 @result{} (z foo c) | |
875 @end group | |
876 @end example | |
877 | |
878 Here is a graphical depiction of the shared structure of the two lists | |
879 in the variables @code{x1} and @code{x2}, showing why replacing @code{b} | |
880 changes them both: | |
881 | |
882 @example | |
883 @group | |
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884 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
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885 x1---> | | |----> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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886 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 887 | --> | | |
888 | | | | | |
889 --> a | --> b --> c | |
890 | | |
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891 --- --- | |
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892 x2--> | | |-- |
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893 --- --- |
6558 | 894 | |
895 | | |
896 --> z | |
897 @end group | |
898 @end example | |
899 | |
900 Here is an alternative form of box diagram, showing the same relationship: | |
901 | |
902 @example | |
903 @group | |
904 x1: | |
905 -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
906 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
907 | a | o------->| b | o------->| c | nil | | |
908 | | | -->| | | | | | | |
909 -------------- | -------------- -------------- | |
910 | | |
911 x2: | | |
912 -------------- | | |
913 | car | cdr | | | |
914 | z | o---- | |
915 | | | | |
916 -------------- | |
917 @end group | |
918 @end example | |
919 | |
920 @node Setcdr | |
921 @subsection Altering the CDR of a List | |
922 | |
923 The lowest-level primitive for modifying a @sc{cdr} is @code{setcdr}: | |
924 | |
925 @defun setcdr cons object | |
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926 This function stores @var{object} as the new @sc{cdr} of @var{cons}, |
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927 replacing its previous @sc{cdr}. In other words, it changes the |
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928 @sc{cdr} slot of @var{cons} to refer to @var{object}. It returns the |
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929 value @var{object}. |
6558 | 930 @end defun |
931 | |
932 Here is an example of replacing the @sc{cdr} of a list with a | |
933 different list. All but the first element of the list are removed in | |
934 favor of a different sequence of elements. The first element is | |
935 unchanged, because it resides in the @sc{car} of the list, and is not | |
936 reached via the @sc{cdr}. | |
937 | |
938 @example | |
939 @group | |
940 (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
941 @result{} (1 2 3) | |
942 @end group | |
943 @group | |
944 (setcdr x '(4)) | |
945 @result{} (4) | |
946 @end group | |
947 @group | |
948 x | |
949 @result{} (1 4) | |
950 @end group | |
951 @end example | |
952 | |
953 You can delete elements from the middle of a list by altering the | |
954 @sc{cdr}s of the cons cells in the list. For example, here we delete | |
955 the second element, @code{b}, from the list @code{(a b c)}, by changing | |
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956 the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell: |
6558 | 957 |
958 @example | |
959 @group | |
960 (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
961 @result{} (a b c) | |
962 (setcdr x1 (cdr (cdr x1))) | |
963 @result{} (c) | |
964 x1 | |
965 @result{} (a c) | |
966 @end group | |
967 @end example | |
968 | |
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969 @need 4000 |
6558 | 970 Here is the result in box notation: |
971 | |
972 @example | |
973 @group | |
974 -------------------- | |
975 | | | |
976 -------------- | -------------- | -------------- | |
977 | car | cdr | | | car | cdr | -->| car | cdr | | |
978 | a | o----- | b | o-------->| c | nil | | |
979 | | | | | | | | | | |
980 -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
981 @end group | |
982 @end example | |
983 | |
984 @noindent | |
985 The second cons cell, which previously held the element @code{b}, still | |
986 exists and its @sc{car} is still @code{b}, but it no longer forms part | |
987 of this list. | |
988 | |
989 It is equally easy to insert a new element by changing @sc{cdr}s: | |
990 | |
991 @example | |
992 @group | |
993 (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
994 @result{} (a b c) | |
995 (setcdr x1 (cons 'd (cdr x1))) | |
996 @result{} (d b c) | |
997 x1 | |
998 @result{} (a d b c) | |
999 @end group | |
1000 @end example | |
1001 | |
1002 Here is this result in box notation: | |
1003 | |
1004 @smallexample | |
1005 @group | |
1006 -------------- ------------- ------------- | |
1007 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
1008 | a | o | -->| b | o------->| c | nil | | |
1009 | | | | | | | | | | | | |
1010 --------- | -- | ------------- ------------- | |
1011 | | | |
1012 ----- -------- | |
1013 | | | |
1014 | --------------- | | |
1015 | | car | cdr | | | |
1016 -->| d | o------ | |
1017 | | | | |
1018 --------------- | |
1019 @end group | |
1020 @end smallexample | |
1021 | |
1022 @node Rearrangement | |
1023 @subsection Functions that Rearrange Lists | |
1024 @cindex rearrangement of lists | |
1025 @cindex modification of lists | |
1026 | |
1027 Here are some functions that rearrange lists ``destructively'' by | |
1028 modifying the @sc{cdr}s of their component cons cells. We call these | |
1029 functions ``destructive'' because they chew up the original lists passed | |
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1030 to them as arguments, relinking their cons cells to form a new list that |
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1031 is the returned value. |
6558 | 1032 |
27193 | 1033 @ifnottex |
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1034 See @code{delq}, in @ref{Sets And Lists}, for another function |
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1035 that modifies cons cells. |
27193 | 1036 @end ifnottex |
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1037 @iftex |
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1038 The function @code{delq} in the following section is another example |
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1039 of destructive list manipulation. |
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1040 @end iftex |
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1041 |
6558 | 1042 @defun nconc &rest lists |
1043 @cindex concatenating lists | |
1044 @cindex joining lists | |
1045 This function returns a list containing all the elements of @var{lists}. | |
1046 Unlike @code{append} (@pxref{Building Lists}), the @var{lists} are | |
1047 @emph{not} copied. Instead, the last @sc{cdr} of each of the | |
1048 @var{lists} is changed to refer to the following list. The last of the | |
1049 @var{lists} is not altered. For example: | |
1050 | |
1051 @example | |
1052 @group | |
1053 (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
1054 @result{} (1 2 3) | |
1055 @end group | |
1056 @group | |
1057 (nconc x '(4 5)) | |
1058 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
1059 @end group | |
1060 @group | |
1061 x | |
1062 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
1063 @end group | |
1064 @end example | |
1065 | |
1066 Since the last argument of @code{nconc} is not itself modified, it is | |
1067 reasonable to use a constant list, such as @code{'(4 5)}, as in the | |
1068 above example. For the same reason, the last argument need not be a | |
1069 list: | |
1070 | |
1071 @example | |
1072 @group | |
1073 (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
1074 @result{} (1 2 3) | |
1075 @end group | |
1076 @group | |
1077 (nconc x 'z) | |
1078 @result{} (1 2 3 . z) | |
1079 @end group | |
1080 @group | |
1081 x | |
1082 @result{} (1 2 3 . z) | |
1083 @end group | |
1084 @end example | |
1085 | |
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1086 However, the other arguments (all but the last) must be lists. |
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1087 |
6558 | 1088 A common pitfall is to use a quoted constant list as a non-last |
1089 argument to @code{nconc}. If you do this, your program will change | |
1090 each time you run it! Here is what happens: | |
1091 | |
1092 @smallexample | |
1093 @group | |
1094 (defun add-foo (x) ; @r{We want this function to add} | |
1095 (nconc '(foo) x)) ; @r{@code{foo} to the front of its arg.} | |
1096 @end group | |
1097 | |
1098 @group | |
1099 (symbol-function 'add-foo) | |
1100 @result{} (lambda (x) (nconc (quote (foo)) x)) | |
1101 @end group | |
1102 | |
1103 @group | |
1104 (setq xx (add-foo '(1 2))) ; @r{It seems to work.} | |
1105 @result{} (foo 1 2) | |
1106 @end group | |
1107 @group | |
1108 (setq xy (add-foo '(3 4))) ; @r{What happened?} | |
1109 @result{} (foo 1 2 3 4) | |
1110 @end group | |
1111 @group | |
1112 (eq xx xy) | |
1113 @result{} t | |
1114 @end group | |
1115 | |
1116 @group | |
1117 (symbol-function 'add-foo) | |
1118 @result{} (lambda (x) (nconc (quote (foo 1 2 3 4) x))) | |
1119 @end group | |
1120 @end smallexample | |
1121 @end defun | |
1122 | |
1123 @defun nreverse list | |
1124 @cindex reversing a list | |
1125 This function reverses the order of the elements of @var{list}. | |
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1126 Unlike @code{reverse}, @code{nreverse} alters its argument by reversing |
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1127 the @sc{cdr}s in the cons cells forming the list. The cons cell that |
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1128 used to be the last one in @var{list} becomes the first cons cell of the |
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1129 value. |
6558 | 1130 |
1131 For example: | |
1132 | |
1133 @example | |
1134 @group | |
38786 | 1135 (setq x '(a b c)) |
1136 @result{} (a b c) | |
6558 | 1137 @end group |
1138 @group | |
1139 x | |
38786 | 1140 @result{} (a b c) |
6558 | 1141 (nreverse x) |
38786 | 1142 @result{} (c b a) |
6558 | 1143 @end group |
1144 @group | |
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1145 ;; @r{The cons cell that was first is now last.} |
6558 | 1146 x |
38786 | 1147 @result{} (a) |
6558 | 1148 @end group |
1149 @end example | |
1150 | |
1151 To avoid confusion, we usually store the result of @code{nreverse} | |
1152 back in the same variable which held the original list: | |
1153 | |
1154 @example | |
1155 (setq x (nreverse x)) | |
1156 @end example | |
1157 | |
1158 Here is the @code{nreverse} of our favorite example, @code{(a b c)}, | |
1159 presented graphically: | |
1160 | |
1161 @smallexample | |
1162 @group | |
1163 @r{Original list head:} @r{Reversed list:} | |
1164 ------------- ------------- ------------ | |
1165 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
1166 | a | nil |<-- | b | o |<-- | c | o | | |
1167 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
1168 ------------- | --------- | - | -------- | - | |
1169 | | | | | |
1170 ------------- ------------ | |
1171 @end group | |
1172 @end smallexample | |
1173 @end defun | |
1174 | |
1175 @defun sort list predicate | |
1176 @cindex stable sort | |
1177 @cindex sorting lists | |
1178 This function sorts @var{list} stably, though destructively, and | |
1179 returns the sorted list. It compares elements using @var{predicate}. A | |
1180 stable sort is one in which elements with equal sort keys maintain their | |
1181 relative order before and after the sort. Stability is important when | |
1182 successive sorts are used to order elements according to different | |
1183 criteria. | |
1184 | |
1185 The argument @var{predicate} must be a function that accepts two | |
1186 arguments. It is called with two elements of @var{list}. To get an | |
1187 increasing order sort, the @var{predicate} should return @code{t} if the | |
1188 first element is ``less than'' the second, or @code{nil} if not. | |
1189 | |
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1190 The comparison function @var{predicate} must give reliable results for |
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1191 any given pair of arguments, at least within a single call to |
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1192 @code{sort}. It must be @dfn{antisymmetric}; that is, if @var{a} is |
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1193 less than @var{b}, @var{b} must not be less than @var{a}. It must be |
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1194 @dfn{transitive}---that is, if @var{a} is less than @var{b}, and @var{b} |
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1195 is less than @var{c}, then @var{a} must be less than @var{c}. If you |
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1196 use a comparison function which does not meet these requirements, the |
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1197 result of @code{sort} is unpredictable. |
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1198 |
6558 | 1199 The destructive aspect of @code{sort} is that it rearranges the cons |
1200 cells forming @var{list} by changing @sc{cdr}s. A nondestructive sort | |
1201 function would create new cons cells to store the elements in their | |
1202 sorted order. If you wish to make a sorted copy without destroying the | |
1203 original, copy it first with @code{copy-sequence} and then sort. | |
1204 | |
1205 Sorting does not change the @sc{car}s of the cons cells in @var{list}; | |
1206 the cons cell that originally contained the element @code{a} in | |
1207 @var{list} still has @code{a} in its @sc{car} after sorting, but it now | |
1208 appears in a different position in the list due to the change of | |
1209 @sc{cdr}s. For example: | |
1210 | |
1211 @example | |
1212 @group | |
1213 (setq nums '(1 3 2 6 5 4 0)) | |
1214 @result{} (1 3 2 6 5 4 0) | |
1215 @end group | |
1216 @group | |
1217 (sort nums '<) | |
1218 @result{} (0 1 2 3 4 5 6) | |
1219 @end group | |
1220 @group | |
1221 nums | |
1222 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5 6) | |
1223 @end group | |
1224 @end example | |
1225 | |
1226 @noindent | |
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1227 @strong{Warning}: Note that the list in @code{nums} no longer contains |
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1228 0; this is the same cons cell that it was before, but it is no longer |
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1229 the first one in the list. Don't assume a variable that formerly held |
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1230 the argument now holds the entire sorted list! Instead, save the result |
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1231 of @code{sort} and use that. Most often we store the result back into |
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1232 the variable that held the original list: |
6558 | 1233 |
1234 @example | |
1235 (setq nums (sort nums '<)) | |
1236 @end example | |
1237 | |
1238 @xref{Sorting}, for more functions that perform sorting. | |
1239 See @code{documentation} in @ref{Accessing Documentation}, for a | |
1240 useful example of @code{sort}. | |
1241 @end defun | |
1242 | |
1243 @node Sets And Lists | |
1244 @section Using Lists as Sets | |
1245 @cindex lists as sets | |
1246 @cindex sets | |
1247 | |
1248 A list can represent an unordered mathematical set---simply consider a | |
1249 value an element of a set if it appears in the list, and ignore the | |
1250 order of the list. To form the union of two sets, use @code{append} (as | |
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1251 long as you don't mind having duplicate elements). You can remove |
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1252 @code{equal} duplicates using @code{delete-dups}. Other useful |
6558 | 1253 functions for sets include @code{memq} and @code{delq}, and their |
1254 @code{equal} versions, @code{member} and @code{delete}. | |
1255 | |
13229 | 1256 @cindex CL note---lack @code{union}, @code{intersection} |
6558 | 1257 @quotation |
1258 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp has functions @code{union} (which | |
1259 avoids duplicate elements) and @code{intersection} for set operations, | |
1260 but GNU Emacs Lisp does not have them. You can write them in Lisp if | |
1261 you wish. | |
1262 @end quotation | |
1263 | |
1264 @defun memq object list | |
1265 @cindex membership in a list | |
1266 This function tests to see whether @var{object} is a member of | |
1267 @var{list}. If it is, @code{memq} returns a list starting with the | |
1268 first occurrence of @var{object}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
1269 The letter @samp{q} in @code{memq} says that it uses @code{eq} to | |
1270 compare @var{object} against the elements of the list. For example: | |
1271 | |
1272 @example | |
1273 @group | |
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1274 (memq 'b '(a b c b a)) |
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1275 @result{} (b c b a) |
6558 | 1276 @end group |
1277 @group | |
1278 (memq '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are not @code{eq}.} | |
1279 @result{} nil | |
1280 @end group | |
1281 @end example | |
1282 @end defun | |
1283 | |
1284 @defun delq object list | |
1285 @cindex deletion of elements | |
1286 This function destructively removes all elements @code{eq} to | |
1287 @var{object} from @var{list}. The letter @samp{q} in @code{delq} says | |
1288 that it uses @code{eq} to compare @var{object} against the elements of | |
30808 | 1289 the list, like @code{memq} and @code{remq}. |
6558 | 1290 @end defun |
1291 | |
1292 When @code{delq} deletes elements from the front of the list, it does so | |
1293 simply by advancing down the list and returning a sublist that starts | |
1294 after those elements: | |
1295 | |
1296 @example | |
1297 @group | |
1298 (delq 'a '(a b c)) @equiv{} (cdr '(a b c)) | |
1299 @end group | |
1300 @end example | |
1301 | |
1302 When an element to be deleted appears in the middle of the list, | |
1303 removing it involves changing the @sc{cdr}s (@pxref{Setcdr}). | |
1304 | |
1305 @example | |
1306 @group | |
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1307 (setq sample-list '(a b c (4))) |
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1308 @result{} (a b c (4)) |
6558 | 1309 @end group |
1310 @group | |
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1311 (delq 'a sample-list) |
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1312 @result{} (b c (4)) |
6558 | 1313 @end group |
1314 @group | |
1315 sample-list | |
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1316 @result{} (a b c (4)) |
6558 | 1317 @end group |
1318 @group | |
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1319 (delq 'c sample-list) |
11628 | 1320 @result{} (a b (4)) |
6558 | 1321 @end group |
1322 @group | |
1323 sample-list | |
11628 | 1324 @result{} (a b (4)) |
6558 | 1325 @end group |
1326 @end example | |
1327 | |
12098 | 1328 Note that @code{(delq 'c sample-list)} modifies @code{sample-list} to |
1329 splice out the third element, but @code{(delq 'a sample-list)} does not | |
6558 | 1330 splice anything---it just returns a shorter list. Don't assume that a |
1331 variable which formerly held the argument @var{list} now has fewer | |
1332 elements, or that it still holds the original list! Instead, save the | |
1333 result of @code{delq} and use that. Most often we store the result back | |
1334 into the variable that held the original list: | |
1335 | |
1336 @example | |
1337 (setq flowers (delq 'rose flowers)) | |
1338 @end example | |
1339 | |
1340 In the following example, the @code{(4)} that @code{delq} attempts to match | |
1341 and the @code{(4)} in the @code{sample-list} are not @code{eq}: | |
1342 | |
1343 @example | |
1344 @group | |
1345 (delq '(4) sample-list) | |
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1346 @result{} (a c (4)) |
6558 | 1347 @end group |
1348 @end example | |
1349 | |
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1350 @defun remq object list |
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1351 This function returns a copy of @var{list}, with all elements removed |
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1352 which are @code{eq} to @var{object}. The letter @samp{q} in @code{remq} |
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1353 says that it uses @code{eq} to compare @var{object} against the elements |
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1354 of @code{list}. |
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1355 |
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1356 @example |
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1357 @group |
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1358 (setq sample-list '(a b c a b c)) |
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1359 @result{} (a b c a b c) |
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1360 @end group |
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1361 @group |
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1362 (remq 'a sample-list) |
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1363 @result{} (b c b c) |
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1364 @end group |
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1365 @group |
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1366 sample-list |
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1367 @result{} (a b c a b c) |
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1368 @end group |
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1369 @end example |
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1370 @noindent |
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1371 The function @code{delq} offers a way to perform this operation |
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1372 destructively. See @ref{Sets And Lists}. |
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1373 @end defun |
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1374 |
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1375 The following three functions are like @code{memq}, @code{delq} and |
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1376 @code{remq}, but use @code{equal} rather than @code{eq} to compare |
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1377 elements. @xref{Equality Predicates}. |
6558 | 1378 |
1379 @defun member object list | |
1380 The function @code{member} tests to see whether @var{object} is a member | |
1381 of @var{list}, comparing members with @var{object} using @code{equal}. | |
1382 If @var{object} is a member, @code{member} returns a list starting with | |
1383 its first occurrence in @var{list}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
1384 | |
1385 Compare this with @code{memq}: | |
1386 | |
1387 @example | |
1388 @group | |
1389 (member '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are @code{equal}.} | |
1390 @result{} ((2)) | |
1391 @end group | |
1392 @group | |
1393 (memq '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are not @code{eq}.} | |
1394 @result{} nil | |
1395 @end group | |
1396 @group | |
1397 ;; @r{Two strings with the same contents are @code{equal}.} | |
1398 (member "foo" '("foo" "bar")) | |
1399 @result{} ("foo" "bar") | |
1400 @end group | |
1401 @end example | |
1402 @end defun | |
1403 | |
30808 | 1404 @defun delete object sequence |
1405 If @code{sequence} is a list, this function destructively removes all | |
1406 elements @code{equal} to @var{object} from @var{sequence}. For lists, | |
1407 @code{delete} is to @code{delq} as @code{member} is to @code{memq}: it | |
1408 uses @code{equal} to compare elements with @var{object}, like | |
1409 @code{member}; when it finds an element that matches, it removes the | |
1410 element just as @code{delq} would. | |
1411 | |
1412 If @code{sequence} is a vector or string, @code{delete} returns a copy | |
1413 of @code{sequence} with all elements @code{equal} to @code{object} | |
1414 removed. | |
1415 | |
1416 For example: | |
6558 | 1417 |
1418 @example | |
1419 @group | |
1420 (delete '(2) '((2) (1) (2))) | |
13229 | 1421 @result{} ((1)) |
6558 | 1422 @end group |
30808 | 1423 @group |
1424 (delete '(2) [(2) (1) (2)]) | |
1425 @result{} [(1)] | |
1426 @end group | |
1427 @end example | |
1428 @end defun | |
1429 | |
1430 @defun remove object sequence | |
1431 This function is the non-destructive counterpart of @code{delete}. If | |
1432 returns a copy of @code{sequence}, a list, vector, or string, with | |
1433 elements @code{equal} to @code{object} removed. For example: | |
1434 | |
1435 @example | |
1436 @group | |
1437 (remove '(2) '((2) (1) (2))) | |
1438 @result{} ((1)) | |
1439 @end group | |
1440 @group | |
1441 (remove '(2) [(2) (1) (2)]) | |
1442 @result{} [(1)] | |
1443 @end group | |
6558 | 1444 @end example |
1445 @end defun | |
1446 | |
1447 @quotation | |
30808 | 1448 @b{Common Lisp note:} The functions @code{member}, @code{delete} and |
1449 @code{remove} in GNU Emacs Lisp are derived from Maclisp, not Common | |
1450 Lisp. The Common Lisp versions do not use @code{equal} to compare | |
1451 elements. | |
6558 | 1452 @end quotation |
1453 | |
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1454 @defun member-ignore-case object list |
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1455 This function is like @code{member}, except that @var{object} should |
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1456 be a string and that it ignores differences in letter-case and text |
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1457 representation: upper-case and lower-case letters are treated as |
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1458 equal, and unibyte strings are converted to multibyte prior to |
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1459 comparison. |
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1460 @end defun |
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1461 |
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1462 @defun delete-dups list |
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1463 This function destructively removes all @code{equal} duplicates from |
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1464 @var{list}, stores the result in @var{list} and returns it. Of |
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1465 several @code{equal} occurrences of an element in @var{list}, |
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1466 @code{delete-dups} keeps the first one. |
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1467 @end defun |
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1468 |
12098 | 1469 See also the function @code{add-to-list}, in @ref{Setting Variables}, |
1470 for another way to add an element to a list stored in a variable. | |
1471 | |
6558 | 1472 @node Association Lists |
1473 @section Association Lists | |
1474 @cindex association list | |
1475 @cindex alist | |
1476 | |
1477 An @dfn{association list}, or @dfn{alist} for short, records a mapping | |
1478 from keys to values. It is a list of cons cells called | |
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1479 @dfn{associations}: the @sc{car} of each cons cell is the @dfn{key}, and the |
6558 | 1480 @sc{cdr} is the @dfn{associated value}.@footnote{This usage of ``key'' |
1481 is not related to the term ``key sequence''; it means a value used to | |
1482 look up an item in a table. In this case, the table is the alist, and | |
1483 the alist associations are the items.} | |
1484 | |
1485 Here is an example of an alist. The key @code{pine} is associated with | |
1486 the value @code{cones}; the key @code{oak} is associated with | |
1487 @code{acorns}; and the key @code{maple} is associated with @code{seeds}. | |
1488 | |
1489 @example | |
1490 @group | |
38786 | 1491 ((pine . cones) |
1492 (oak . acorns) | |
1493 (maple . seeds)) | |
6558 | 1494 @end group |
1495 @end example | |
1496 | |
1497 The associated values in an alist may be any Lisp objects; so may the | |
1498 keys. For example, in the following alist, the symbol @code{a} is | |
1499 associated with the number @code{1}, and the string @code{"b"} is | |
1500 associated with the @emph{list} @code{(2 3)}, which is the @sc{cdr} of | |
1501 the alist element: | |
1502 | |
1503 @example | |
1504 ((a . 1) ("b" 2 3)) | |
1505 @end example | |
1506 | |
1507 Sometimes it is better to design an alist to store the associated | |
1508 value in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr} of the element. Here is an | |
38786 | 1509 example of such an alist: |
6558 | 1510 |
1511 @example | |
38786 | 1512 ((rose red) (lily white) (buttercup yellow)) |
6558 | 1513 @end example |
1514 | |
1515 @noindent | |
1516 Here we regard @code{red} as the value associated with @code{rose}. One | |
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1517 advantage of this kind of alist is that you can store other related |
6558 | 1518 information---even a list of other items---in the @sc{cdr} of the |
1519 @sc{cdr}. One disadvantage is that you cannot use @code{rassq} (see | |
1520 below) to find the element containing a given value. When neither of | |
1521 these considerations is important, the choice is a matter of taste, as | |
1522 long as you are consistent about it for any given alist. | |
1523 | |
1524 Note that the same alist shown above could be regarded as having the | |
1525 associated value in the @sc{cdr} of the element; the value associated | |
1526 with @code{rose} would be the list @code{(red)}. | |
1527 | |
1528 Association lists are often used to record information that you might | |
1529 otherwise keep on a stack, since new associations may be added easily to | |
1530 the front of the list. When searching an association list for an | |
1531 association with a given key, the first one found is returned, if there | |
1532 is more than one. | |
1533 | |
1534 In Emacs Lisp, it is @emph{not} an error if an element of an | |
1535 association list is not a cons cell. The alist search functions simply | |
1536 ignore such elements. Many other versions of Lisp signal errors in such | |
1537 cases. | |
1538 | |
1539 Note that property lists are similar to association lists in several | |
1540 respects. A property list behaves like an association list in which | |
1541 each key can occur only once. @xref{Property Lists}, for a comparison | |
1542 of property lists and association lists. | |
1543 | |
1544 @defun assoc key alist | |
1545 This function returns the first association for @var{key} in | |
1546 @var{alist}. It compares @var{key} against the alist elements using | |
1547 @code{equal} (@pxref{Equality Predicates}). It returns @code{nil} if no | |
1548 association in @var{alist} has a @sc{car} @code{equal} to @var{key}. | |
1549 For example: | |
1550 | |
1551 @smallexample | |
1552 (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1553 @result{} ((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds)) | |
1554 (assoc 'oak trees) | |
1555 @result{} (oak . acorns) | |
1556 (cdr (assoc 'oak trees)) | |
1557 @result{} acorns | |
1558 (assoc 'birch trees) | |
1559 @result{} nil | |
1560 @end smallexample | |
1561 | |
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1562 Here is another example, in which the keys and values are not symbols: |
6558 | 1563 |
1564 @smallexample | |
1565 (setq needles-per-cluster | |
1566 '((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
1567 (3 "Pitch Pine") | |
1568 (5 "White Pine"))) | |
1569 | |
1570 (cdr (assoc 3 needles-per-cluster)) | |
1571 @result{} ("Pitch Pine") | |
1572 (cdr (assoc 2 needles-per-cluster)) | |
1573 @result{} ("Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
1574 @end smallexample | |
1575 @end defun | |
1576 | |
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1577 The function @code{assoc-string} is much like @code{assoc} except |
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1578 that it ignores certain differences between strings. @xref{Text |
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1579 Comparison}. |
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1580 |
12067 | 1581 @defun rassoc value alist |
1582 This function returns the first association with value @var{value} in | |
1583 @var{alist}. It returns @code{nil} if no association in @var{alist} has | |
1584 a @sc{cdr} @code{equal} to @var{value}. | |
1585 | |
1586 @code{rassoc} is like @code{assoc} except that it compares the @sc{cdr} of | |
1587 each @var{alist} association instead of the @sc{car}. You can think of | |
1588 this as ``reverse @code{assoc}'', finding the key for a given value. | |
1589 @end defun | |
1590 | |
6558 | 1591 @defun assq key alist |
1592 This function is like @code{assoc} in that it returns the first | |
1593 association for @var{key} in @var{alist}, but it makes the comparison | |
1594 using @code{eq} instead of @code{equal}. @code{assq} returns @code{nil} | |
1595 if no association in @var{alist} has a @sc{car} @code{eq} to @var{key}. | |
1596 This function is used more often than @code{assoc}, since @code{eq} is | |
1597 faster than @code{equal} and most alists use symbols as keys. | |
1598 @xref{Equality Predicates}. | |
1599 | |
1600 @smallexample | |
1601 (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1602 @result{} ((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds)) | |
1603 (assq 'pine trees) | |
1604 @result{} (pine . cones) | |
1605 @end smallexample | |
1606 | |
1607 On the other hand, @code{assq} is not usually useful in alists where the | |
1608 keys may not be symbols: | |
1609 | |
1610 @smallexample | |
1611 (setq leaves | |
1612 '(("simple leaves" . oak) | |
1613 ("compound leaves" . horsechestnut))) | |
1614 | |
1615 (assq "simple leaves" leaves) | |
1616 @result{} nil | |
1617 (assoc "simple leaves" leaves) | |
1618 @result{} ("simple leaves" . oak) | |
1619 @end smallexample | |
1620 @end defun | |
1621 | |
1622 @defun rassq value alist | |
1623 This function returns the first association with value @var{value} in | |
1624 @var{alist}. It returns @code{nil} if no association in @var{alist} has | |
1625 a @sc{cdr} @code{eq} to @var{value}. | |
1626 | |
1627 @code{rassq} is like @code{assq} except that it compares the @sc{cdr} of | |
1628 each @var{alist} association instead of the @sc{car}. You can think of | |
1629 this as ``reverse @code{assq}'', finding the key for a given value. | |
1630 | |
1631 For example: | |
1632 | |
1633 @smallexample | |
1634 (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1635 | |
1636 (rassq 'acorns trees) | |
1637 @result{} (oak . acorns) | |
1638 (rassq 'spores trees) | |
1639 @result{} nil | |
1640 @end smallexample | |
1641 | |
1642 Note that @code{rassq} cannot search for a value stored in the @sc{car} | |
1643 of the @sc{cdr} of an element: | |
1644 | |
1645 @smallexample | |
1646 (setq colors '((rose red) (lily white) (buttercup yellow))) | |
1647 | |
1648 (rassq 'white colors) | |
1649 @result{} nil | |
1650 @end smallexample | |
1651 | |
1652 In this case, the @sc{cdr} of the association @code{(lily white)} is not | |
1653 the symbol @code{white}, but rather the list @code{(white)}. This | |
1654 becomes clearer if the association is written in dotted pair notation: | |
1655 | |
1656 @smallexample | |
1657 (lily white) @equiv{} (lily . (white)) | |
1658 @end smallexample | |
1659 @end defun | |
1660 | |
38786 | 1661 @defun assoc-default key alist &optional test default |
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1662 This function searches @var{alist} for a match for @var{key}. For each |
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1663 element of @var{alist}, it compares the element (if it is an atom) or |
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1664 the element's @sc{car} (if it is a cons) against @var{key}, by calling |
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1665 @var{test} with two arguments: the element or its @sc{car}, and |
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1666 @var{key}. The arguments are passed in that order so that you can get |
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1667 useful results using @code{string-match} with an alist that contains |
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1668 regular expressions (@pxref{Regexp Search}). If @var{test} is omitted |
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1669 or @code{nil}, @code{equal} is used for comparison. |
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1670 |
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1671 If an alist element matches @var{key} by this criterion, |
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1672 then @code{assoc-default} returns a value based on this element. |
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1673 If the element is a cons, then the value is the element's @sc{cdr}. |
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1674 Otherwise, the return value is @var{default}. |
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1675 |
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1676 If no alist element matches @var{key}, @code{assoc-default} returns |
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1677 @code{nil}. |
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1678 @end defun |
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1679 |
6558 | 1680 @defun copy-alist alist |
1681 @cindex copying alists | |
1682 This function returns a two-level deep copy of @var{alist}: it creates a | |
1683 new copy of each association, so that you can alter the associations of | |
1684 the new alist without changing the old one. | |
1685 | |
1686 @smallexample | |
1687 @group | |
1688 (setq needles-per-cluster | |
1689 '((2 . ("Austrian Pine" "Red Pine")) | |
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1690 (3 . ("Pitch Pine")) |
7734 | 1691 @end group |
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1692 (5 . ("White Pine")))) |
6558 | 1693 @result{} |
1694 ((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
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1695 (3 "Pitch Pine") |
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1696 (5 "White Pine")) |
6558 | 1697 |
1698 (setq copy (copy-alist needles-per-cluster)) | |
1699 @result{} | |
1700 ((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
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1701 (3 "Pitch Pine") |
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1702 (5 "White Pine")) |
6558 | 1703 |
1704 (eq needles-per-cluster copy) | |
1705 @result{} nil | |
1706 (equal needles-per-cluster copy) | |
1707 @result{} t | |
1708 (eq (car needles-per-cluster) (car copy)) | |
1709 @result{} nil | |
1710 (cdr (car (cdr needles-per-cluster))) | |
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1711 @result{} ("Pitch Pine") |
7734 | 1712 @group |
6558 | 1713 (eq (cdr (car (cdr needles-per-cluster))) |
1714 (cdr (car (cdr copy)))) | |
1715 @result{} t | |
1716 @end group | |
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1717 @end smallexample |
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1718 |
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1719 This example shows how @code{copy-alist} makes it possible to change |
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1720 the associations of one copy without affecting the other: |
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1721 |
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1722 @smallexample |
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1723 @group |
11137 | 1724 (setcdr (assq 3 copy) '("Martian Vacuum Pine")) |
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1725 (cdr (assq 3 needles-per-cluster)) |
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1726 @result{} ("Pitch Pine") |
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1727 @end group |
6558 | 1728 @end smallexample |
1729 @end defun | |
1730 | |
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1731 @defun assq-delete-all key alist |
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1732 @tindex assq-delete-all |
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1733 This function deletes from @var{alist} all the elements whose @sc{car} |
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1734 is @code{eq} to @var{key}, much as if you used @code{delq} to delete |
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1735 each such element one by one. It returns the shortened alist, and |
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1736 often modifies the original list structure of @var{alist}. For |
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1737 correct results, use the return value of @code{assq-delete-all} rather |
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1738 than looking at the saved value of @var{alist}. |
6558 | 1739 |
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1740 @example |
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1741 (setq alist '((foo 1) (bar 2) (foo 3) (lose 4))) |
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1742 @result{} ((foo 1) (bar 2) (foo 3) (lose 4)) |
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1743 (assq-delete-all 'foo alist) |
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1744 @result{} ((bar 2) (lose 4)) |
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1745 alist |
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1746 @result{} ((foo 1) (bar 2) (lose 4)) |
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1747 @end example |
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1748 @end defun |
52401 | 1749 |
1750 @ignore | |
1751 arch-tag: 31fb8a4e-4aa8-4a74-a206-aa00451394d4 | |
1752 @end ignore |