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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2003
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4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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6 @setfilename ../info/strings
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7 @node Strings and Characters, Lists, Numbers, Top
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8 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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9 @chapter Strings and Characters
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10 @cindex strings
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11 @cindex character arrays
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12 @cindex characters
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13 @cindex bytes
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14
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15 A string in Emacs Lisp is an array that contains an ordered sequence
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16 of characters. Strings are used as names of symbols, buffers, and
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17 files; to send messages to users; to hold text being copied between
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18 buffers; and for many other purposes. Because strings are so important,
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19 Emacs Lisp has many functions expressly for manipulating them. Emacs
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20 Lisp programs use strings more often than individual characters.
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21
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22 @xref{Strings of Events}, for special considerations for strings of
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23 keyboard character events.
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24
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25 @menu
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26 * Basics: String Basics. Basic properties of strings and characters.
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27 * Predicates for Strings:: Testing whether an object is a string or char.
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28 * Creating Strings:: Functions to allocate new strings.
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29 * Modifying Strings:: Altering the contents of an existing string.
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30 * Text Comparison:: Comparing characters or strings.
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31 * String Conversion:: Converting to and from characters and strings.
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32 * Formatting Strings:: @code{format}: Emacs's analogue of @code{printf}.
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33 * Case Conversion:: Case conversion functions.
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34 * Case Tables:: Customizing case conversion.
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35 @end menu
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36
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37 @node String Basics
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38 @section String and Character Basics
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39
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40 Characters are represented in Emacs Lisp as integers;
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41 whether an integer is a character or not is determined only by how it is
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42 used. Thus, strings really contain integers.
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43
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44 The length of a string (like any array) is fixed, and cannot be
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45 altered once the string exists. Strings in Lisp are @emph{not}
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46 terminated by a distinguished character code. (By contrast, strings in
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47 C are terminated by a character with @sc{ascii} code 0.)
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48
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49 Since strings are arrays, and therefore sequences as well, you can
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50 operate on them with the general array and sequence functions.
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51 (@xref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}.) For example, you can access or
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52 change individual characters in a string using the functions @code{aref}
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53 and @code{aset} (@pxref{Array Functions}).
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54
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55 There are two text representations for non-@sc{ascii} characters in
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56 Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte and multibyte (@pxref{Text
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57 Representations}). An @sc{ascii} character always occupies one byte in a
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58 string; in fact, when a string is all @sc{ascii}, there is no real
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59 difference between the unibyte and multibyte representations.
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60 For most Lisp programming, you don't need to be concerned with these two
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61 representations.
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62
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63 Sometimes key sequences are represented as strings. When a string is
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64 a key sequence, string elements in the range 128 to 255 represent meta
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65 characters (which are large integers) rather than character
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66 codes in the range 128 to 255.
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67
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68 Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super or alt
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69 modifiers; they can hold @sc{ascii} control characters, but no other
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70 control characters. They do not distinguish case in @sc{ascii} control
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71 characters. If you want to store such characters in a sequence, such as
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72 a key sequence, you must use a vector instead of a string.
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73 @xref{Character Type}, for more information about the representation of meta
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74 and other modifiers for keyboard input characters.
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75
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76 Strings are useful for holding regular expressions. You can also
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77 match regular expressions against strings (@pxref{Regexp Search}). The
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78 functions @code{match-string} (@pxref{Simple Match Data}) and
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79 @code{replace-match} (@pxref{Replacing Match}) are useful for
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80 decomposing and modifying strings based on regular expression matching.
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81
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82 Like a buffer, a string can contain text properties for the characters
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83 in it, as well as the characters themselves. @xref{Text Properties}.
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84 All the Lisp primitives that copy text from strings to buffers or other
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85 strings also copy the properties of the characters being copied.
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86
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87 @xref{Text}, for information about functions that display strings or
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88 copy them into buffers. @xref{Character Type}, and @ref{String Type},
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89 for information about the syntax of characters and strings.
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90 @xref{Non-ASCII Characters}, for functions to convert between text
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91 representations and to encode and decode character codes.
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92
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93 @node Predicates for Strings
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94 @section The Predicates for Strings
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95
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96 For more information about general sequence and array predicates,
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97 see @ref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}, and @ref{Arrays}.
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98
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99 @defun stringp object
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100 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a string, @code{nil}
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101 otherwise.
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102 @end defun
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103
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104 @defun char-or-string-p object
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105 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a string or a
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106 character (i.e., an integer), @code{nil} otherwise.
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107 @end defun
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108
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109 @node Creating Strings
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110 @section Creating Strings
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111
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112 The following functions create strings, either from scratch, or by
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113 putting strings together, or by taking them apart.
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114
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115 @defun make-string count character
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116 This function returns a string made up of @var{count} repetitions of
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117 @var{character}. If @var{count} is negative, an error is signaled.
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118
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119 @example
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120 (make-string 5 ?x)
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121 @result{} "xxxxx"
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122 (make-string 0 ?x)
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123 @result{} ""
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124 @end example
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125
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126 Other functions to compare with this one include @code{char-to-string}
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127 (@pxref{String Conversion}), @code{make-vector} (@pxref{Vectors}), and
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128 @code{make-list} (@pxref{Building Lists}).
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129 @end defun
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130
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131 @defun string &rest characters
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132 This returns a string containing the characters @var{characters}.
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133
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134 @example
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135 (string ?a ?b ?c)
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136 @result{} "abc"
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137 @end example
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138 @end defun
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139
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140 @defun substring string start &optional end
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141 This function returns a new string which consists of those characters
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142 from @var{string} in the range from (and including) the character at the
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143 index @var{start} up to (but excluding) the character at the index
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144 @var{end}. The first character is at index zero.
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145
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146 @example
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147 @group
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148 (substring "abcdefg" 0 3)
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149 @result{} "abc"
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150 @end group
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151 @end example
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152
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153 @noindent
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154 Here the index for @samp{a} is 0, the index for @samp{b} is 1, and the
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155 index for @samp{c} is 2. Thus, three letters, @samp{abc}, are copied
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156 from the string @code{"abcdefg"}. The index 3 marks the character
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157 position up to which the substring is copied. The character whose index
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158 is 3 is actually the fourth character in the string.
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159
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160 A negative number counts from the end of the string, so that @minus{}1
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161 signifies the index of the last character of the string. For example:
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162
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163 @example
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164 @group
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165 (substring "abcdefg" -3 -1)
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166 @result{} "ef"
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167 @end group
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168 @end example
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169
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170 @noindent
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171 In this example, the index for @samp{e} is @minus{}3, the index for
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172 @samp{f} is @minus{}2, and the index for @samp{g} is @minus{}1.
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173 Therefore, @samp{e} and @samp{f} are included, and @samp{g} is excluded.
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174
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175 When @code{nil} is used as an index, it stands for the length of the
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176 string. Thus,
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177
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178 @example
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179 @group
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180 (substring "abcdefg" -3 nil)
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181 @result{} "efg"
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182 @end group
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183 @end example
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184
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185 Omitting the argument @var{end} is equivalent to specifying @code{nil}.
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186 It follows that @code{(substring @var{string} 0)} returns a copy of all
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187 of @var{string}.
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188
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189 @example
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190 @group
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191 (substring "abcdefg" 0)
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192 @result{} "abcdefg"
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193 @end group
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194 @end example
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195
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196 @noindent
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197 But we recommend @code{copy-sequence} for this purpose (@pxref{Sequence
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198 Functions}).
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199
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200 If the characters copied from @var{string} have text properties, the
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201 properties are copied into the new string also. @xref{Text Properties}.
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202
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203 @code{substring} also accepts a vector for the first argument.
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204 For example:
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205
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206 @example
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207 (substring [a b (c) "d"] 1 3)
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208 @result{} [b (c)]
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209 @end example
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210
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211 A @code{wrong-type-argument} error is signaled if either @var{start} or
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212 @var{end} is not an integer or @code{nil}. An @code{args-out-of-range}
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213 error is signaled if @var{start} indicates a character following
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214 @var{end}, or if either integer is out of range for @var{string}.
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215
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216 Contrast this function with @code{buffer-substring} (@pxref{Buffer
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217 Contents}), which returns a string containing a portion of the text in
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218 the current buffer. The beginning of a string is at index 0, but the
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219 beginning of a buffer is at index 1.
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220 @end defun
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221
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222 @defun concat &rest sequences
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223 @cindex copying strings
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224 @cindex concatenating strings
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225 This function returns a new string consisting of the characters in the
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226 arguments passed to it (along with their text properties, if any). The
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227 arguments may be strings, lists of numbers, or vectors of numbers; they
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228 are not themselves changed. If @code{concat} receives no arguments, it
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229 returns an empty string.
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230
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231 @example
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232 (concat "abc" "-def")
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233 @result{} "abc-def"
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234 (concat "abc" (list 120 121) [122])
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235 @result{} "abcxyz"
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236 ;; @r{@code{nil} is an empty sequence.}
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237 (concat "abc" nil "-def")
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238 @result{} "abc-def"
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239 (concat "The " "quick brown " "fox.")
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240 @result{} "The quick brown fox."
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241 (concat)
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242 @result{} ""
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243 @end example
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244
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245 @noindent
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246 The @code{concat} function always constructs a new string that is
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247 not @code{eq} to any existing string.
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248
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249 In Emacs versions before 21, when an argument was an integer (not a
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250 sequence of integers), it was converted to a string of digits making up
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251 the decimal printed representation of the integer. This obsolete usage
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252 no longer works. The proper way to convert an integer to its decimal
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253 printed form is with @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting Strings}) or
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254 @code{number-to-string} (@pxref{String Conversion}).
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255
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256 For information about other concatenation functions, see the
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257 description of @code{mapconcat} in @ref{Mapping Functions},
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258 @code{vconcat} in @ref{Vectors}, and @code{append} in @ref{Building
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259 Lists}.
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260 @end defun
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261
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262 @defun split-string string separators omit-nulls
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263 This function splits @var{string} into substrings at matches for the
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264 regular expression @var{separators}. Each match for @var{separators}
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265 defines a splitting point; the substrings between the splitting points
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266 are made into a list, which is the value returned by
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267 @code{split-string}.
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268
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269 If @var{omit-nulls} is @code{nil}, the result contains null strings
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270 whenever there are two consecutive matches for @var{separators}, or a
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271 match is adjacent to the beginning or end of @var{string}. If
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272 @var{omit-nulls} is @code{t}, these null strings are omitted from the
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273 result list.
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274
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275 If @var{separators} is @code{nil} (or omitted),
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276 the default is the value of @code{split-string-default-separators}.
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277
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278 As a special case, when @var{separators} is @code{nil} (or omitted),
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279 null strings are always omitted from the result. Thus:
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280
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281 @example
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282 (split-string " two words ")
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283 @result{} ("two" "words")
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284 @end example
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285
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286 The result is not @samp{("" "two" "words" "")}, which would rarely be
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287 useful. If you need such a result, use an explict value for
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288 @var{separators}:
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289
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290 @example
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291 (split-string " two words " split-string-default-separators)
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292 @result{} ("" "two" "words" "")
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293 @end example
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294
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295 More examples:
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296
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297 @example
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298 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o")
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299 @result{} ("S" "up is g" "" "d f" "" "d")
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300 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o" t)
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301 @result{} ("S" "up is g" "d f" "d")
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302 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o+")
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303 @result{} ("S" "up is g" "d f" "d")
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304 @end example
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305
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306 Empty matches do count, when not adjacent to another match:
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307
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308 @example
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309 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o*")
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310 @result{}("S" "u" "p" " " "i" "s" " " "g" "d" " " "f" "d")
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311 (split-string "Nice doggy!" "")
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312 @result{}("N" "i" "c" "e" " " "d" "o" "g" "g" "y" "!")
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313 @end example
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314 @end defun
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315
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316 @defvar split-string-default-separators
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317 The default value of @var{separators} for @code{split-string}, initially
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318 @samp{"[ \f\t\n\r\v]+"}.
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319 @end defvar
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320
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321 @node Modifying Strings
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322 @section Modifying Strings
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323
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324 The most basic way to alter the contents of an existing string is with
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325 @code{aset} (@pxref{Array Functions}). @code{(aset @var{string}
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326 @var{idx} @var{char})} stores @var{char} into @var{string} at index
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327 @var{idx}. Each character occupies one or more bytes, and if @var{char}
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328 needs a different number of bytes from the character already present at
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329 that index, @code{aset} signals an error.
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330
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331 A more powerful function is @code{store-substring}:
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332
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333 @defun store-substring string idx obj
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334 This function alters part of the contents of the string @var{string}, by
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335 storing @var{obj} starting at index @var{idx}. The argument @var{obj}
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336 may be either a character or a (smaller) string.
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337
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338 Since it is impossible to change the length of an existing string, it is
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339 an error if @var{obj} doesn't fit within @var{string}'s actual length,
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340 or if any new character requires a different number of bytes from the
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341 character currently present at that point in @var{string}.
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342 @end defun
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343
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344 @need 2000
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345 @node Text Comparison
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346 @section Comparison of Characters and Strings
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347 @cindex string equality
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348
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349 @defun char-equal character1 character2
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350 This function returns @code{t} if the arguments represent the same
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351 character, @code{nil} otherwise. This function ignores differences
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352 in case if @code{case-fold-search} is non-@code{nil}.
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353
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354 @example
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355 (char-equal ?x ?x)
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356 @result{} t
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357 (let ((case-fold-search nil))
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358 (char-equal ?x ?X))
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359 @result{} nil
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360 @end example
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361 @end defun
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362
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363 @defun string= string1 string2
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364 This function returns @code{t} if the characters of the two strings
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365 match exactly.
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366 Case is always significant, regardless of @code{case-fold-search}.
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367
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368 @example
|
|
369 (string= "abc" "abc")
|
|
370 @result{} t
|
|
371 (string= "abc" "ABC")
|
|
372 @result{} nil
|
|
373 (string= "ab" "ABC")
|
|
374 @result{} nil
|
|
375 @end example
|
12067
|
376
|
21007
|
377 The function @code{string=} ignores the text properties of the two
|
|
378 strings. When @code{equal} (@pxref{Equality Predicates}) compares two
|
|
379 strings, it uses @code{string=}.
|
|
380
|
25751
|
381 If the strings contain non-@sc{ascii} characters, and one is unibyte
|
21007
|
382 while the other is multibyte, then they cannot be equal. @xref{Text
|
|
383 Representations}.
|
6550
|
384 @end defun
|
|
385
|
|
386 @defun string-equal string1 string2
|
|
387 @code{string-equal} is another name for @code{string=}.
|
|
388 @end defun
|
|
389
|
|
390 @cindex lexical comparison
|
|
391 @defun string< string1 string2
|
|
392 @c (findex string< causes problems for permuted index!!)
|
25751
|
393 This function compares two strings a character at a time. It
|
|
394 scans both the strings at the same time to find the first pair of corresponding
|
|
395 characters that do not match. If the lesser character of these two is
|
6550
|
396 the character from @var{string1}, then @var{string1} is less, and this
|
|
397 function returns @code{t}. If the lesser character is the one from
|
|
398 @var{string2}, then @var{string1} is greater, and this function returns
|
|
399 @code{nil}. If the two strings match entirely, the value is @code{nil}.
|
|
400
|
21682
|
401 Pairs of characters are compared according to their character codes.
|
|
402 Keep in mind that lower case letters have higher numeric values in the
|
25751
|
403 @sc{ascii} character set than their upper case counterparts; digits and
|
6550
|
404 many punctuation characters have a lower numeric value than upper case
|
25751
|
405 letters. An @sc{ascii} character is less than any non-@sc{ascii}
|
|
406 character; a unibyte non-@sc{ascii} character is always less than any
|
|
407 multibyte non-@sc{ascii} character (@pxref{Text Representations}).
|
6550
|
408
|
|
409 @example
|
|
410 @group
|
|
411 (string< "abc" "abd")
|
|
412 @result{} t
|
|
413 (string< "abd" "abc")
|
|
414 @result{} nil
|
|
415 (string< "123" "abc")
|
|
416 @result{} t
|
|
417 @end group
|
|
418 @end example
|
|
419
|
|
420 When the strings have different lengths, and they match up to the
|
|
421 length of @var{string1}, then the result is @code{t}. If they match up
|
|
422 to the length of @var{string2}, the result is @code{nil}. A string of
|
|
423 no characters is less than any other string.
|
|
424
|
|
425 @example
|
|
426 @group
|
|
427 (string< "" "abc")
|
|
428 @result{} t
|
|
429 (string< "ab" "abc")
|
|
430 @result{} t
|
|
431 (string< "abc" "")
|
|
432 @result{} nil
|
|
433 (string< "abc" "ab")
|
|
434 @result{} nil
|
|
435 (string< "" "")
|
49600
|
436 @result{} nil
|
6550
|
437 @end group
|
|
438 @end example
|
|
439 @end defun
|
|
440
|
|
441 @defun string-lessp string1 string2
|
|
442 @code{string-lessp} is another name for @code{string<}.
|
|
443 @end defun
|
|
444
|
22138
|
445 @defun compare-strings string1 start1 end1 string2 start2 end2 &optional ignore-case
|
25751
|
446 This function compares the specified part of @var{string1} with the
|
22138
|
447 specified part of @var{string2}. The specified part of @var{string1}
|
25751
|
448 runs from index @var{start1} up to index @var{end1} (@code{nil} means
|
|
449 the end of the string). The specified part of @var{string2} runs from
|
|
450 index @var{start2} up to index @var{end2} (@code{nil} means the end of
|
|
451 the string).
|
22138
|
452
|
|
453 The strings are both converted to multibyte for the comparison
|
22252
|
454 (@pxref{Text Representations}) so that a unibyte string can be equal to
|
|
455 a multibyte string. If @var{ignore-case} is non-@code{nil}, then case
|
|
456 is ignored, so that upper case letters can be equal to lower case letters.
|
22138
|
457
|
|
458 If the specified portions of the two strings match, the value is
|
|
459 @code{t}. Otherwise, the value is an integer which indicates how many
|
|
460 leading characters agree, and which string is less. Its absolute value
|
|
461 is one plus the number of characters that agree at the beginning of the
|
|
462 two strings. The sign is negative if @var{string1} (or its specified
|
|
463 portion) is less.
|
|
464 @end defun
|
|
465
|
|
466 @defun assoc-ignore-case key alist
|
|
467 This function works like @code{assoc}, except that @var{key} must be a
|
38790
|
468 string, and comparison is done using @code{compare-strings}, ignoring
|
|
469 case differences. @xref{Association Lists}.
|
22138
|
470 @end defun
|
|
471
|
|
472 @defun assoc-ignore-representation key alist
|
|
473 This function works like @code{assoc}, except that @var{key} must be a
|
|
474 string, and comparison is done using @code{compare-strings}.
|
|
475 Case differences are significant.
|
|
476 @end defun
|
|
477
|
6550
|
478 See also @code{compare-buffer-substrings} in @ref{Comparing Text}, for
|
|
479 a way to compare text in buffers. The function @code{string-match},
|
|
480 which matches a regular expression against a string, can be used
|
|
481 for a kind of string comparison; see @ref{Regexp Search}.
|
|
482
|
|
483 @node String Conversion
|
|
484 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
|
|
485 @section Conversion of Characters and Strings
|
|
486 @cindex conversion of strings
|
|
487
|
|
488 This section describes functions for conversions between characters,
|
|
489 strings and integers. @code{format} and @code{prin1-to-string}
|
|
490 (@pxref{Output Functions}) can also convert Lisp objects into strings.
|
|
491 @code{read-from-string} (@pxref{Input Functions}) can ``convert'' a
|
21007
|
492 string representation of a Lisp object into an object. The functions
|
|
493 @code{string-make-multibyte} and @code{string-make-unibyte} convert the
|
|
494 text representation of a string (@pxref{Converting Representations}).
|
6550
|
495
|
|
496 @xref{Documentation}, for functions that produce textual descriptions
|
|
497 of text characters and general input events
|
|
498 (@code{single-key-description} and @code{text-char-description}). These
|
|
499 functions are used primarily for making help messages.
|
|
500
|
|
501 @defun char-to-string character
|
|
502 @cindex character to string
|
21682
|
503 This function returns a new string containing one character,
|
|
504 @var{character}. This function is semi-obsolete because the function
|
|
505 @code{string} is more general. @xref{Creating Strings}.
|
6550
|
506 @end defun
|
|
507
|
|
508 @defun string-to-char string
|
|
509 @cindex string to character
|
|
510 This function returns the first character in @var{string}. If the
|
|
511 string is empty, the function returns 0. The value is also 0 when the
|
25751
|
512 first character of @var{string} is the null character, @sc{ascii} code
|
6550
|
513 0.
|
|
514
|
|
515 @example
|
|
516 (string-to-char "ABC")
|
|
517 @result{} 65
|
|
518 (string-to-char "xyz")
|
|
519 @result{} 120
|
|
520 (string-to-char "")
|
|
521 @result{} 0
|
25751
|
522 @group
|
6550
|
523 (string-to-char "\000")
|
|
524 @result{} 0
|
25751
|
525 @end group
|
6550
|
526 @end example
|
|
527
|
|
528 This function may be eliminated in the future if it does not seem useful
|
|
529 enough to retain.
|
|
530 @end defun
|
|
531
|
|
532 @defun number-to-string number
|
|
533 @cindex integer to string
|
|
534 @cindex integer to decimal
|
24862
|
535 This function returns a string consisting of the printed base-ten
|
6550
|
536 representation of @var{number}, which may be an integer or a floating
|
25751
|
537 point number. The returned value starts with a minus sign if the argument is
|
6550
|
538 negative.
|
|
539
|
|
540 @example
|
|
541 (number-to-string 256)
|
|
542 @result{} "256"
|
|
543 (number-to-string -23)
|
|
544 @result{} "-23"
|
|
545 (number-to-string -23.5)
|
|
546 @result{} "-23.5"
|
|
547 @end example
|
|
548
|
|
549 @cindex int-to-string
|
|
550 @code{int-to-string} is a semi-obsolete alias for this function.
|
|
551
|
|
552 See also the function @code{format} in @ref{Formatting Strings}.
|
|
553 @end defun
|
|
554
|
22138
|
555 @defun string-to-number string &optional base
|
6550
|
556 @cindex string to number
|
|
557 This function returns the numeric value of the characters in
|
21007
|
558 @var{string}. If @var{base} is non-@code{nil}, integers are converted
|
|
559 in that base. If @var{base} is @code{nil}, then base ten is used.
|
|
560 Floating point conversion always uses base ten; we have not implemented
|
|
561 other radices for floating point numbers, because that would be much
|
39196
|
562 more work and does not seem useful. If @var{string} looks like an
|
|
563 integer but its value is too large to fit into a Lisp integer,
|
|
564 @code{string-to-number} returns a floating point result.
|
21007
|
565
|
|
566 The parsing skips spaces and tabs at the beginning of @var{string}, then
|
|
567 reads as much of @var{string} as it can interpret as a number. (On some
|
|
568 systems it ignores other whitespace at the beginning, not just spaces
|
25751
|
569 and tabs.) If the first character after the ignored whitespace is
|
|
570 neither a digit, nor a plus or minus sign, nor the leading dot of a
|
|
571 floating point number, this function returns 0.
|
6550
|
572
|
|
573 @example
|
|
574 (string-to-number "256")
|
|
575 @result{} 256
|
|
576 (string-to-number "25 is a perfect square.")
|
|
577 @result{} 25
|
|
578 (string-to-number "X256")
|
|
579 @result{} 0
|
|
580 (string-to-number "-4.5")
|
|
581 @result{} -4.5
|
38790
|
582 (string-to-number "1e5")
|
|
583 @result{} 100000.0
|
6550
|
584 @end example
|
|
585
|
|
586 @findex string-to-int
|
|
587 @code{string-to-int} is an obsolete alias for this function.
|
|
588 @end defun
|
|
589
|
21007
|
590 Here are some other functions that can convert to or from a string:
|
|
591
|
|
592 @table @code
|
|
593 @item concat
|
|
594 @code{concat} can convert a vector or a list into a string.
|
|
595 @xref{Creating Strings}.
|
|
596
|
|
597 @item vconcat
|
|
598 @code{vconcat} can convert a string into a vector. @xref{Vector
|
|
599 Functions}.
|
|
600
|
|
601 @item append
|
|
602 @code{append} can convert a string into a list. @xref{Building Lists}.
|
|
603 @end table
|
|
604
|
6550
|
605 @node Formatting Strings
|
|
606 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
|
|
607 @section Formatting Strings
|
|
608 @cindex formatting strings
|
|
609 @cindex strings, formatting them
|
|
610
|
|
611 @dfn{Formatting} means constructing a string by substitution of
|
24862
|
612 computed values at various places in a constant string. This constant string
|
|
613 controls how the other values are printed, as well as where they appear;
|
6550
|
614 it is called a @dfn{format string}.
|
|
615
|
|
616 Formatting is often useful for computing messages to be displayed. In
|
|
617 fact, the functions @code{message} and @code{error} provide the same
|
|
618 formatting feature described here; they differ from @code{format} only
|
|
619 in how they use the result of formatting.
|
|
620
|
|
621 @defun format string &rest objects
|
21682
|
622 This function returns a new string that is made by copying
|
49600
|
623 @var{string} and then replacing any format specification
|
6550
|
624 in the copy with encodings of the corresponding @var{objects}. The
|
|
625 arguments @var{objects} are the computed values to be formatted.
|
25751
|
626
|
|
627 The characters in @var{string}, other than the format specifications,
|
|
628 are copied directly into the output; starting in Emacs 21, if they have
|
|
629 text properties, these are copied into the output also.
|
6550
|
630 @end defun
|
|
631
|
|
632 @cindex @samp{%} in format
|
|
633 @cindex format specification
|
|
634 A format specification is a sequence of characters beginning with a
|
|
635 @samp{%}. Thus, if there is a @samp{%d} in @var{string}, the
|
|
636 @code{format} function replaces it with the printed representation of
|
|
637 one of the values to be formatted (one of the arguments @var{objects}).
|
|
638 For example:
|
|
639
|
|
640 @example
|
|
641 @group
|
|
642 (format "The value of fill-column is %d." fill-column)
|
|
643 @result{} "The value of fill-column is 72."
|
|
644 @end group
|
|
645 @end example
|
|
646
|
|
647 If @var{string} contains more than one format specification, the
|
24862
|
648 format specifications correspond to successive values from
|
6550
|
649 @var{objects}. Thus, the first format specification in @var{string}
|
|
650 uses the first such value, the second format specification uses the
|
|
651 second such value, and so on. Any extra format specifications (those
|
|
652 for which there are no corresponding values) cause unpredictable
|
|
653 behavior. Any extra values to be formatted are ignored.
|
|
654
|
22138
|
655 Certain format specifications require values of particular types. If
|
|
656 you supply a value that doesn't fit the requirements, an error is
|
|
657 signaled.
|
6550
|
658
|
|
659 Here is a table of valid format specifications:
|
|
660
|
|
661 @table @samp
|
|
662 @item %s
|
|
663 Replace the specification with the printed representation of the object,
|
21007
|
664 made without quoting (that is, using @code{princ}, not
|
21682
|
665 @code{prin1}---@pxref{Output Functions}). Thus, strings are represented
|
21007
|
666 by their contents alone, with no @samp{"} characters, and symbols appear
|
|
667 without @samp{\} characters.
|
6550
|
668
|
25751
|
669 Starting in Emacs 21, if the object is a string, its text properties are
|
|
670 copied into the output. The text properties of the @samp{%s} itself
|
|
671 are also copied, but those of the object take priority.
|
|
672
|
6550
|
673 If there is no corresponding object, the empty string is used.
|
|
674
|
|
675 @item %S
|
|
676 Replace the specification with the printed representation of the object,
|
21007
|
677 made with quoting (that is, using @code{prin1}---@pxref{Output
|
|
678 Functions}). Thus, strings are enclosed in @samp{"} characters, and
|
|
679 @samp{\} characters appear where necessary before special characters.
|
6550
|
680
|
|
681 If there is no corresponding object, the empty string is used.
|
|
682
|
|
683 @item %o
|
|
684 @cindex integer to octal
|
|
685 Replace the specification with the base-eight representation of an
|
|
686 integer.
|
|
687
|
|
688 @item %d
|
|
689 Replace the specification with the base-ten representation of an
|
|
690 integer.
|
|
691
|
|
692 @item %x
|
35036
|
693 @itemx %X
|
6550
|
694 @cindex integer to hexadecimal
|
|
695 Replace the specification with the base-sixteen representation of an
|
35036
|
696 integer. @samp{%x} uses lower case and @samp{%X} uses upper case.
|
6550
|
697
|
|
698 @item %c
|
|
699 Replace the specification with the character which is the value given.
|
|
700
|
|
701 @item %e
|
|
702 Replace the specification with the exponential notation for a floating
|
35071
|
703 point number.
|
6550
|
704
|
|
705 @item %f
|
|
706 Replace the specification with the decimal-point notation for a floating
|
|
707 point number.
|
|
708
|
|
709 @item %g
|
|
710 Replace the specification with notation for a floating point number,
|
22138
|
711 using either exponential notation or decimal-point notation, whichever
|
35071
|
712 is shorter.
|
6550
|
713
|
|
714 @item %%
|
35036
|
715 Replace the specification with a single @samp{%}. This format
|
|
716 specification is unusual in that it does not use a value. For example,
|
|
717 @code{(format "%% %d" 30)} returns @code{"% 30"}.
|
6550
|
718 @end table
|
|
719
|
|
720 Any other format character results in an @samp{Invalid format
|
|
721 operation} error.
|
|
722
|
|
723 Here are several examples:
|
|
724
|
|
725 @example
|
|
726 @group
|
|
727 (format "The name of this buffer is %s." (buffer-name))
|
|
728 @result{} "The name of this buffer is strings.texi."
|
|
729
|
|
730 (format "The buffer object prints as %s." (current-buffer))
|
13228
|
731 @result{} "The buffer object prints as strings.texi."
|
6550
|
732
|
49600
|
733 (format "The octal value of %d is %o,
|
6550
|
734 and the hex value is %x." 18 18 18)
|
49600
|
735 @result{} "The octal value of 18 is 22,
|
6550
|
736 and the hex value is 12."
|
|
737 @end group
|
|
738 @end example
|
|
739
|
|
740 @cindex numeric prefix
|
|
741 @cindex field width
|
|
742 @cindex padding
|
|
743 All the specification characters allow an optional numeric prefix
|
|
744 between the @samp{%} and the character. The optional numeric prefix
|
|
745 defines the minimum width for the object. If the printed representation
|
|
746 of the object contains fewer characters than this, then it is padded.
|
|
747 The padding is on the left if the prefix is positive (or starts with
|
|
748 zero) and on the right if the prefix is negative. The padding character
|
|
749 is normally a space, but if the numeric prefix starts with a zero, zeros
|
21007
|
750 are used for padding. Here are some examples of padding:
|
6550
|
751
|
|
752 @example
|
|
753 (format "%06d is padded on the left with zeros" 123)
|
|
754 @result{} "000123 is padded on the left with zeros"
|
|
755
|
|
756 (format "%-6d is padded on the right" 123)
|
|
757 @result{} "123 is padded on the right"
|
|
758 @end example
|
|
759
|
|
760 @code{format} never truncates an object's printed representation, no
|
|
761 matter what width you specify. Thus, you can use a numeric prefix to
|
|
762 specify a minimum spacing between columns with no risk of losing
|
|
763 information.
|
|
764
|
|
765 In the following three examples, @samp{%7s} specifies a minimum width
|
|
766 of 7. In the first case, the string inserted in place of @samp{%7s} has
|
|
767 only 3 letters, so 4 blank spaces are inserted for padding. In the
|
|
768 second case, the string @code{"specification"} is 13 letters wide but is
|
|
769 not truncated. In the third case, the padding is on the right.
|
|
770
|
49600
|
771 @smallexample
|
6550
|
772 @group
|
|
773 (format "The word `%7s' actually has %d letters in it."
|
|
774 "foo" (length "foo"))
|
49600
|
775 @result{} "The word ` foo' actually has 3 letters in it."
|
6550
|
776 @end group
|
|
777
|
|
778 @group
|
|
779 (format "The word `%7s' actually has %d letters in it."
|
49600
|
780 "specification" (length "specification"))
|
|
781 @result{} "The word `specification' actually has 13 letters in it."
|
6550
|
782 @end group
|
|
783
|
|
784 @group
|
|
785 (format "The word `%-7s' actually has %d letters in it."
|
|
786 "foo" (length "foo"))
|
49600
|
787 @result{} "The word `foo ' actually has 3 letters in it."
|
6550
|
788 @end group
|
|
789 @end smallexample
|
|
790
|
21682
|
791 @node Case Conversion
|
49600
|
792 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
|
21682
|
793 @section Case Conversion in Lisp
|
49600
|
794 @cindex upper case
|
|
795 @cindex lower case
|
|
796 @cindex character case
|
21682
|
797 @cindex case conversion in Lisp
|
6550
|
798
|
|
799 The character case functions change the case of single characters or
|
22138
|
800 of the contents of strings. The functions normally convert only
|
|
801 alphabetic characters (the letters @samp{A} through @samp{Z} and
|
25751
|
802 @samp{a} through @samp{z}, as well as non-@sc{ascii} letters); other
|
|
803 characters are not altered. You can specify a different case
|
|
804 conversion mapping by specifying a case table (@pxref{Case Tables}).
|
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|
805
|
|
806 These functions do not modify the strings that are passed to them as
|
|
807 arguments.
|
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|
808
|
|
809 The examples below use the characters @samp{X} and @samp{x} which have
|
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810 @sc{ascii} codes 88 and 120 respectively.
|
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|
811
|
|
812 @defun downcase string-or-char
|
|
813 This function converts a character or a string to lower case.
|
|
814
|
|
815 When the argument to @code{downcase} is a string, the function creates
|
|
816 and returns a new string in which each letter in the argument that is
|
|
817 upper case is converted to lower case. When the argument to
|
|
818 @code{downcase} is a character, @code{downcase} returns the
|
|
819 corresponding lower case character. This value is an integer. If the
|
|
820 original character is lower case, or is not a letter, then the value
|
|
821 equals the original character.
|
|
822
|
|
823 @example
|
|
824 (downcase "The cat in the hat")
|
|
825 @result{} "the cat in the hat"
|
|
826
|
|
827 (downcase ?X)
|
|
828 @result{} 120
|
|
829 @end example
|
|
830 @end defun
|
|
831
|
|
832 @defun upcase string-or-char
|
|
833 This function converts a character or a string to upper case.
|
|
834
|
|
835 When the argument to @code{upcase} is a string, the function creates
|
|
836 and returns a new string in which each letter in the argument that is
|
|
837 lower case is converted to upper case.
|
|
838
|
|
839 When the argument to @code{upcase} is a character, @code{upcase}
|
|
840 returns the corresponding upper case character. This value is an integer.
|
|
841 If the original character is upper case, or is not a letter, then the
|
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|
842 value returned equals the original character.
|
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|
843
|
|
844 @example
|
|
845 (upcase "The cat in the hat")
|
|
846 @result{} "THE CAT IN THE HAT"
|
|
847
|
|
848 (upcase ?x)
|
|
849 @result{} 88
|
|
850 @end example
|
|
851 @end defun
|
|
852
|
|
853 @defun capitalize string-or-char
|
|
854 @cindex capitalization
|
|
855 This function capitalizes strings or characters. If
|
|
856 @var{string-or-char} is a string, the function creates and returns a new
|
|
857 string, whose contents are a copy of @var{string-or-char} in which each
|
|
858 word has been capitalized. This means that the first character of each
|
|
859 word is converted to upper case, and the rest are converted to lower
|
|
860 case.
|
|
861
|
|
862 The definition of a word is any sequence of consecutive characters that
|
|
863 are assigned to the word constituent syntax class in the current syntax
|
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|
864 table (@pxref{Syntax Class Table}).
|
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|
865
|
|
866 When the argument to @code{capitalize} is a character, @code{capitalize}
|
|
867 has the same result as @code{upcase}.
|
|
868
|
|
869 @example
|
|
870 (capitalize "The cat in the hat")
|
|
871 @result{} "The Cat In The Hat"
|
|
872
|
|
873 (capitalize "THE 77TH-HATTED CAT")
|
|
874 @result{} "The 77th-Hatted Cat"
|
|
875
|
|
876 @group
|
|
877 (capitalize ?x)
|
|
878 @result{} 88
|
|
879 @end group
|
|
880 @end example
|
|
881 @end defun
|
|
882
|
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|
883 @defun upcase-initials string
|
24862
|
884 This function capitalizes the initials of the words in @var{string},
|
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|
885 without altering any letters other than the initials. It returns a new
|
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|
886 string whose contents are a copy of @var{string}, in which each word has
|
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|
887 had its initial letter converted to upper case.
|
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|
888
|
|
889 The definition of a word is any sequence of consecutive characters that
|
|
890 are assigned to the word constituent syntax class in the current syntax
|
25454
|
891 table (@pxref{Syntax Class Table}).
|
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|
892
|
|
893 @example
|
|
894 @group
|
|
895 (upcase-initials "The CAT in the hAt")
|
|
896 @result{} "The CAT In The HAt"
|
|
897 @end group
|
|
898 @end example
|
|
899 @end defun
|
|
900
|
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|
901 @xref{Text Comparison}, for functions that compare strings; some of
|
|
902 them ignore case differences, or can optionally ignore case differences.
|
|
903
|
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|
904 @node Case Tables
|
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|
905 @section The Case Table
|
|
906
|
|
907 You can customize case conversion by installing a special @dfn{case
|
|
908 table}. A case table specifies the mapping between upper case and lower
|
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|
909 case letters. It affects both the case conversion functions for Lisp
|
|
910 objects (see the previous section) and those that apply to text in the
|
|
911 buffer (@pxref{Case Changes}). Each buffer has a case table; there is
|
|
912 also a standard case table which is used to initialize the case table
|
|
913 of new buffers.
|
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|
914
|
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|
915 A case table is a char-table (@pxref{Char-Tables}) whose subtype is
|
|
916 @code{case-table}. This char-table maps each character into the
|
|
917 corresponding lower case character. It has three extra slots, which
|
|
918 hold related tables:
|
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|
919
|
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|
920 @table @var
|
|
921 @item upcase
|
|
922 The upcase table maps each character into the corresponding upper
|
|
923 case character.
|
|
924 @item canonicalize
|
|
925 The canonicalize table maps all of a set of case-related characters
|
22138
|
926 into a particular member of that set.
|
21007
|
927 @item equivalences
|
22138
|
928 The equivalences table maps each one of a set of case-related characters
|
|
929 into the next character in that set.
|
21007
|
930 @end table
|
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|
931
|
21007
|
932 In simple cases, all you need to specify is the mapping to lower-case;
|
|
933 the three related tables will be calculated automatically from that one.
|
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|
934
|
|
935 For some languages, upper and lower case letters are not in one-to-one
|
|
936 correspondence. There may be two different lower case letters with the
|
|
937 same upper case equivalent. In these cases, you need to specify the
|
21007
|
938 maps for both lower case and upper case.
|
6550
|
939
|
21007
|
940 The extra table @var{canonicalize} maps each character to a canonical
|
|
941 equivalent; any two characters that are related by case-conversion have
|
|
942 the same canonical equivalent character. For example, since @samp{a}
|
|
943 and @samp{A} are related by case-conversion, they should have the same
|
|
944 canonical equivalent character (which should be either @samp{a} for both
|
|
945 of them, or @samp{A} for both of them).
|
|
946
|
|
947 The extra table @var{equivalences} is a map that cyclicly permutes
|
|
948 each equivalence class (of characters with the same canonical
|
25751
|
949 equivalent). (For ordinary @sc{ascii}, this would map @samp{a} into
|
21007
|
950 @samp{A} and @samp{A} into @samp{a}, and likewise for each set of
|
|
951 equivalent characters.)
|
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|
952
|
6938
|
953 When you construct a case table, you can provide @code{nil} for
|
21682
|
954 @var{canonicalize}; then Emacs fills in this slot from the lower case
|
21007
|
955 and upper case mappings. You can also provide @code{nil} for
|
21682
|
956 @var{equivalences}; then Emacs fills in this slot from
|
6938
|
957 @var{canonicalize}. In a case table that is actually in use, those
|
|
958 components are non-@code{nil}. Do not try to specify @var{equivalences}
|
|
959 without also specifying @var{canonicalize}.
|
6550
|
960
|
|
961 Here are the functions for working with case tables:
|
|
962
|
|
963 @defun case-table-p object
|
|
964 This predicate returns non-@code{nil} if @var{object} is a valid case
|
|
965 table.
|
|
966 @end defun
|
|
967
|
|
968 @defun set-standard-case-table table
|
|
969 This function makes @var{table} the standard case table, so that it will
|
21682
|
970 be used in any buffers created subsequently.
|
6550
|
971 @end defun
|
|
972
|
|
973 @defun standard-case-table
|
|
974 This returns the standard case table.
|
|
975 @end defun
|
|
976
|
|
977 @defun current-case-table
|
|
978 This function returns the current buffer's case table.
|
|
979 @end defun
|
|
980
|
|
981 @defun set-case-table table
|
|
982 This sets the current buffer's case table to @var{table}.
|
|
983 @end defun
|
|
984
|
|
985 The following three functions are convenient subroutines for packages
|
25751
|
986 that define non-@sc{ascii} character sets. They modify the specified
|
21007
|
987 case table @var{case-table}; they also modify the standard syntax table.
|
21682
|
988 @xref{Syntax Tables}. Normally you would use these functions to change
|
|
989 the standard case table.
|
6550
|
990
|
21007
|
991 @defun set-case-syntax-pair uc lc case-table
|
6550
|
992 This function specifies a pair of corresponding letters, one upper case
|
|
993 and one lower case.
|
|
994 @end defun
|
|
995
|
21007
|
996 @defun set-case-syntax-delims l r case-table
|
6550
|
997 This function makes characters @var{l} and @var{r} a matching pair of
|
|
998 case-invariant delimiters.
|
|
999 @end defun
|
|
1000
|
21007
|
1001 @defun set-case-syntax char syntax case-table
|
6550
|
1002 This function makes @var{char} case-invariant, with syntax
|
|
1003 @var{syntax}.
|
|
1004 @end defun
|
|
1005
|
|
1006 @deffn Command describe-buffer-case-table
|
|
1007 This command displays a description of the contents of the current
|
|
1008 buffer's case table.
|
|
1009 @end deffn
|