Mercurial > emacs
annotate doc/lispref/variables.texi @ 98774:68912c77122d
(Char-Tables): Fix wording in last change.
author | Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org> |
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date | Thu, 16 Oct 2008 07:20:31 +0000 |
parents | f20cbcf45bb3 |
children | a6d974af2bf4 |
rev | line source |
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84109 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2000, | |
87649 | 4 @c 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
84109 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
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6 @setfilename ../../info/variables |
84109 | 7 @node Variables, Functions, Control Structures, Top |
8 @chapter Variables | |
9 @cindex variable | |
10 | |
11 A @dfn{variable} is a name used in a program to stand for a value. | |
12 Nearly all programming languages have variables of some sort. In the | |
13 text of a Lisp program, variables are written using the syntax for | |
14 symbols. | |
15 | |
16 In Lisp, unlike most programming languages, programs are represented | |
17 primarily as Lisp objects and only secondarily as text. The Lisp | |
18 objects used for variables are symbols: the symbol name is the variable | |
19 name, and the variable's value is stored in the value cell of the | |
20 symbol. The use of a symbol as a variable is independent of its use as | |
21 a function name. @xref{Symbol Components}. | |
22 | |
23 The Lisp objects that constitute a Lisp program determine the textual | |
24 form of the program---it is simply the read syntax for those Lisp | |
25 objects. This is why, for example, a variable in a textual Lisp program | |
26 is written using the read syntax for the symbol that represents the | |
27 variable. | |
28 | |
29 @menu | |
30 * Global Variables:: Variable values that exist permanently, everywhere. | |
31 * Constant Variables:: Certain "variables" have values that never change. | |
32 * Local Variables:: Variable values that exist only temporarily. | |
33 * Void Variables:: Symbols that lack values. | |
34 * Defining Variables:: A definition says a symbol is used as a variable. | |
35 * Tips for Defining:: Things you should think about when you | |
36 define a variable. | |
37 * Accessing Variables:: Examining values of variables whose names | |
38 are known only at run time. | |
39 * Setting Variables:: Storing new values in variables. | |
40 * Variable Scoping:: How Lisp chooses among local and global values. | |
41 * Buffer-Local Variables:: Variable values in effect only in one buffer. | |
42 * Future Local Variables:: New kinds of local values we might add some day. | |
43 * File Local Variables:: Handling local variable lists in files. | |
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44 * Frame-Local Variables:: Frame-local bindings for variables. |
84109 | 45 * Variable Aliases:: Variables that are aliases for other variables. |
46 * Variables with Restricted Values:: Non-constant variables whose value can | |
47 @emph{not} be an arbitrary Lisp object. | |
48 @end menu | |
49 | |
50 @node Global Variables | |
51 @section Global Variables | |
52 @cindex global variable | |
53 | |
54 The simplest way to use a variable is @dfn{globally}. This means that | |
55 the variable has just one value at a time, and this value is in effect | |
56 (at least for the moment) throughout the Lisp system. The value remains | |
57 in effect until you specify a new one. When a new value replaces the | |
58 old one, no trace of the old value remains in the variable. | |
59 | |
60 You specify a value for a symbol with @code{setq}. For example, | |
61 | |
62 @example | |
63 (setq x '(a b)) | |
64 @end example | |
65 | |
66 @noindent | |
67 gives the variable @code{x} the value @code{(a b)}. Note that | |
68 @code{setq} does not evaluate its first argument, the name of the | |
69 variable, but it does evaluate the second argument, the new value. | |
70 | |
71 Once the variable has a value, you can refer to it by using the symbol | |
72 by itself as an expression. Thus, | |
73 | |
74 @example | |
75 @group | |
76 x @result{} (a b) | |
77 @end group | |
78 @end example | |
79 | |
80 @noindent | |
81 assuming the @code{setq} form shown above has already been executed. | |
82 | |
83 If you do set the same variable again, the new value replaces the old | |
84 one: | |
85 | |
86 @example | |
87 @group | |
88 x | |
89 @result{} (a b) | |
90 @end group | |
91 @group | |
92 (setq x 4) | |
93 @result{} 4 | |
94 @end group | |
95 @group | |
96 x | |
97 @result{} 4 | |
98 @end group | |
99 @end example | |
100 | |
101 @node Constant Variables | |
102 @section Variables that Never Change | |
103 @kindex setting-constant | |
104 @cindex keyword symbol | |
105 @cindex variable with constant value | |
106 @cindex constant variables | |
107 @cindex symbol that evaluates to itself | |
108 @cindex symbol with constant value | |
109 | |
110 In Emacs Lisp, certain symbols normally evaluate to themselves. These | |
111 include @code{nil} and @code{t}, as well as any symbol whose name starts | |
112 with @samp{:} (these are called @dfn{keywords}). These symbols cannot | |
113 be rebound, nor can their values be changed. Any attempt to set or bind | |
114 @code{nil} or @code{t} signals a @code{setting-constant} error. The | |
115 same is true for a keyword (a symbol whose name starts with @samp{:}), | |
116 if it is interned in the standard obarray, except that setting such a | |
117 symbol to itself is not an error. | |
118 | |
119 @example | |
120 @group | |
121 nil @equiv{} 'nil | |
122 @result{} nil | |
123 @end group | |
124 @group | |
125 (setq nil 500) | |
126 @error{} Attempt to set constant symbol: nil | |
127 @end group | |
128 @end example | |
129 | |
130 @defun keywordp object | |
131 function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a symbol whose name | |
132 starts with @samp{:}, interned in the standard obarray, and returns | |
133 @code{nil} otherwise. | |
134 @end defun | |
135 | |
136 @node Local Variables | |
137 @section Local Variables | |
138 @cindex binding local variables | |
139 @cindex local variables | |
140 @cindex local binding | |
141 @cindex global binding | |
142 | |
143 Global variables have values that last until explicitly superseded | |
144 with new values. Sometimes it is useful to create variable values that | |
145 exist temporarily---only until a certain part of the program finishes. | |
146 These values are called @dfn{local}, and the variables so used are | |
147 called @dfn{local variables}. | |
148 | |
149 For example, when a function is called, its argument variables receive | |
150 new local values that last until the function exits. The @code{let} | |
151 special form explicitly establishes new local values for specified | |
152 variables; these last until exit from the @code{let} form. | |
153 | |
154 @cindex shadowing of variables | |
155 Establishing a local value saves away the previous value (or lack of | |
156 one) of the variable. When the life span of the local value is over, | |
157 the previous value is restored. In the mean time, we say that the | |
158 previous value is @dfn{shadowed} and @dfn{not visible}. Both global and | |
159 local values may be shadowed (@pxref{Scope}). | |
160 | |
161 If you set a variable (such as with @code{setq}) while it is local, | |
162 this replaces the local value; it does not alter the global value, or | |
163 previous local values, that are shadowed. To model this behavior, we | |
164 speak of a @dfn{local binding} of the variable as well as a local value. | |
165 | |
166 The local binding is a conceptual place that holds a local value. | |
167 Entry to a function, or a special form such as @code{let}, creates the | |
168 local binding; exit from the function or from the @code{let} removes the | |
169 local binding. As long as the local binding lasts, the variable's value | |
170 is stored within it. Use of @code{setq} or @code{set} while there is a | |
171 local binding stores a different value into the local binding; it does | |
172 not create a new binding. | |
173 | |
174 We also speak of the @dfn{global binding}, which is where | |
175 (conceptually) the global value is kept. | |
176 | |
177 @cindex current binding | |
178 A variable can have more than one local binding at a time (for | |
179 example, if there are nested @code{let} forms that bind it). In such a | |
180 case, the most recently created local binding that still exists is the | |
181 @dfn{current binding} of the variable. (This rule is called | |
182 @dfn{dynamic scoping}; see @ref{Variable Scoping}.) If there are no | |
183 local bindings, the variable's global binding is its current binding. | |
184 We sometimes call the current binding the @dfn{most-local existing | |
185 binding}, for emphasis. Ordinary evaluation of a symbol always returns | |
186 the value of its current binding. | |
187 | |
188 The special forms @code{let} and @code{let*} exist to create | |
189 local bindings. | |
190 | |
191 @defspec let (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} | |
192 This special form binds variables according to @var{bindings} and then | |
193 evaluates all of the @var{forms} in textual order. The @code{let}-form | |
194 returns the value of the last form in @var{forms}. | |
195 | |
196 Each of the @var{bindings} is either @w{(i) a} symbol, in which case | |
197 that symbol is bound to @code{nil}; or @w{(ii) a} list of the form | |
198 @code{(@var{symbol} @var{value-form})}, in which case @var{symbol} is | |
199 bound to the result of evaluating @var{value-form}. If @var{value-form} | |
200 is omitted, @code{nil} is used. | |
201 | |
202 All of the @var{value-form}s in @var{bindings} are evaluated in the | |
203 order they appear and @emph{before} binding any of the symbols to them. | |
204 Here is an example of this: @code{z} is bound to the old value of | |
205 @code{y}, which is 2, not the new value of @code{y}, which is 1. | |
206 | |
207 @example | |
208 @group | |
209 (setq y 2) | |
210 @result{} 2 | |
211 @end group | |
212 @group | |
213 (let ((y 1) | |
214 (z y)) | |
215 (list y z)) | |
216 @result{} (1 2) | |
217 @end group | |
218 @end example | |
219 @end defspec | |
220 | |
221 @defspec let* (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} | |
222 This special form is like @code{let}, but it binds each variable right | |
223 after computing its local value, before computing the local value for | |
224 the next variable. Therefore, an expression in @var{bindings} can | |
225 reasonably refer to the preceding symbols bound in this @code{let*} | |
226 form. Compare the following example with the example above for | |
227 @code{let}. | |
228 | |
229 @example | |
230 @group | |
231 (setq y 2) | |
232 @result{} 2 | |
233 @end group | |
234 @group | |
235 (let* ((y 1) | |
236 (z y)) ; @r{Use the just-established value of @code{y}.} | |
237 (list y z)) | |
238 @result{} (1 1) | |
239 @end group | |
240 @end example | |
241 @end defspec | |
242 | |
243 Here is a complete list of the other facilities that create local | |
244 bindings: | |
245 | |
246 @itemize @bullet | |
247 @item | |
248 Function calls (@pxref{Functions}). | |
249 | |
250 @item | |
251 Macro calls (@pxref{Macros}). | |
252 | |
253 @item | |
254 @code{condition-case} (@pxref{Errors}). | |
255 @end itemize | |
256 | |
257 Variables can also have buffer-local bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local | |
85688 | 258 Variables}); a few variables have terminal-local bindings |
259 (@pxref{Multiple Displays}). These kinds of bindings work somewhat | |
260 like ordinary local bindings, but they are localized depending on | |
261 ``where'' you are in Emacs, rather than localized in time. | |
84109 | 262 |
263 @defvar max-specpdl-size | |
264 @anchor{Definition of max-specpdl-size} | |
265 @cindex variable limit error | |
266 @cindex evaluation error | |
267 @cindex infinite recursion | |
268 This variable defines the limit on the total number of local variable | |
269 bindings and @code{unwind-protect} cleanups (@pxref{Cleanups,, | |
270 Cleaning Up from Nonlocal Exits}) that are allowed before signaling an | |
271 error (with data @code{"Variable binding depth exceeds | |
272 max-specpdl-size"}). | |
273 | |
274 This limit, with the associated error when it is exceeded, is one way | |
275 that Lisp avoids infinite recursion on an ill-defined function. | |
276 @code{max-lisp-eval-depth} provides another limit on depth of nesting. | |
277 @xref{Definition of max-lisp-eval-depth,, Eval}. | |
278 | |
279 The default value is 1000. Entry to the Lisp debugger increases the | |
280 value, if there is little room left, to make sure the debugger itself | |
281 has room to execute. | |
282 @end defvar | |
283 | |
284 @node Void Variables | |
285 @section When a Variable is ``Void'' | |
286 @kindex void-variable | |
287 @cindex void variable | |
288 | |
289 If you have never given a symbol any value as a global variable, we | |
290 say that that symbol's global value is @dfn{void}. In other words, the | |
291 symbol's value cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to | |
292 evaluate the symbol, you get a @code{void-variable} error rather than | |
293 a value. | |
294 | |
295 Note that a value of @code{nil} is not the same as void. The symbol | |
296 @code{nil} is a Lisp object and can be the value of a variable just as any | |
297 other object can be; but it is @emph{a value}. A void variable does not | |
298 have any value. | |
299 | |
300 After you have given a variable a value, you can make it void once more | |
301 using @code{makunbound}. | |
302 | |
303 @defun makunbound symbol | |
304 This function makes the current variable binding of @var{symbol} void. | |
305 Subsequent attempts to use this symbol's value as a variable will signal | |
306 the error @code{void-variable}, unless and until you set it again. | |
307 | |
308 @code{makunbound} returns @var{symbol}. | |
309 | |
310 @example | |
311 @group | |
312 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Make the global value of @code{x} void.} | |
313 @result{} x | |
314 @end group | |
315 @group | |
316 x | |
317 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x | |
318 @end group | |
319 @end example | |
320 | |
321 If @var{symbol} is locally bound, @code{makunbound} affects the most | |
322 local existing binding. This is the only way a symbol can have a void | |
323 local binding, since all the constructs that create local bindings | |
324 create them with values. In this case, the voidness lasts at most as | |
325 long as the binding does; when the binding is removed due to exit from | |
326 the construct that made it, the previous local or global binding is | |
327 reexposed as usual, and the variable is no longer void unless the newly | |
328 reexposed binding was void all along. | |
329 | |
330 @smallexample | |
331 @group | |
332 (setq x 1) ; @r{Put a value in the global binding.} | |
333 @result{} 1 | |
334 (let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} | |
335 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the local binding.} | |
336 x) | |
337 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x | |
338 @end group | |
339 @group | |
340 x ; @r{The global binding is unchanged.} | |
341 @result{} 1 | |
342 | |
343 (let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} | |
344 (let ((x 3)) ; @r{And again.} | |
345 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the innermost-local binding.} | |
346 x)) ; @r{And refer: it's void.} | |
347 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x | |
348 @end group | |
349 | |
350 @group | |
351 (let ((x 2)) | |
352 (let ((x 3)) | |
353 (makunbound 'x)) ; @r{Void inner binding, then remove it.} | |
354 x) ; @r{Now outer @code{let} binding is visible.} | |
355 @result{} 2 | |
356 @end group | |
357 @end smallexample | |
358 @end defun | |
359 | |
360 A variable that has been made void with @code{makunbound} is | |
361 indistinguishable from one that has never received a value and has | |
362 always been void. | |
363 | |
364 You can use the function @code{boundp} to test whether a variable is | |
365 currently void. | |
366 | |
367 @defun boundp variable | |
368 @code{boundp} returns @code{t} if @var{variable} (a symbol) is not void; | |
369 more precisely, if its current binding is not void. It returns | |
370 @code{nil} otherwise. | |
371 | |
372 @smallexample | |
373 @group | |
374 (boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Starts out void.} | |
375 @result{} nil | |
376 @end group | |
377 @group | |
378 (let ((abracadabra 5)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} | |
379 (boundp 'abracadabra)) | |
380 @result{} t | |
381 @end group | |
382 @group | |
383 (boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Still globally void.} | |
384 @result{} nil | |
385 @end group | |
386 @group | |
387 (setq abracadabra 5) ; @r{Make it globally nonvoid.} | |
388 @result{} 5 | |
389 @end group | |
390 @group | |
391 (boundp 'abracadabra) | |
392 @result{} t | |
393 @end group | |
394 @end smallexample | |
395 @end defun | |
396 | |
397 @node Defining Variables | |
398 @section Defining Global Variables | |
399 @cindex variable definition | |
400 | |
401 You may announce your intention to use a symbol as a global variable | |
402 with a @dfn{variable definition}: a special form, either @code{defconst} | |
403 or @code{defvar}. | |
404 | |
405 In Emacs Lisp, definitions serve three purposes. First, they inform | |
406 people who read the code that certain symbols are @emph{intended} to be | |
407 used a certain way (as variables). Second, they inform the Lisp system | |
408 of these things, supplying a value and documentation. Third, they | |
409 provide information to utilities such as @code{etags} and | |
410 @code{make-docfile}, which create data bases of the functions and | |
411 variables in a program. | |
412 | |
413 The difference between @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} is primarily | |
414 a matter of intent, serving to inform human readers of whether the value | |
415 should ever change. Emacs Lisp does not restrict the ways in which a | |
416 variable can be used based on @code{defconst} or @code{defvar} | |
417 declarations. However, it does make a difference for initialization: | |
418 @code{defconst} unconditionally initializes the variable, while | |
419 @code{defvar} initializes it only if it is void. | |
420 | |
421 @ignore | |
422 One would expect user option variables to be defined with | |
423 @code{defconst}, since programs do not change them. Unfortunately, this | |
424 has bad results if the definition is in a library that is not preloaded: | |
425 @code{defconst} would override any prior value when the library is | |
426 loaded. Users would like to be able to set user options in their init | |
427 files, and override the default values given in the definitions. For | |
428 this reason, user options must be defined with @code{defvar}. | |
429 @end ignore | |
430 | |
431 @defspec defvar symbol [value [doc-string]] | |
432 This special form defines @var{symbol} as a variable and can also | |
433 initialize and document it. The definition informs a person reading | |
434 your code that @var{symbol} is used as a variable that might be set or | |
435 changed. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the symbol to be | |
436 defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defvar}. | |
437 | |
438 If @var{symbol} is void and @var{value} is specified, @code{defvar} | |
439 evaluates it and sets @var{symbol} to the result. But if @var{symbol} | |
440 already has a value (i.e., it is not void), @var{value} is not even | |
441 evaluated, and @var{symbol}'s value remains unchanged. If @var{value} | |
442 is omitted, the value of @var{symbol} is not changed in any case. | |
443 | |
444 If @var{symbol} has a buffer-local binding in the current buffer, | |
445 @code{defvar} operates on the default value, which is buffer-independent, | |
446 not the current (buffer-local) binding. It sets the default value if | |
447 the default value is void. @xref{Buffer-Local Variables}. | |
448 | |
449 When you evaluate a top-level @code{defvar} form with @kbd{C-M-x} in | |
450 Emacs Lisp mode (@code{eval-defun}), a special feature of | |
451 @code{eval-defun} arranges to set the variable unconditionally, without | |
452 testing whether its value is void. | |
453 | |
454 If the @var{doc-string} argument appears, it specifies the documentation | |
455 for the variable. (This opportunity to specify documentation is one of | |
456 the main benefits of defining the variable.) The documentation is | |
457 stored in the symbol's @code{variable-documentation} property. The | |
458 Emacs help functions (@pxref{Documentation}) look for this property. | |
459 | |
460 If the variable is a user option that users would want to set | |
461 interactively, you should use @samp{*} as the first character of | |
462 @var{doc-string}. This lets users set the variable conveniently using | |
463 the @code{set-variable} command. Note that you should nearly always | |
464 use @code{defcustom} instead of @code{defvar} to define these | |
465 variables, so that users can use @kbd{M-x customize} and related | |
466 commands to set them. @xref{Customization}. | |
467 | |
468 Here are some examples. This form defines @code{foo} but does not | |
469 initialize it: | |
470 | |
471 @example | |
472 @group | |
473 (defvar foo) | |
474 @result{} foo | |
475 @end group | |
476 @end example | |
477 | |
478 This example initializes the value of @code{bar} to @code{23}, and gives | |
479 it a documentation string: | |
480 | |
481 @example | |
482 @group | |
483 (defvar bar 23 | |
484 "The normal weight of a bar.") | |
485 @result{} bar | |
486 @end group | |
487 @end example | |
488 | |
489 The following form changes the documentation string for @code{bar}, | |
490 making it a user option, but does not change the value, since @code{bar} | |
491 already has a value. (The addition @code{(1+ nil)} would get an error | |
492 if it were evaluated, but since it is not evaluated, there is no error.) | |
493 | |
494 @example | |
495 @group | |
496 (defvar bar (1+ nil) | |
497 "*The normal weight of a bar.") | |
498 @result{} bar | |
499 @end group | |
500 @group | |
501 bar | |
502 @result{} 23 | |
503 @end group | |
504 @end example | |
505 | |
506 Here is an equivalent expression for the @code{defvar} special form: | |
507 | |
508 @example | |
509 @group | |
510 (defvar @var{symbol} @var{value} @var{doc-string}) | |
511 @equiv{} | |
512 (progn | |
513 (if (not (boundp '@var{symbol})) | |
514 (setq @var{symbol} @var{value})) | |
515 (if '@var{doc-string} | |
516 (put '@var{symbol} 'variable-documentation '@var{doc-string})) | |
517 '@var{symbol}) | |
518 @end group | |
519 @end example | |
520 | |
521 The @code{defvar} form returns @var{symbol}, but it is normally used | |
522 at top level in a file where its value does not matter. | |
523 @end defspec | |
524 | |
525 @defspec defconst symbol value [doc-string] | |
526 This special form defines @var{symbol} as a value and initializes it. | |
527 It informs a person reading your code that @var{symbol} has a standard | |
528 global value, established here, that should not be changed by the user | |
529 or by other programs. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the | |
530 symbol to be defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defconst}. | |
531 | |
532 @code{defconst} always evaluates @var{value}, and sets the value of | |
533 @var{symbol} to the result. If @var{symbol} does have a buffer-local | |
534 binding in the current buffer, @code{defconst} sets the default value, | |
535 not the buffer-local value. (But you should not be making | |
536 buffer-local bindings for a symbol that is defined with | |
537 @code{defconst}.) | |
538 | |
539 Here, @code{pi} is a constant that presumably ought not to be changed | |
540 by anyone (attempts by the Indiana State Legislature notwithstanding). | |
541 As the second form illustrates, however, this is only advisory. | |
542 | |
543 @example | |
544 @group | |
545 (defconst pi 3.1415 "Pi to five places.") | |
546 @result{} pi | |
547 @end group | |
548 @group | |
549 (setq pi 3) | |
550 @result{} pi | |
551 @end group | |
552 @group | |
553 pi | |
554 @result{} 3 | |
555 @end group | |
556 @end example | |
557 @end defspec | |
558 | |
559 @defun user-variable-p variable | |
560 @cindex user option | |
561 This function returns @code{t} if @var{variable} is a user option---a | |
562 variable intended to be set by the user for customization---and | |
563 @code{nil} otherwise. (Variables other than user options exist for the | |
564 internal purposes of Lisp programs, and users need not know about them.) | |
565 | |
566 User option variables are distinguished from other variables either | |
567 though being declared using @code{defcustom}@footnote{They may also be | |
568 declared equivalently in @file{cus-start.el}.} or by the first character | |
569 of their @code{variable-documentation} property. If the property exists | |
570 and is a string, and its first character is @samp{*}, then the variable | |
571 is a user option. Aliases of user options are also user options. | |
572 @end defun | |
573 | |
574 @kindex variable-interactive | |
575 If a user option variable has a @code{variable-interactive} property, | |
576 the @code{set-variable} command uses that value to control reading the | |
577 new value for the variable. The property's value is used as if it were | |
578 specified in @code{interactive} (@pxref{Using Interactive}). However, | |
579 this feature is largely obsoleted by @code{defcustom} | |
580 (@pxref{Customization}). | |
581 | |
582 @strong{Warning:} If the @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} special | |
583 forms are used while the variable has a local binding (made with | |
584 @code{let}, or a function argument), they set the local-binding's | |
585 value; the top-level binding is not changed. This is not what you | |
586 usually want. To prevent it, use these special forms at top level in | |
587 a file, where normally no local binding is in effect, and make sure to | |
588 load the file before making a local binding for the variable. | |
589 | |
590 @node Tips for Defining | |
591 @section Tips for Defining Variables Robustly | |
592 | |
593 When you define a variable whose value is a function, or a list of | |
594 functions, use a name that ends in @samp{-function} or | |
595 @samp{-functions}, respectively. | |
596 | |
597 There are several other variable name conventions; | |
598 here is a complete list: | |
599 | |
600 @table @samp | |
601 @item @dots{}-hook | |
602 The variable is a normal hook (@pxref{Hooks}). | |
603 | |
604 @item @dots{}-function | |
605 The value is a function. | |
606 | |
607 @item @dots{}-functions | |
608 The value is a list of functions. | |
609 | |
610 @item @dots{}-form | |
611 The value is a form (an expression). | |
612 | |
613 @item @dots{}-forms | |
614 The value is a list of forms (expressions). | |
615 | |
616 @item @dots{}-predicate | |
617 The value is a predicate---a function of one argument that returns | |
618 non-@code{nil} for ``good'' arguments and @code{nil} for ``bad'' | |
619 arguments. | |
620 | |
621 @item @dots{}-flag | |
622 The value is significant only as to whether it is @code{nil} or not. | |
623 | |
624 @item @dots{}-program | |
625 The value is a program name. | |
626 | |
627 @item @dots{}-command | |
628 The value is a whole shell command. | |
629 | |
630 @item @dots{}-switches | |
631 The value specifies options for a command. | |
632 @end table | |
633 | |
634 When you define a variable, always consider whether you should mark | |
635 it as ``risky''; see @ref{File Local Variables}. | |
636 | |
637 When defining and initializing a variable that holds a complicated | |
638 value (such as a keymap with bindings in it), it's best to put the | |
639 entire computation of the value into the @code{defvar}, like this: | |
640 | |
641 @example | |
642 (defvar my-mode-map | |
643 (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap))) | |
644 (define-key map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) | |
645 @dots{} | |
646 map) | |
647 @var{docstring}) | |
648 @end example | |
649 | |
650 @noindent | |
651 This method has several benefits. First, if the user quits while | |
652 loading the file, the variable is either still uninitialized or | |
653 initialized properly, never in-between. If it is still uninitialized, | |
654 reloading the file will initialize it properly. Second, reloading the | |
655 file once the variable is initialized will not alter it; that is | |
656 important if the user has run hooks to alter part of the contents (such | |
657 as, to rebind keys). Third, evaluating the @code{defvar} form with | |
658 @kbd{C-M-x} @emph{will} reinitialize the map completely. | |
659 | |
660 Putting so much code in the @code{defvar} form has one disadvantage: | |
661 it puts the documentation string far away from the line which names the | |
662 variable. Here's a safe way to avoid that: | |
663 | |
664 @example | |
665 (defvar my-mode-map nil | |
666 @var{docstring}) | |
667 (unless my-mode-map | |
668 (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap))) | |
669 (define-key map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) | |
670 @dots{} | |
671 (setq my-mode-map map))) | |
672 @end example | |
673 | |
674 @noindent | |
675 This has all the same advantages as putting the initialization inside | |
676 the @code{defvar}, except that you must type @kbd{C-M-x} twice, once on | |
677 each form, if you do want to reinitialize the variable. | |
678 | |
679 But be careful not to write the code like this: | |
680 | |
681 @example | |
682 (defvar my-mode-map nil | |
683 @var{docstring}) | |
684 (unless my-mode-map | |
685 (setq my-mode-map (make-sparse-keymap)) | |
686 (define-key my-mode-map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) | |
687 @dots{}) | |
688 @end example | |
689 | |
690 @noindent | |
691 This code sets the variable, then alters it, but it does so in more than | |
692 one step. If the user quits just after the @code{setq}, that leaves the | |
693 variable neither correctly initialized nor void nor @code{nil}. Once | |
694 that happens, reloading the file will not initialize the variable; it | |
695 will remain incomplete. | |
696 | |
697 @node Accessing Variables | |
698 @section Accessing Variable Values | |
699 | |
700 The usual way to reference a variable is to write the symbol which | |
701 names it (@pxref{Symbol Forms}). This requires you to specify the | |
702 variable name when you write the program. Usually that is exactly what | |
703 you want to do. Occasionally you need to choose at run time which | |
704 variable to reference; then you can use @code{symbol-value}. | |
705 | |
706 @defun symbol-value symbol | |
707 This function returns the value of @var{symbol}. This is the value in | |
708 the innermost local binding of the symbol, or its global value if it | |
709 has no local bindings. | |
710 | |
711 @example | |
712 @group | |
713 (setq abracadabra 5) | |
714 @result{} 5 | |
715 @end group | |
716 @group | |
717 (setq foo 9) | |
718 @result{} 9 | |
719 @end group | |
720 | |
721 @group | |
722 ;; @r{Here the symbol @code{abracadabra}} | |
723 ;; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.} | |
724 (let ((abracadabra 'foo)) | |
725 (symbol-value 'abracadabra)) | |
726 @result{} foo | |
727 @end group | |
728 | |
729 @group | |
730 ;; @r{Here, the value of @code{abracadabra},} | |
731 ;; @r{which is @code{foo},} | |
732 ;; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.} | |
733 (let ((abracadabra 'foo)) | |
734 (symbol-value abracadabra)) | |
735 @result{} 9 | |
736 @end group | |
737 | |
738 @group | |
739 (symbol-value 'abracadabra) | |
740 @result{} 5 | |
741 @end group | |
742 @end example | |
743 | |
744 A @code{void-variable} error is signaled if the current binding of | |
745 @var{symbol} is void. | |
746 @end defun | |
747 | |
748 @node Setting Variables | |
749 @section How to Alter a Variable Value | |
750 | |
751 The usual way to change the value of a variable is with the special | |
752 form @code{setq}. When you need to compute the choice of variable at | |
753 run time, use the function @code{set}. | |
754 | |
755 @defspec setq [symbol form]@dots{} | |
756 This special form is the most common method of changing a variable's | |
757 value. Each @var{symbol} is given a new value, which is the result of | |
758 evaluating the corresponding @var{form}. The most-local existing | |
759 binding of the symbol is changed. | |
760 | |
761 @code{setq} does not evaluate @var{symbol}; it sets the symbol that you | |
762 write. We say that this argument is @dfn{automatically quoted}. The | |
763 @samp{q} in @code{setq} stands for ``quoted.'' | |
764 | |
765 The value of the @code{setq} form is the value of the last @var{form}. | |
766 | |
767 @example | |
768 @group | |
769 (setq x (1+ 2)) | |
770 @result{} 3 | |
771 @end group | |
772 x ; @r{@code{x} now has a global value.} | |
773 @result{} 3 | |
774 @group | |
775 (let ((x 5)) | |
776 (setq x 6) ; @r{The local binding of @code{x} is set.} | |
777 x) | |
778 @result{} 6 | |
779 @end group | |
780 x ; @r{The global value is unchanged.} | |
781 @result{} 3 | |
782 @end example | |
783 | |
784 Note that the first @var{form} is evaluated, then the first | |
785 @var{symbol} is set, then the second @var{form} is evaluated, then the | |
786 second @var{symbol} is set, and so on: | |
787 | |
788 @example | |
789 @group | |
790 (setq x 10 ; @r{Notice that @code{x} is set before} | |
791 y (1+ x)) ; @r{the value of @code{y} is computed.} | |
792 @result{} 11 | |
793 @end group | |
794 @end example | |
795 @end defspec | |
796 | |
797 @defun set symbol value | |
798 This function sets @var{symbol}'s value to @var{value}, then returns | |
799 @var{value}. Since @code{set} is a function, the expression written for | |
800 @var{symbol} is evaluated to obtain the symbol to set. | |
801 | |
802 The most-local existing binding of the variable is the binding that is | |
803 set; shadowed bindings are not affected. | |
804 | |
805 @example | |
806 @group | |
807 (set one 1) | |
808 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: one | |
809 @end group | |
810 @group | |
811 (set 'one 1) | |
812 @result{} 1 | |
813 @end group | |
814 @group | |
815 (set 'two 'one) | |
816 @result{} one | |
817 @end group | |
818 @group | |
819 (set two 2) ; @r{@code{two} evaluates to symbol @code{one}.} | |
820 @result{} 2 | |
821 @end group | |
822 @group | |
823 one ; @r{So it is @code{one} that was set.} | |
824 @result{} 2 | |
825 (let ((one 1)) ; @r{This binding of @code{one} is set,} | |
826 (set 'one 3) ; @r{not the global value.} | |
827 one) | |
828 @result{} 3 | |
829 @end group | |
830 @group | |
831 one | |
832 @result{} 2 | |
833 @end group | |
834 @end example | |
835 | |
836 If @var{symbol} is not actually a symbol, a @code{wrong-type-argument} | |
837 error is signaled. | |
838 | |
839 @example | |
840 (set '(x y) 'z) | |
841 @error{} Wrong type argument: symbolp, (x y) | |
842 @end example | |
843 | |
844 Logically speaking, @code{set} is a more fundamental primitive than | |
845 @code{setq}. Any use of @code{setq} can be trivially rewritten to use | |
846 @code{set}; @code{setq} could even be defined as a macro, given the | |
847 availability of @code{set}. However, @code{set} itself is rarely used; | |
848 beginners hardly need to know about it. It is useful only for choosing | |
849 at run time which variable to set. For example, the command | |
850 @code{set-variable}, which reads a variable name from the user and then | |
851 sets the variable, needs to use @code{set}. | |
852 | |
853 @cindex CL note---@code{set} local | |
854 @quotation | |
855 @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, @code{set} always changes the | |
856 symbol's ``special'' or dynamic value, ignoring any lexical bindings. | |
857 In Emacs Lisp, all variables and all bindings are dynamic, so @code{set} | |
858 always affects the most local existing binding. | |
859 @end quotation | |
860 @end defun | |
861 | |
862 @node Variable Scoping | |
863 @section Scoping Rules for Variable Bindings | |
864 | |
865 A given symbol @code{foo} can have several local variable bindings, | |
866 established at different places in the Lisp program, as well as a global | |
867 binding. The most recently established binding takes precedence over | |
868 the others. | |
869 | |
870 @cindex scope | |
871 @cindex extent | |
872 @cindex dynamic scoping | |
873 @cindex lexical scoping | |
874 Local bindings in Emacs Lisp have @dfn{indefinite scope} and | |
875 @dfn{dynamic extent}. @dfn{Scope} refers to @emph{where} textually in | |
876 the source code the binding can be accessed. ``Indefinite scope'' means | |
877 that any part of the program can potentially access the variable | |
878 binding. @dfn{Extent} refers to @emph{when}, as the program is | |
879 executing, the binding exists. ``Dynamic extent'' means that the binding | |
880 lasts as long as the activation of the construct that established it. | |
881 | |
882 The combination of dynamic extent and indefinite scope is called | |
883 @dfn{dynamic scoping}. By contrast, most programming languages use | |
884 @dfn{lexical scoping}, in which references to a local variable must be | |
885 located textually within the function or block that binds the variable. | |
886 | |
887 @cindex CL note---special variables | |
888 @quotation | |
889 @b{Common Lisp note:} Variables declared ``special'' in Common Lisp are | |
890 dynamically scoped, like all variables in Emacs Lisp. | |
891 @end quotation | |
892 | |
893 @menu | |
894 * Scope:: Scope means where in the program a value is visible. | |
895 Comparison with other languages. | |
896 * Extent:: Extent means how long in time a value exists. | |
897 * Impl of Scope:: Two ways to implement dynamic scoping. | |
898 * Using Scoping:: How to use dynamic scoping carefully and avoid problems. | |
899 @end menu | |
900 | |
901 @node Scope | |
902 @subsection Scope | |
903 | |
904 Emacs Lisp uses @dfn{indefinite scope} for local variable bindings. | |
905 This means that any function anywhere in the program text might access a | |
906 given binding of a variable. Consider the following function | |
907 definitions: | |
908 | |
909 @example | |
910 @group | |
911 (defun binder (x) ; @r{@code{x} is bound in @code{binder}.} | |
912 (foo 5)) ; @r{@code{foo} is some other function.} | |
913 @end group | |
914 | |
915 @group | |
916 (defun user () ; @r{@code{x} is used ``free'' in @code{user}.} | |
917 (list x)) | |
918 @end group | |
919 @end example | |
920 | |
921 In a lexically scoped language, the binding of @code{x} in | |
922 @code{binder} would never be accessible in @code{user}, because | |
923 @code{user} is not textually contained within the function | |
924 @code{binder}. However, in dynamically-scoped Emacs Lisp, @code{user} | |
925 may or may not refer to the binding of @code{x} established in | |
926 @code{binder}, depending on the circumstances: | |
927 | |
928 @itemize @bullet | |
929 @item | |
930 If we call @code{user} directly without calling @code{binder} at all, | |
931 then whatever binding of @code{x} is found, it cannot come from | |
932 @code{binder}. | |
933 | |
934 @item | |
935 If we define @code{foo} as follows and then call @code{binder}, then the | |
936 binding made in @code{binder} will be seen in @code{user}: | |
937 | |
938 @example | |
939 @group | |
940 (defun foo (lose) | |
941 (user)) | |
942 @end group | |
943 @end example | |
944 | |
945 @item | |
946 However, if we define @code{foo} as follows and then call @code{binder}, | |
947 then the binding made in @code{binder} @emph{will not} be seen in | |
948 @code{user}: | |
949 | |
950 @example | |
951 (defun foo (x) | |
952 (user)) | |
953 @end example | |
954 | |
955 @noindent | |
956 Here, when @code{foo} is called by @code{binder}, it binds @code{x}. | |
957 (The binding in @code{foo} is said to @dfn{shadow} the one made in | |
958 @code{binder}.) Therefore, @code{user} will access the @code{x} bound | |
959 by @code{foo} instead of the one bound by @code{binder}. | |
960 @end itemize | |
961 | |
962 Emacs Lisp uses dynamic scoping because simple implementations of | |
963 lexical scoping are slow. In addition, every Lisp system needs to offer | |
964 dynamic scoping at least as an option; if lexical scoping is the norm, | |
965 there must be a way to specify dynamic scoping instead for a particular | |
966 variable. It might not be a bad thing for Emacs to offer both, but | |
967 implementing it with dynamic scoping only was much easier. | |
968 | |
969 @node Extent | |
970 @subsection Extent | |
971 | |
972 @dfn{Extent} refers to the time during program execution that a | |
973 variable name is valid. In Emacs Lisp, a variable is valid only while | |
974 the form that bound it is executing. This is called @dfn{dynamic | |
975 extent}. ``Local'' or ``automatic'' variables in most languages, | |
976 including C and Pascal, have dynamic extent. | |
977 | |
978 One alternative to dynamic extent is @dfn{indefinite extent}. This | |
979 means that a variable binding can live on past the exit from the form | |
980 that made the binding. Common Lisp and Scheme, for example, support | |
981 this, but Emacs Lisp does not. | |
982 | |
983 To illustrate this, the function below, @code{make-add}, returns a | |
984 function that purports to add @var{n} to its own argument @var{m}. This | |
985 would work in Common Lisp, but it does not do the job in Emacs Lisp, | |
986 because after the call to @code{make-add} exits, the variable @code{n} | |
987 is no longer bound to the actual argument 2. | |
988 | |
989 @example | |
990 (defun make-add (n) | |
991 (function (lambda (m) (+ n m)))) ; @r{Return a function.} | |
992 @result{} make-add | |
993 (fset 'add2 (make-add 2)) ; @r{Define function @code{add2}} | |
994 ; @r{with @code{(make-add 2)}.} | |
995 @result{} (lambda (m) (+ n m)) | |
996 (add2 4) ; @r{Try to add 2 to 4.} | |
997 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: n | |
998 @end example | |
999 | |
1000 @cindex closures not available | |
1001 Some Lisp dialects have ``closures,'' objects that are like functions | |
1002 but record additional variable bindings. Emacs Lisp does not have | |
1003 closures. | |
1004 | |
1005 @node Impl of Scope | |
1006 @subsection Implementation of Dynamic Scoping | |
1007 @cindex deep binding | |
1008 | |
1009 A simple sample implementation (which is not how Emacs Lisp actually | |
1010 works) may help you understand dynamic binding. This technique is | |
1011 called @dfn{deep binding} and was used in early Lisp systems. | |
1012 | |
1013 Suppose there is a stack of bindings, which are variable-value pairs. | |
1014 At entry to a function or to a @code{let} form, we can push bindings | |
1015 onto the stack for the arguments or local variables created there. We | |
1016 can pop those bindings from the stack at exit from the binding | |
1017 construct. | |
1018 | |
1019 We can find the value of a variable by searching the stack from top to | |
1020 bottom for a binding for that variable; the value from that binding is | |
1021 the value of the variable. To set the variable, we search for the | |
1022 current binding, then store the new value into that binding. | |
1023 | |
1024 As you can see, a function's bindings remain in effect as long as it | |
1025 continues execution, even during its calls to other functions. That is | |
1026 why we say the extent of the binding is dynamic. And any other function | |
1027 can refer to the bindings, if it uses the same variables while the | |
1028 bindings are in effect. That is why we say the scope is indefinite. | |
1029 | |
1030 @cindex shallow binding | |
1031 The actual implementation of variable scoping in GNU Emacs Lisp uses a | |
1032 technique called @dfn{shallow binding}. Each variable has a standard | |
1033 place in which its current value is always found---the value cell of the | |
1034 symbol. | |
1035 | |
1036 In shallow binding, setting the variable works by storing a value in | |
1037 the value cell. Creating a new binding works by pushing the old value | |
1038 (belonging to a previous binding) onto a stack, and storing the new | |
1039 local value in the value cell. Eliminating a binding works by popping | |
1040 the old value off the stack, into the value cell. | |
1041 | |
1042 We use shallow binding because it has the same results as deep | |
1043 binding, but runs faster, since there is never a need to search for a | |
1044 binding. | |
1045 | |
1046 @node Using Scoping | |
1047 @subsection Proper Use of Dynamic Scoping | |
1048 | |
1049 Binding a variable in one function and using it in another is a | |
1050 powerful technique, but if used without restraint, it can make programs | |
1051 hard to understand. There are two clean ways to use this technique: | |
1052 | |
1053 @itemize @bullet | |
1054 @item | |
1055 Use or bind the variable only in a few related functions, written close | |
1056 together in one file. Such a variable is used for communication within | |
1057 one program. | |
1058 | |
1059 You should write comments to inform other programmers that they can see | |
1060 all uses of the variable before them, and to advise them not to add uses | |
1061 elsewhere. | |
1062 | |
1063 @item | |
1064 Give the variable a well-defined, documented meaning, and make all | |
1065 appropriate functions refer to it (but not bind it or set it) wherever | |
1066 that meaning is relevant. For example, the variable | |
1067 @code{case-fold-search} is defined as ``non-@code{nil} means ignore case | |
1068 when searching''; various search and replace functions refer to it | |
1069 directly or through their subroutines, but do not bind or set it. | |
1070 | |
1071 Then you can bind the variable in other programs, knowing reliably what | |
1072 the effect will be. | |
1073 @end itemize | |
1074 | |
1075 In either case, you should define the variable with @code{defvar}. | |
1076 This helps other people understand your program by telling them to look | |
1077 for inter-function usage. It also avoids a warning from the byte | |
1078 compiler. Choose the variable's name to avoid name conflicts---don't | |
1079 use short names like @code{x}. | |
1080 | |
1081 @node Buffer-Local Variables | |
1082 @section Buffer-Local Variables | |
1083 @cindex variable, buffer-local | |
1084 @cindex buffer-local variables | |
1085 | |
1086 Global and local variable bindings are found in most programming | |
85688 | 1087 languages in one form or another. Emacs, however, also supports |
1088 additional, unusual kinds of variable binding, such as | |
1089 @dfn{buffer-local} bindings, which apply only in one buffer. Having | |
1090 different values for a variable in different buffers is an important | |
1091 customization method. (A few variables have bindings that are local | |
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1093 frame-local bindings for variables; see @ref{Frame-Local Variables}.) |
84109 | 1094 |
1095 @menu | |
1096 * Intro to Buffer-Local:: Introduction and concepts. | |
1097 * Creating Buffer-Local:: Creating and destroying buffer-local bindings. | |
1098 * Default Value:: The default value is seen in buffers | |
1099 that don't have their own buffer-local values. | |
1100 @end menu | |
1101 | |
1102 @node Intro to Buffer-Local | |
1103 @subsection Introduction to Buffer-Local Variables | |
1104 | |
1105 A buffer-local variable has a buffer-local binding associated with a | |
1106 particular buffer. The binding is in effect when that buffer is | |
1107 current; otherwise, it is not in effect. If you set the variable while | |
1108 a buffer-local binding is in effect, the new value goes in that binding, | |
1109 so its other bindings are unchanged. This means that the change is | |
1110 visible only in the buffer where you made it. | |
1111 | |
1112 The variable's ordinary binding, which is not associated with any | |
1113 specific buffer, is called the @dfn{default binding}. In most cases, | |
1114 this is the global binding. | |
1115 | |
1116 A variable can have buffer-local bindings in some buffers but not in | |
1117 other buffers. The default binding is shared by all the buffers that | |
1118 don't have their own bindings for the variable. (This includes all | |
1119 newly-created buffers.) If you set the variable in a buffer that does | |
85688 | 1120 not have a buffer-local binding for it, this sets the default binding, |
84109 | 1121 so the new value is visible in all the buffers that see the default |
1122 binding. | |
1123 | |
1124 The most common use of buffer-local bindings is for major modes to change | |
1125 variables that control the behavior of commands. For example, C mode and | |
1126 Lisp mode both set the variable @code{paragraph-start} to specify that only | |
1127 blank lines separate paragraphs. They do this by making the variable | |
1128 buffer-local in the buffer that is being put into C mode or Lisp mode, and | |
1129 then setting it to the new value for that mode. @xref{Major Modes}. | |
1130 | |
1131 The usual way to make a buffer-local binding is with | |
1132 @code{make-local-variable}, which is what major mode commands typically | |
1133 use. This affects just the current buffer; all other buffers (including | |
1134 those yet to be created) will continue to share the default value unless | |
1135 they are explicitly given their own buffer-local bindings. | |
1136 | |
1137 @cindex automatically buffer-local | |
1138 A more powerful operation is to mark the variable as | |
1139 @dfn{automatically buffer-local} by calling | |
1140 @code{make-variable-buffer-local}. You can think of this as making the | |
1141 variable local in all buffers, even those yet to be created. More | |
1142 precisely, the effect is that setting the variable automatically makes | |
1143 the variable local to the current buffer if it is not already so. All | |
1144 buffers start out by sharing the default value of the variable as usual, | |
1145 but setting the variable creates a buffer-local binding for the current | |
1146 buffer. The new value is stored in the buffer-local binding, leaving | |
1147 the default binding untouched. This means that the default value cannot | |
1148 be changed with @code{setq} in any buffer; the only way to change it is | |
1149 with @code{setq-default}. | |
1150 | |
85688 | 1151 @strong{Warning:} When a variable has buffer-local |
84109 | 1152 bindings in one or more buffers, @code{let} rebinds the binding that's |
1153 currently in effect. For instance, if the current buffer has a | |
1154 buffer-local value, @code{let} temporarily rebinds that. If no | |
85688 | 1155 buffer-local bindings are in effect, @code{let} rebinds |
84109 | 1156 the default value. If inside the @code{let} you then change to a |
1157 different current buffer in which a different binding is in effect, | |
1158 you won't see the @code{let} binding any more. And if you exit the | |
1159 @code{let} while still in the other buffer, you won't see the | |
1160 unbinding occur (though it will occur properly). Here is an example | |
1161 to illustrate: | |
1162 | |
1163 @example | |
1164 @group | |
1165 (setq foo 'g) | |
1166 (set-buffer "a") | |
1167 (make-local-variable 'foo) | |
1168 @end group | |
1169 (setq foo 'a) | |
1170 (let ((foo 'temp)) | |
1171 ;; foo @result{} 'temp ; @r{let binding in buffer @samp{a}} | |
1172 (set-buffer "b") | |
1173 ;; foo @result{} 'g ; @r{the global value since foo is not local in @samp{b}} | |
1174 @var{body}@dots{}) | |
1175 @group | |
1176 foo @result{} 'g ; @r{exiting restored the local value in buffer @samp{a},} | |
1177 ; @r{but we don't see that in buffer @samp{b}} | |
1178 @end group | |
1179 @group | |
1180 (set-buffer "a") ; @r{verify the local value was restored} | |
1181 foo @result{} 'a | |
1182 @end group | |
1183 @end example | |
1184 | |
1185 Note that references to @code{foo} in @var{body} access the | |
1186 buffer-local binding of buffer @samp{b}. | |
1187 | |
1188 When a file specifies local variable values, these become buffer-local | |
1189 values when you visit the file. @xref{File Variables,,, emacs, The | |
1190 GNU Emacs Manual}. | |
1191 | |
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1192 A variable cannot be both buffer-local and frame-local |
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1193 (@pxref{Frame-Local Variables}) or terminal-local (@pxref{Multiple |
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1194 Displays}). |
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1195 |
84109 | 1196 @node Creating Buffer-Local |
1197 @subsection Creating and Deleting Buffer-Local Bindings | |
1198 | |
1199 @deffn Command make-local-variable variable | |
1200 This function creates a buffer-local binding in the current buffer for | |
1201 @var{variable} (a symbol). Other buffers are not affected. The value | |
1202 returned is @var{variable}. | |
1203 | |
1204 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
1205 The buffer-local value of @var{variable} starts out as the same value | |
1206 @var{variable} previously had. If @var{variable} was void, it remains | |
1207 void. | |
1208 | |
1209 @example | |
1210 @group | |
1211 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{b1}:} | |
1212 (setq foo 5) ; @r{Affects all buffers.} | |
1213 @result{} 5 | |
1214 @end group | |
1215 @group | |
1216 (make-local-variable 'foo) ; @r{Now it is local in @samp{b1}.} | |
1217 @result{} foo | |
1218 @end group | |
1219 @group | |
1220 foo ; @r{That did not change} | |
1221 @result{} 5 ; @r{the value.} | |
1222 @end group | |
1223 @group | |
1224 (setq foo 6) ; @r{Change the value} | |
1225 @result{} 6 ; @r{in @samp{b1}.} | |
1226 @end group | |
1227 @group | |
1228 foo | |
1229 @result{} 6 | |
1230 @end group | |
1231 | |
1232 @group | |
1233 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{b2}, the value hasn't changed.} | |
1234 (save-excursion | |
1235 (set-buffer "b2") | |
1236 foo) | |
1237 @result{} 5 | |
1238 @end group | |
1239 @end example | |
1240 | |
1241 Making a variable buffer-local within a @code{let}-binding for that | |
1242 variable does not work reliably, unless the buffer in which you do this | |
1243 is not current either on entry to or exit from the @code{let}. This is | |
1244 because @code{let} does not distinguish between different kinds of | |
1245 bindings; it knows only which variable the binding was made for. | |
1246 | |
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1247 If the variable is terminal-local (@pxref{Multiple Displays}), or |
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1248 frame-local (@pxref{Frame-Local Variables}), this function signals an |
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1249 error. Such variables cannot have buffer-local bindings as well. |
84109 | 1250 |
1251 @strong{Warning:} do not use @code{make-local-variable} for a hook | |
1252 variable. The hook variables are automatically made buffer-local as | |
1253 needed if you use the @var{local} argument to @code{add-hook} or | |
1254 @code{remove-hook}. | |
1255 @end deffn | |
1256 | |
1257 @deffn Command make-variable-buffer-local variable | |
1258 This function marks @var{variable} (a symbol) automatically | |
1259 buffer-local, so that any subsequent attempt to set it will make it | |
1260 local to the current buffer at the time. | |
1261 | |
1262 A peculiar wrinkle of this feature is that binding the variable (with | |
1263 @code{let} or other binding constructs) does not create a buffer-local | |
1264 binding for it. Only setting the variable (with @code{set} or | |
1265 @code{setq}), while the variable does not have a @code{let}-style | |
1266 binding that was made in the current buffer, does so. | |
1267 | |
1268 If @var{variable} does not have a default value, then calling this | |
1269 command will give it a default value of @code{nil}. If @var{variable} | |
1270 already has a default value, that value remains unchanged. | |
1271 Subsequently calling @code{makunbound} on @var{variable} will result | |
1272 in a void buffer-local value and leave the default value unaffected. | |
1273 | |
1274 The value returned is @var{variable}. | |
1275 | |
1276 @strong{Warning:} Don't assume that you should use | |
1277 @code{make-variable-buffer-local} for user-option variables, simply | |
1278 because users @emph{might} want to customize them differently in | |
1279 different buffers. Users can make any variable local, when they wish | |
1280 to. It is better to leave the choice to them. | |
1281 | |
1282 The time to use @code{make-variable-buffer-local} is when it is crucial | |
1283 that no two buffers ever share the same binding. For example, when a | |
1284 variable is used for internal purposes in a Lisp program which depends | |
1285 on having separate values in separate buffers, then using | |
1286 @code{make-variable-buffer-local} can be the best solution. | |
1287 @end deffn | |
1288 | |
1289 @defun local-variable-p variable &optional buffer | |
1290 This returns @code{t} if @var{variable} is buffer-local in buffer | |
1291 @var{buffer} (which defaults to the current buffer); otherwise, | |
1292 @code{nil}. | |
1293 @end defun | |
1294 | |
1295 @defun local-variable-if-set-p variable &optional buffer | |
1296 This returns @code{t} if @var{variable} will become buffer-local in | |
1297 buffer @var{buffer} (which defaults to the current buffer) if it is | |
1298 set there. | |
1299 @end defun | |
1300 | |
1301 @defun buffer-local-value variable buffer | |
1302 This function returns the buffer-local binding of @var{variable} (a | |
1303 symbol) in buffer @var{buffer}. If @var{variable} does not have a | |
1304 buffer-local binding in buffer @var{buffer}, it returns the default | |
1305 value (@pxref{Default Value}) of @var{variable} instead. | |
1306 @end defun | |
1307 | |
1308 @defun buffer-local-variables &optional buffer | |
1309 This function returns a list describing the buffer-local variables in | |
1310 buffer @var{buffer}. (If @var{buffer} is omitted, the current buffer is | |
1311 used.) It returns an association list (@pxref{Association Lists}) in | |
1312 which each element contains one buffer-local variable and its value. | |
1313 However, when a variable's buffer-local binding in @var{buffer} is void, | |
1314 then the variable appears directly in the resulting list. | |
1315 | |
1316 @example | |
1317 @group | |
1318 (make-local-variable 'foobar) | |
1319 (makunbound 'foobar) | |
1320 (make-local-variable 'bind-me) | |
1321 (setq bind-me 69) | |
1322 @end group | |
1323 (setq lcl (buffer-local-variables)) | |
1324 ;; @r{First, built-in variables local in all buffers:} | |
1325 @result{} ((mark-active . nil) | |
1326 (buffer-undo-list . nil) | |
1327 (mode-name . "Fundamental") | |
1328 @dots{} | |
1329 @group | |
1330 ;; @r{Next, non-built-in buffer-local variables.} | |
1331 ;; @r{This one is buffer-local and void:} | |
1332 foobar | |
1333 ;; @r{This one is buffer-local and nonvoid:} | |
1334 (bind-me . 69)) | |
1335 @end group | |
1336 @end example | |
1337 | |
1338 Note that storing new values into the @sc{cdr}s of cons cells in this | |
1339 list does @emph{not} change the buffer-local values of the variables. | |
1340 @end defun | |
1341 | |
1342 @deffn Command kill-local-variable variable | |
1343 This function deletes the buffer-local binding (if any) for | |
1344 @var{variable} (a symbol) in the current buffer. As a result, the | |
1345 default binding of @var{variable} becomes visible in this buffer. This | |
1346 typically results in a change in the value of @var{variable}, since the | |
1347 default value is usually different from the buffer-local value just | |
1348 eliminated. | |
1349 | |
1350 If you kill the buffer-local binding of a variable that automatically | |
1351 becomes buffer-local when set, this makes the default value visible in | |
1352 the current buffer. However, if you set the variable again, that will | |
1353 once again create a buffer-local binding for it. | |
1354 | |
1355 @code{kill-local-variable} returns @var{variable}. | |
1356 | |
1357 This function is a command because it is sometimes useful to kill one | |
1358 buffer-local variable interactively, just as it is useful to create | |
1359 buffer-local variables interactively. | |
1360 @end deffn | |
1361 | |
1362 @defun kill-all-local-variables | |
1363 This function eliminates all the buffer-local variable bindings of the | |
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1364 current buffer except for variables marked as ``permanent'' and local |
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1365 hook functions that have a non-@code{nil} @code{permanent-local-hook} |
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1366 property (@pxref{Setting Hooks}). As a result, the buffer will see |
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1367 the default values of most variables. |
84109 | 1368 |
1369 This function also resets certain other information pertaining to the | |
1370 buffer: it sets the local keymap to @code{nil}, the syntax table to the | |
1371 value of @code{(standard-syntax-table)}, the case table to | |
1372 @code{(standard-case-table)}, and the abbrev table to the value of | |
1373 @code{fundamental-mode-abbrev-table}. | |
1374 | |
1375 The very first thing this function does is run the normal hook | |
1376 @code{change-major-mode-hook} (see below). | |
1377 | |
1378 Every major mode command begins by calling this function, which has the | |
1379 effect of switching to Fundamental mode and erasing most of the effects | |
1380 of the previous major mode. To ensure that this does its job, the | |
1381 variables that major modes set should not be marked permanent. | |
1382 | |
1383 @code{kill-all-local-variables} returns @code{nil}. | |
1384 @end defun | |
1385 | |
1386 @defvar change-major-mode-hook | |
1387 The function @code{kill-all-local-variables} runs this normal hook | |
1388 before it does anything else. This gives major modes a way to arrange | |
1389 for something special to be done if the user switches to a different | |
1390 major mode. It is also useful for buffer-specific minor modes | |
1391 that should be forgotten if the user changes the major mode. | |
1392 | |
1393 For best results, make this variable buffer-local, so that it will | |
1394 disappear after doing its job and will not interfere with the | |
1395 subsequent major mode. @xref{Hooks}. | |
1396 @end defvar | |
1397 | |
1398 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
1399 @cindex permanent local variable | |
1400 A buffer-local variable is @dfn{permanent} if the variable name (a | |
1401 symbol) has a @code{permanent-local} property that is non-@code{nil}. | |
1402 Permanent locals are appropriate for data pertaining to where the file | |
1403 came from or how to save it, rather than with how to edit the contents. | |
1404 | |
1405 @node Default Value | |
1406 @subsection The Default Value of a Buffer-Local Variable | |
1407 @cindex default value | |
1408 | |
1409 The global value of a variable with buffer-local bindings is also | |
1410 called the @dfn{default} value, because it is the value that is in | |
1411 effect whenever neither the current buffer nor the selected frame has | |
1412 its own binding for the variable. | |
1413 | |
1414 The functions @code{default-value} and @code{setq-default} access and | |
1415 change a variable's default value regardless of whether the current | |
1416 buffer has a buffer-local binding. For example, you could use | |
1417 @code{setq-default} to change the default setting of | |
1418 @code{paragraph-start} for most buffers; and this would work even when | |
1419 you are in a C or Lisp mode buffer that has a buffer-local value for | |
1420 this variable. | |
1421 | |
1422 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
1423 The special forms @code{defvar} and @code{defconst} also set the | |
1424 default value (if they set the variable at all), rather than any | |
85688 | 1425 buffer-local value. |
84109 | 1426 |
1427 @defun default-value symbol | |
1428 This function returns @var{symbol}'s default value. This is the value | |
1429 that is seen in buffers and frames that do not have their own values for | |
1430 this variable. If @var{symbol} is not buffer-local, this is equivalent | |
1431 to @code{symbol-value} (@pxref{Accessing Variables}). | |
1432 @end defun | |
1433 | |
1434 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
1435 @defun default-boundp symbol | |
1436 The function @code{default-boundp} tells you whether @var{symbol}'s | |
1437 default value is nonvoid. If @code{(default-boundp 'foo)} returns | |
1438 @code{nil}, then @code{(default-value 'foo)} would get an error. | |
1439 | |
1440 @code{default-boundp} is to @code{default-value} as @code{boundp} is to | |
1441 @code{symbol-value}. | |
1442 @end defun | |
1443 | |
1444 @defspec setq-default [symbol form]@dots{} | |
1445 This special form gives each @var{symbol} a new default value, which is | |
1446 the result of evaluating the corresponding @var{form}. It does not | |
1447 evaluate @var{symbol}, but does evaluate @var{form}. The value of the | |
1448 @code{setq-default} form is the value of the last @var{form}. | |
1449 | |
1450 If a @var{symbol} is not buffer-local for the current buffer, and is not | |
1451 marked automatically buffer-local, @code{setq-default} has the same | |
1452 effect as @code{setq}. If @var{symbol} is buffer-local for the current | |
1453 buffer, then this changes the value that other buffers will see (as long | |
1454 as they don't have a buffer-local value), but not the value that the | |
1455 current buffer sees. | |
1456 | |
1457 @example | |
1458 @group | |
1459 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{foo}:} | |
1460 (make-local-variable 'buffer-local) | |
1461 @result{} buffer-local | |
1462 @end group | |
1463 @group | |
1464 (setq buffer-local 'value-in-foo) | |
1465 @result{} value-in-foo | |
1466 @end group | |
1467 @group | |
1468 (setq-default buffer-local 'new-default) | |
1469 @result{} new-default | |
1470 @end group | |
1471 @group | |
1472 buffer-local | |
1473 @result{} value-in-foo | |
1474 @end group | |
1475 @group | |
1476 (default-value 'buffer-local) | |
1477 @result{} new-default | |
1478 @end group | |
1479 | |
1480 @group | |
1481 ;; @r{In (the new) buffer @samp{bar}:} | |
1482 buffer-local | |
1483 @result{} new-default | |
1484 @end group | |
1485 @group | |
1486 (default-value 'buffer-local) | |
1487 @result{} new-default | |
1488 @end group | |
1489 @group | |
1490 (setq buffer-local 'another-default) | |
1491 @result{} another-default | |
1492 @end group | |
1493 @group | |
1494 (default-value 'buffer-local) | |
1495 @result{} another-default | |
1496 @end group | |
1497 | |
1498 @group | |
1499 ;; @r{Back in buffer @samp{foo}:} | |
1500 buffer-local | |
1501 @result{} value-in-foo | |
1502 (default-value 'buffer-local) | |
1503 @result{} another-default | |
1504 @end group | |
1505 @end example | |
1506 @end defspec | |
1507 | |
1508 @defun set-default symbol value | |
1509 This function is like @code{setq-default}, except that @var{symbol} is | |
1510 an ordinary evaluated argument. | |
1511 | |
1512 @example | |
1513 @group | |
1514 (set-default (car '(a b c)) 23) | |
1515 @result{} 23 | |
1516 @end group | |
1517 @group | |
1518 (default-value 'a) | |
1519 @result{} 23 | |
1520 @end group | |
1521 @end example | |
1522 @end defun | |
1523 | |
1524 @node Future Local Variables | |
1525 @section Possible Future Local Variables | |
1526 | |
1527 We have considered the idea of bindings that are local to a category | |
1528 of frames---for example, all color frames, or all frames with dark | |
1529 backgrounds. We have not implemented them because it is not clear that | |
1530 this feature is really useful. You can get more or less the same | |
1531 results by adding a function to @code{after-make-frame-functions}, set up to | |
1532 define a particular frame parameter according to the appropriate | |
1533 conditions for each frame. | |
1534 | |
1535 It would also be possible to implement window-local bindings. We | |
1536 don't know of many situations where they would be useful, and it seems | |
1537 that indirect buffers (@pxref{Indirect Buffers}) with buffer-local | |
1538 bindings offer a way to handle these situations more robustly. | |
1539 | |
1540 If sufficient application is found for either of these two kinds of | |
1541 local bindings, we will provide it in a subsequent Emacs version. | |
1542 | |
1543 @node File Local Variables | |
1544 @section File Local Variables | |
1545 @cindex file local variables | |
1546 | |
1547 A file can specify local variable values; Emacs uses these to create | |
1548 buffer-local bindings for those variables in the buffer visiting that | |
1549 file. @xref{File variables, , Local Variables in Files, emacs, The | |
1550 GNU Emacs Manual}, for basic information about file local variables. | |
1551 This section describes the functions and variables that affect | |
1552 processing of file local variables. | |
1553 | |
1554 @defopt enable-local-variables | |
1555 This variable controls whether to process file local variables. | |
1556 The possible values are: | |
1557 | |
1558 @table @asis | |
1559 @item @code{t} (the default) | |
1560 Set the safe variables, and query (once) about any unsafe variables. | |
1561 @item @code{:safe} | |
1562 Set only the safe variables and do not query. | |
1563 @item @code{:all} | |
1564 Set all the variables and do not query. | |
1565 @item @code{nil} | |
1566 Don't set any variables. | |
1567 @item anything else | |
1568 Query (once) about all the variables. | |
1569 @end table | |
1570 @end defopt | |
1571 | |
1572 @defun hack-local-variables &optional mode-only | |
1573 This function parses, and binds or evaluates as appropriate, any local | |
1574 variables specified by the contents of the current buffer. The variable | |
1575 @code{enable-local-variables} has its effect here. However, this | |
1576 function does not look for the @samp{mode:} local variable in the | |
1577 @w{@samp{-*-}} line. @code{set-auto-mode} does that, also taking | |
1578 @code{enable-local-variables} into account (@pxref{Auto Major Mode}). | |
1579 | |
1580 If the optional argument @var{mode-only} is non-@code{nil}, then all | |
1581 this function does is return @code{t} if the @w{@samp{-*-}} line or | |
1582 the local variables list specifies a mode and @code{nil} otherwise. | |
1583 It does not set the mode nor any other file local variable. | |
1584 @end defun | |
1585 | |
1586 If a file local variable could specify a function that would | |
1587 be called later, or an expression that would be executed later, simply | |
1588 visiting a file could take over your Emacs. Emacs takes several | |
1589 measures to prevent this. | |
1590 | |
1591 @cindex safe local variable | |
1592 You can specify safe values for a variable with a | |
1593 @code{safe-local-variable} property. The property has to be | |
1594 a function of one argument; any value is safe if the function | |
1595 returns non-@code{nil} given that value. Many commonly encountered | |
1596 file variables standardly have @code{safe-local-variable} properties, | |
1597 including @code{fill-column}, @code{fill-prefix}, and | |
1598 @code{indent-tabs-mode}. For boolean-valued variables that are safe, | |
1599 use @code{booleanp} as the property value. Lambda expressions should | |
1600 be quoted so that @code{describe-variable} can display the predicate. | |
1601 | |
1602 @defopt safe-local-variable-values | |
1603 This variable provides another way to mark some variable values as | |
1604 safe. It is a list of cons cells @code{(@var{var} . @var{val})}, | |
1605 where @var{var} is a variable name and @var{val} is a value which is | |
1606 safe for that variable. | |
1607 | |
1608 When Emacs asks the user whether or not to obey a set of file local | |
1609 variable specifications, the user can choose to mark them as safe. | |
1610 Doing so adds those variable/value pairs to | |
1611 @code{safe-local-variable-values}, and saves it to the user's custom | |
1612 file. | |
1613 @end defopt | |
1614 | |
1615 @defun safe-local-variable-p sym val | |
1616 This function returns non-@code{nil} if it is safe to give @var{sym} | |
1617 the value @var{val}, based on the above criteria. | |
1618 @end defun | |
1619 | |
1620 @c @cindex risky local variable Duplicates risky-local-variable | |
1621 Some variables are considered @dfn{risky}. A variable whose name | |
1622 ends in any of @samp{-command}, @samp{-frame-alist}, @samp{-function}, | |
1623 @samp{-functions}, @samp{-hook}, @samp{-hooks}, @samp{-form}, | |
1624 @samp{-forms}, @samp{-map}, @samp{-map-alist}, @samp{-mode-alist}, | |
1625 @samp{-program}, or @samp{-predicate} is considered risky. The | |
1626 variables @samp{font-lock-keywords}, @samp{font-lock-keywords} | |
1627 followed by a digit, and @samp{font-lock-syntactic-keywords} are also | |
1628 considered risky. Finally, any variable whose name has a | |
1629 non-@code{nil} @code{risky-local-variable} property is considered | |
1630 risky. | |
1631 | |
1632 @defun risky-local-variable-p sym | |
1633 This function returns non-@code{nil} if @var{sym} is a risky variable, | |
1634 based on the above criteria. | |
1635 @end defun | |
1636 | |
1637 If a variable is risky, it will not be entered automatically into | |
1638 @code{safe-local-variable-values} as described above. Therefore, | |
1639 Emacs will always query before setting a risky variable, unless the | |
1640 user explicitly allows the setting by customizing | |
1641 @code{safe-local-variable-values} directly. | |
1642 | |
1643 @defvar ignored-local-variables | |
1644 This variable holds a list of variables that should not be given local | |
1645 values by files. Any value specified for one of these variables is | |
1646 completely ignored. | |
1647 @end defvar | |
1648 | |
1649 The @samp{Eval:} ``variable'' is also a potential loophole, so Emacs | |
1650 normally asks for confirmation before handling it. | |
1651 | |
1652 @defopt enable-local-eval | |
1653 This variable controls processing of @samp{Eval:} in @samp{-*-} lines | |
1654 or local variables | |
1655 lists in files being visited. A value of @code{t} means process them | |
1656 unconditionally; @code{nil} means ignore them; anything else means ask | |
1657 the user what to do for each file. The default value is @code{maybe}. | |
1658 @end defopt | |
1659 | |
1660 @defopt safe-local-eval-forms | |
1661 This variable holds a list of expressions that are safe to | |
1662 evaluate when found in the @samp{Eval:} ``variable'' in a file | |
1663 local variables list. | |
1664 @end defopt | |
1665 | |
1666 If the expression is a function call and the function has a | |
1667 @code{safe-local-eval-function} property, the property value | |
1668 determines whether the expression is safe to evaluate. The property | |
1669 value can be a predicate to call to test the expression, a list of | |
1670 such predicates (it's safe if any predicate succeeds), or @code{t} | |
1671 (always safe provided the arguments are constant). | |
1672 | |
1673 Text properties are also potential loopholes, since their values | |
1674 could include functions to call. So Emacs discards all text | |
1675 properties from string values specified for file local variables. | |
1676 | |
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1677 @node Frame-Local Variables |
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1678 @section Frame-Local Values for Variables |
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1679 @cindex frame-local variables |
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1680 |
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1681 In addition to buffer-local variable bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local |
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1682 Variables}), Emacs supports @dfn{frame-local} bindings. A frame-local |
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1683 binding for a variable is in effect in a frame for which it was |
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1684 defined. Note that you cannot have frame-local bindings for a |
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1685 variable that has a buffer-local binding. |
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1686 |
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1687 To define a frame-specific binding for a variable @var{var} in frame |
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1688 @var{frame}, set the @var{var} frame parameter for that frame: |
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1689 |
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1690 @lisp |
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1691 (modify-frame-parameters @var{frame} '((@var{var} . @var{value}))) |
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1692 @end lisp |
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1693 |
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1694 @noindent |
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1695 This causes the variable @var{var} to be bound to the specified |
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1696 @var{value} in the named @var{frame}. @xref{Parameter Access, |
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1697 modify-frame-parameters}. |
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1698 |
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1699 @findex make-variable-frame-local@r{, deprecated} |
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1700 Use of @code{make-variable-frame-local} for defining frame-local |
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1701 bindings is deprecated since Emacs 22.2. |
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1702 |
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1703 To check the frame-specific values of such variables, use |
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1704 @code{frame-parameter} (@pxref{Parameter Access, frame-parameter}). |
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1705 |
84109 | 1706 @node Variable Aliases |
1707 @section Variable Aliases | |
1708 @cindex variable aliases | |
1709 | |
1710 It is sometimes useful to make two variables synonyms, so that both | |
1711 variables always have the same value, and changing either one also | |
1712 changes the other. Whenever you change the name of a | |
1713 variable---either because you realize its old name was not well | |
1714 chosen, or because its meaning has partly changed---it can be useful | |
1715 to keep the old name as an @emph{alias} of the new one for | |
1716 compatibility. You can do this with @code{defvaralias}. | |
1717 | |
1718 @defun defvaralias new-alias base-variable &optional docstring | |
1719 This function defines the symbol @var{new-alias} as a variable alias | |
1720 for symbol @var{base-variable}. This means that retrieving the value | |
1721 of @var{new-alias} returns the value of @var{base-variable}, and | |
1722 changing the value of @var{new-alias} changes the value of | |
1723 @var{base-variable}. The two aliased variable names always share the | |
1724 same value and the same bindings. | |
1725 | |
1726 If the @var{docstring} argument is non-@code{nil}, it specifies the | |
1727 documentation for @var{new-alias}; otherwise, the alias gets the same | |
1728 documentation as @var{base-variable} has, if any, unless | |
1729 @var{base-variable} is itself an alias, in which case @var{new-alias} gets | |
1730 the documentation of the variable at the end of the chain of aliases. | |
1731 | |
1732 This function returns @var{base-variable}. | |
1733 @end defun | |
1734 | |
1735 Variable aliases are convenient for replacing an old name for a | |
1736 variable with a new name. @code{make-obsolete-variable} declares that | |
1737 the old name is obsolete and therefore that it may be removed at some | |
1738 stage in the future. | |
1739 | |
1740 @defun make-obsolete-variable obsolete-name current-name &optional when | |
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1741 This function makes the byte compiler warn that the variable |
84109 | 1742 @var{obsolete-name} is obsolete. If @var{current-name} is a symbol, it is |
1743 the variable's new name; then the warning message says to use | |
1744 @var{current-name} instead of @var{obsolete-name}. If @var{current-name} | |
1745 is a string, this is the message and there is no replacement variable. | |
1746 | |
1747 If provided, @var{when} should be a string indicating when the | |
1748 variable was first made obsolete---for example, a date or a release | |
1749 number. | |
1750 @end defun | |
1751 | |
1752 You can make two variables synonyms and declare one obsolete at the | |
1753 same time using the macro @code{define-obsolete-variable-alias}. | |
1754 | |
1755 @defmac define-obsolete-variable-alias obsolete-name current-name &optional when docstring | |
1756 This macro marks the variable @var{obsolete-name} as obsolete and also | |
1757 makes it an alias for the variable @var{current-name}. It is | |
1758 equivalent to the following: | |
1759 | |
1760 @example | |
1761 (defvaralias @var{obsolete-name} @var{current-name} @var{docstring}) | |
1762 (make-obsolete-variable @var{obsolete-name} @var{current-name} @var{when}) | |
1763 @end example | |
1764 @end defmac | |
1765 | |
1766 @defun indirect-variable variable | |
1767 This function returns the variable at the end of the chain of aliases | |
1768 of @var{variable}. If @var{variable} is not a symbol, or if @var{variable} is | |
1769 not defined as an alias, the function returns @var{variable}. | |
1770 | |
1771 This function signals a @code{cyclic-variable-indirection} error if | |
1772 there is a loop in the chain of symbols. | |
1773 @end defun | |
1774 | |
1775 @example | |
1776 (defvaralias 'foo 'bar) | |
1777 (indirect-variable 'foo) | |
1778 @result{} bar | |
1779 (indirect-variable 'bar) | |
1780 @result{} bar | |
1781 (setq bar 2) | |
1782 bar | |
1783 @result{} 2 | |
1784 @group | |
1785 foo | |
1786 @result{} 2 | |
1787 @end group | |
1788 (setq foo 0) | |
1789 bar | |
1790 @result{} 0 | |
1791 foo | |
1792 @result{} 0 | |
1793 @end example | |
1794 | |
1795 @node Variables with Restricted Values | |
1796 @section Variables with Restricted Values | |
1797 | |
1798 Ordinary Lisp variables can be assigned any value that is a valid | |
1799 Lisp object. However, certain Lisp variables are not defined in Lisp, | |
1800 but in C. Most of these variables are defined in the C code using | |
1801 @code{DEFVAR_LISP}. Like variables defined in Lisp, these can take on | |
1802 any value. However, some variables are defined using | |
1803 @code{DEFVAR_INT} or @code{DEFVAR_BOOL}. @xref{Defining Lisp | |
1804 variables in C,, Writing Emacs Primitives}, in particular the | |
1805 description of functions of the type @code{syms_of_@var{filename}}, | |
1806 for a brief discussion of the C implementation. | |
1807 | |
1808 Variables of type @code{DEFVAR_BOOL} can only take on the values | |
1809 @code{nil} or @code{t}. Attempting to assign them any other value | |
1810 will set them to @code{t}: | |
1811 | |
1812 @example | |
1813 (let ((display-hourglass 5)) | |
1814 display-hourglass) | |
1815 @result{} t | |
1816 @end example | |
1817 | |
1818 @defvar byte-boolean-vars | |
1819 This variable holds a list of all variables of type @code{DEFVAR_BOOL}. | |
1820 @end defvar | |
1821 | |
1822 Variables of type @code{DEFVAR_INT} can only take on integer values. | |
1823 Attempting to assign them any other value will result in an error: | |
1824 | |
1825 @example | |
1826 (setq window-min-height 5.0) | |
1827 @error{} Wrong type argument: integerp, 5.0 | |
1828 @end example | |
1829 | |
1830 @ignore | |
1831 arch-tag: 5ff62c44-2b51-47bb-99d4-fea5aeec5d3e | |
1832 @end ignore |