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6447 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2003 |
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4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6447 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/objects | |
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7 @node Lisp Data Types, Numbers, Introduction, Top |
6447 | 8 @chapter Lisp Data Types |
9 @cindex object | |
10 @cindex Lisp object | |
11 @cindex type | |
12 @cindex data type | |
13 | |
14 A Lisp @dfn{object} is a piece of data used and manipulated by Lisp | |
15 programs. For our purposes, a @dfn{type} or @dfn{data type} is a set of | |
16 possible objects. | |
17 | |
18 Every object belongs to at least one type. Objects of the same type | |
19 have similar structures and may usually be used in the same contexts. | |
20 Types can overlap, and objects can belong to two or more types. | |
21 Consequently, we can ask whether an object belongs to a particular type, | |
22 but not for ``the'' type of an object. | |
23 | |
24 @cindex primitive type | |
25 A few fundamental object types are built into Emacs. These, from | |
26188 | 26 which all other types are constructed, are called @dfn{primitive types}. |
27 Each object belongs to one and only one primitive type. These types | |
28 include @dfn{integer}, @dfn{float}, @dfn{cons}, @dfn{symbol}, | |
29 @dfn{string}, @dfn{vector}, @dfn{hash-table}, @dfn{subr}, and | |
30 @dfn{byte-code function}, plus several special types, such as | |
31 @dfn{buffer}, that are related to editing. (@xref{Editing Types}.) | |
6447 | 32 |
33 Each primitive type has a corresponding Lisp function that checks | |
34 whether an object is a member of that type. | |
35 | |
36 Note that Lisp is unlike many other languages in that Lisp objects are | |
37 @dfn{self-typing}: the primitive type of the object is implicit in the | |
38 object itself. For example, if an object is a vector, nothing can treat | |
39 it as a number; Lisp knows it is a vector, not a number. | |
40 | |
41 In most languages, the programmer must declare the data type of each | |
42 variable, and the type is known by the compiler but not represented in | |
43 the data. Such type declarations do not exist in Emacs Lisp. A Lisp | |
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44 variable can have any type of value, and it remembers whatever value |
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45 you store in it, type and all. (Actually, a small number of Emacs |
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46 Lisp variables can only take on values of a certain type. |
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47 @xref{Variables with Restricted Values}.) |
6447 | 48 |
49 This chapter describes the purpose, printed representation, and read | |
50 syntax of each of the standard types in GNU Emacs Lisp. Details on how | |
51 to use these types can be found in later chapters. | |
52 | |
53 @menu | |
54 * Printed Representation:: How Lisp objects are represented as text. | |
55 * Comments:: Comments and their formatting conventions. | |
56 * Programming Types:: Types found in all Lisp systems. | |
57 * Editing Types:: Types specific to Emacs. | |
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58 * Circular Objects:: Read syntax for circular structure. |
6447 | 59 * Type Predicates:: Tests related to types. |
60 * Equality Predicates:: Tests of equality between any two objects. | |
61 @end menu | |
62 | |
63 @node Printed Representation | |
64 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
65 @section Printed Representation and Read Syntax | |
66 @cindex printed representation | |
67 @cindex read syntax | |
68 | |
69 The @dfn{printed representation} of an object is the format of the | |
70 output generated by the Lisp printer (the function @code{prin1}) for | |
71 that object. The @dfn{read syntax} of an object is the format of the | |
72 input accepted by the Lisp reader (the function @code{read}) for that | |
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73 object. @xref{Read and Print}. |
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74 |
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75 Most objects have more than one possible read syntax. Some types of |
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76 object have no read syntax, since it may not make sense to enter objects |
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77 of these types directly in a Lisp program. Except for these cases, the |
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78 printed representation of an object is also a read syntax for it. |
6447 | 79 |
80 In other languages, an expression is text; it has no other form. In | |
81 Lisp, an expression is primarily a Lisp object and only secondarily the | |
82 text that is the object's read syntax. Often there is no need to | |
83 emphasize this distinction, but you must keep it in the back of your | |
84 mind, or you will occasionally be very confused. | |
85 | |
86 @cindex hash notation | |
87 Every type has a printed representation. Some types have no read | |
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88 syntax---for example, the buffer type has none. Objects of these types |
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89 are printed in @dfn{hash notation}: the characters @samp{#<} followed by |
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90 a descriptive string (typically the type name followed by the name of |
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91 the object), and closed with a matching @samp{>}. Hash notation cannot |
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92 be read at all, so the Lisp reader signals the error |
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93 @code{invalid-read-syntax} whenever it encounters @samp{#<}. |
6447 | 94 @kindex invalid-read-syntax |
95 | |
96 @example | |
97 (current-buffer) | |
98 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> | |
99 @end example | |
100 | |
101 When you evaluate an expression interactively, the Lisp interpreter | |
102 first reads the textual representation of it, producing a Lisp object, | |
103 and then evaluates that object (@pxref{Evaluation}). However, | |
104 evaluation and reading are separate activities. Reading returns the | |
105 Lisp object represented by the text that is read; the object may or may | |
106 not be evaluated later. @xref{Input Functions}, for a description of | |
107 @code{read}, the basic function for reading objects. | |
108 | |
109 @node Comments | |
110 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
111 @section Comments | |
112 @cindex comments | |
113 @cindex @samp{;} in comment | |
114 | |
115 A @dfn{comment} is text that is written in a program only for the sake | |
116 of humans that read the program, and that has no effect on the meaning | |
117 of the program. In Lisp, a semicolon (@samp{;}) starts a comment if it | |
118 is not within a string or character constant. The comment continues to | |
119 the end of line. The Lisp reader discards comments; they do not become | |
120 part of the Lisp objects which represent the program within the Lisp | |
121 system. | |
122 | |
12098 | 123 The @samp{#@@@var{count}} construct, which skips the next @var{count} |
124 characters, is useful for program-generated comments containing binary | |
125 data. The Emacs Lisp byte compiler uses this in its output files | |
126 (@pxref{Byte Compilation}). It isn't meant for source files, however. | |
127 | |
6447 | 128 @xref{Comment Tips}, for conventions for formatting comments. |
129 | |
130 @node Programming Types | |
131 @section Programming Types | |
132 @cindex programming types | |
133 | |
134 There are two general categories of types in Emacs Lisp: those having | |
135 to do with Lisp programming, and those having to do with editing. The | |
136 former exist in many Lisp implementations, in one form or another. The | |
137 latter are unique to Emacs Lisp. | |
138 | |
139 @menu | |
140 * Integer Type:: Numbers without fractional parts. | |
141 * Floating Point Type:: Numbers with fractional parts and with a large range. | |
142 * Character Type:: The representation of letters, numbers and | |
143 control characters. | |
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144 * Symbol Type:: A multi-use object that refers to a function, |
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145 variable, or property list, and has a unique identity. |
6447 | 146 * Sequence Type:: Both lists and arrays are classified as sequences. |
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147 * Cons Cell Type:: Cons cells, and lists (which are made from cons cells). |
6447 | 148 * Array Type:: Arrays include strings and vectors. |
149 * String Type:: An (efficient) array of characters. | |
150 * Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays. | |
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151 * Char-Table Type:: One-dimensional sparse arrays indexed by characters. |
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152 * Bool-Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays of @code{t} or @code{nil}. |
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153 * Hash Table Type:: Super-fast lookup tables. |
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154 * Function Type:: A piece of executable code you can call from elsewhere. |
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155 * Macro Type:: A method of expanding an expression into another |
6447 | 156 expression, more fundamental but less pretty. |
157 * Primitive Function Type:: A function written in C, callable from Lisp. | |
158 * Byte-Code Type:: A function written in Lisp, then compiled. | |
159 * Autoload Type:: A type used for automatically loading seldom-used | |
160 functions. | |
161 @end menu | |
162 | |
163 @node Integer Type | |
164 @subsection Integer Type | |
165 | |
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166 The range of values for integers in Emacs Lisp is @minus{}268435456 to |
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167 268435455 (29 bits; i.e., |
27193 | 168 @ifnottex |
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169 -2**28 |
27193 | 170 @end ifnottex |
6447 | 171 @tex |
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172 @math{-2^{28}} |
6447 | 173 @end tex |
174 to | |
27193 | 175 @ifnottex |
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176 2**28 - 1) |
27193 | 177 @end ifnottex |
6447 | 178 @tex |
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179 @math{2^{28}-1}) |
6447 | 180 @end tex |
10559 | 181 on most machines. (Some machines may provide a wider range.) It is |
182 important to note that the Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions do not check | |
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183 for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 268435455)} is @minus{}268435456 on most |
10559 | 184 machines. |
6447 | 185 |
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186 The read syntax for integers is a sequence of (base ten) digits with an |
6447 | 187 optional sign at the beginning and an optional period at the end. The |
188 printed representation produced by the Lisp interpreter never has a | |
189 leading @samp{+} or a final @samp{.}. | |
190 | |
191 @example | |
192 @group | |
193 -1 ; @r{The integer -1.} | |
194 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
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195 1. ; @r{Also the integer 1.} |
6447 | 196 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} |
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197 536870913 ; @r{Also the integer 1 on a 29-bit implementation.} |
6447 | 198 @end group |
199 @end example | |
200 | |
201 @xref{Numbers}, for more information. | |
202 | |
203 @node Floating Point Type | |
204 @subsection Floating Point Type | |
205 | |
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206 Floating point numbers are the computer equivalent of scientific |
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207 notation. The precise number of significant figures and the range of |
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208 possible exponents is machine-specific; Emacs always uses the C data |
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209 type @code{double} to store the value. |
6447 | 210 |
211 The printed representation for floating point numbers requires either | |
212 a decimal point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or | |
213 both. For example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, | |
214 @samp{1.5e3}, and @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point | |
215 number whose value is 1500. They are all equivalent. | |
216 | |
217 @xref{Numbers}, for more information. | |
218 | |
219 @node Character Type | |
220 @subsection Character Type | |
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221 @cindex @acronym{ASCII} character codes |
6447 | 222 |
223 A @dfn{character} in Emacs Lisp is nothing more than an integer. In | |
224 other words, characters are represented by their character codes. For | |
225 example, the character @kbd{A} is represented as the @w{integer 65}. | |
226 | |
227 Individual characters are not often used in programs. It is far more | |
228 common to work with @emph{strings}, which are sequences composed of | |
229 characters. @xref{String Type}. | |
230 | |
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231 Characters in strings, buffers, and files are currently limited to |
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232 the range of 0 to 524287---nineteen bits. But not all values in that |
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233 range are valid character codes. Codes 0 through 127 are |
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234 @acronym{ASCII} codes; the rest are non-@acronym{ASCII} |
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235 (@pxref{Non-ASCII Characters}). Characters that represent keyboard |
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236 input have a much wider range, to encode modifier keys such as |
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237 Control, Meta and Shift. |
6447 | 238 |
239 @cindex read syntax for characters | |
240 @cindex printed representation for characters | |
241 @cindex syntax for characters | |
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242 @cindex @samp{?} in character constant |
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243 @cindex question mark in character constant |
6447 | 244 Since characters are really integers, the printed representation of a |
245 character is a decimal number. This is also a possible read syntax for | |
246 a character, but writing characters that way in Lisp programs is a very | |
247 bad idea. You should @emph{always} use the special read syntax formats | |
248 that Emacs Lisp provides for characters. These syntax formats start | |
249 with a question mark. | |
250 | |
251 The usual read syntax for alphanumeric characters is a question mark | |
252 followed by the character; thus, @samp{?A} for the character | |
253 @kbd{A}, @samp{?B} for the character @kbd{B}, and @samp{?a} for the | |
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254 character @kbd{a}. |
6447 | 255 |
256 For example: | |
257 | |
258 @example | |
259 ?Q @result{} 81 ?q @result{} 113 | |
260 @end example | |
261 | |
262 You can use the same syntax for punctuation characters, but it is | |
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263 often a good idea to add a @samp{\} so that the Emacs commands for |
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264 editing Lisp code don't get confused. For example, @samp{?\(} is the |
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265 way to write the open-paren character. If the character is @samp{\}, |
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266 you @emph{must} use a second @samp{\} to quote it: @samp{?\\}. |
6447 | 267 |
268 @cindex whitespace | |
269 @cindex bell character | |
270 @cindex @samp{\a} | |
271 @cindex backspace | |
272 @cindex @samp{\b} | |
273 @cindex tab | |
274 @cindex @samp{\t} | |
275 @cindex vertical tab | |
276 @cindex @samp{\v} | |
277 @cindex formfeed | |
278 @cindex @samp{\f} | |
279 @cindex newline | |
280 @cindex @samp{\n} | |
281 @cindex return | |
282 @cindex @samp{\r} | |
283 @cindex escape | |
284 @cindex @samp{\e} | |
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285 @cindex space |
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286 @cindex @samp{\s} |
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287 You can express the characters control-g, backspace, tab, newline, |
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288 vertical tab, formfeed, space, return, del, and escape as @samp{?\a}, |
37418 | 289 @samp{?\b}, @samp{?\t}, @samp{?\n}, @samp{?\v}, @samp{?\f}, |
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290 @samp{?\s}, @samp{?\r}, @samp{?\d}, and @samp{?\e}, respectively. |
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291 Thus, |
6447 | 292 |
293 @example | |
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294 ?\a @result{} 7 ; @r{control-g, @kbd{C-g}} |
6447 | 295 ?\b @result{} 8 ; @r{backspace, @key{BS}, @kbd{C-h}} |
296 ?\t @result{} 9 ; @r{tab, @key{TAB}, @kbd{C-i}} | |
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297 ?\n @result{} 10 ; @r{newline, @kbd{C-j}} |
6447 | 298 ?\v @result{} 11 ; @r{vertical tab, @kbd{C-k}} |
299 ?\f @result{} 12 ; @r{formfeed character, @kbd{C-l}} | |
300 ?\r @result{} 13 ; @r{carriage return, @key{RET}, @kbd{C-m}} | |
301 ?\e @result{} 27 ; @r{escape character, @key{ESC}, @kbd{C-[}} | |
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302 ?\s @result{} 32 ; @r{space character, @key{SPC}} |
6447 | 303 ?\\ @result{} 92 ; @r{backslash character, @kbd{\}} |
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304 ?\d @result{} 127 ; @r{delete character, @key{DEL}} |
6447 | 305 @end example |
306 | |
307 @cindex escape sequence | |
308 These sequences which start with backslash are also known as | |
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309 @dfn{escape sequences}, because backslash plays the role of an |
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310 ``escape character''; this terminology has nothing to do with the |
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311 character @key{ESC}. @samp{\s} is meant for use only in character |
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312 constants; in string constants, just write the space. |
6447 | 313 |
314 @cindex control characters | |
315 Control characters may be represented using yet another read syntax. | |
316 This consists of a question mark followed by a backslash, caret, and the | |
317 corresponding non-control character, in either upper or lower case. For | |
318 example, both @samp{?\^I} and @samp{?\^i} are valid read syntax for the | |
319 character @kbd{C-i}, the character whose value is 9. | |
320 | |
321 Instead of the @samp{^}, you can use @samp{C-}; thus, @samp{?\C-i} is | |
322 equivalent to @samp{?\^I} and to @samp{?\^i}: | |
323 | |
324 @example | |
325 ?\^I @result{} 9 ?\C-I @result{} 9 | |
326 @end example | |
327 | |
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328 In strings and buffers, the only control characters allowed are those |
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329 that exist in @acronym{ASCII}; but for keyboard input purposes, you can turn |
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330 any character into a control character with @samp{C-}. The character |
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331 codes for these non-@acronym{ASCII} control characters include the |
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332 @tex |
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333 @math{2^{26}} |
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334 @end tex |
27193 | 335 @ifnottex |
12098 | 336 2**26 |
27193 | 337 @end ifnottex |
12098 | 338 bit as well as the code for the corresponding non-control |
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339 character. Ordinary terminals have no way of generating non-@acronym{ASCII} |
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340 control characters, but you can generate them straightforwardly using X |
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341 and other window systems. |
6447 | 342 |
12098 | 343 For historical reasons, Emacs treats the @key{DEL} character as |
344 the control equivalent of @kbd{?}: | |
6447 | 345 |
346 @example | |
347 ?\^? @result{} 127 ?\C-? @result{} 127 | |
348 @end example | |
349 | |
12098 | 350 @noindent |
351 As a result, it is currently not possible to represent the character | |
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352 @kbd{Control-?}, which is a meaningful input character under X, using |
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353 @samp{\C-}. It is not easy to change this, as various Lisp files refer |
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354 to @key{DEL} in this way. |
12098 | 355 |
6447 | 356 For representing control characters to be found in files or strings, |
357 we recommend the @samp{^} syntax; for control characters in keyboard | |
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358 input, we prefer the @samp{C-} syntax. Which one you use does not |
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359 affect the meaning of the program, but may guide the understanding of |
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360 people who read it. |
6447 | 361 |
362 @cindex meta characters | |
363 A @dfn{meta character} is a character typed with the @key{META} | |
364 modifier key. The integer that represents such a character has the | |
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365 @tex |
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366 @math{2^{27}} |
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367 @end tex |
27193 | 368 @ifnottex |
12098 | 369 2**27 |
27193 | 370 @end ifnottex |
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371 bit set. We use high bits for this and other modifiers to make |
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372 possible a wide range of basic character codes. |
6447 | 373 |
12098 | 374 In a string, the |
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375 @tex |
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376 @math{2^{7}} |
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377 @end tex |
27193 | 378 @ifnottex |
12098 | 379 2**7 |
27193 | 380 @end ifnottex |
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381 bit attached to an @acronym{ASCII} character indicates a meta |
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382 character; thus, the meta characters that can fit in a string have |
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383 codes in the range from 128 to 255, and are the meta versions of the |
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384 ordinary @acronym{ASCII} characters. (In Emacs versions 18 and older, |
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385 this convention was used for characters outside of strings as well.) |
6447 | 386 |
387 The read syntax for meta characters uses @samp{\M-}. For example, | |
388 @samp{?\M-A} stands for @kbd{M-A}. You can use @samp{\M-} together with | |
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389 octal character codes (see below), with @samp{\C-}, or with any other |
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390 syntax for a character. Thus, you can write @kbd{M-A} as @samp{?\M-A}, |
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391 or as @samp{?\M-\101}. Likewise, you can write @kbd{C-M-b} as |
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392 @samp{?\M-\C-b}, @samp{?\C-\M-b}, or @samp{?\M-\002}. |
6447 | 393 |
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394 The case of a graphic character is indicated by its character code; |
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395 for example, @acronym{ASCII} distinguishes between the characters @samp{a} |
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396 and @samp{A}. But @acronym{ASCII} has no way to represent whether a control |
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397 character is upper case or lower case. Emacs uses the |
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398 @tex |
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399 @math{2^{25}} |
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400 @end tex |
27193 | 401 @ifnottex |
12098 | 402 2**25 |
27193 | 403 @end ifnottex |
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404 bit to indicate that the shift key was used in typing a control |
12098 | 405 character. This distinction is possible only when you use X terminals |
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406 or other special terminals; ordinary terminals do not report the |
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407 distinction to the computer in any way. The Lisp syntax for |
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408 the shift bit is @samp{\S-}; thus, @samp{?\C-\S-o} or @samp{?\C-\S-O} |
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409 represents the shifted-control-o character. |
6447 | 410 |
411 @cindex hyper characters | |
412 @cindex super characters | |
413 @cindex alt characters | |
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414 The X Window System defines three other @anchor{modifier bits} |
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415 modifier bits that can be set |
6447 | 416 in a character: @dfn{hyper}, @dfn{super} and @dfn{alt}. The syntaxes |
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417 for these bits are @samp{\H-}, @samp{\s-} and @samp{\A-}. (Case is |
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418 significant in these prefixes.) Thus, @samp{?\H-\M-\A-x} represents |
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419 @kbd{Alt-Hyper-Meta-x}. (Note that @samp{\s} with no following @samp{-} |
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420 represents the space character.) |
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421 @tex |
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422 Numerically, the bit values are @math{2^{22}} for alt, @math{2^{23}} |
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423 for super and @math{2^{24}} for hyper. |
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424 @end tex |
27193 | 425 @ifnottex |
12098 | 426 Numerically, the |
427 bit values are 2**22 for alt, 2**23 for super and 2**24 for hyper. | |
27193 | 428 @end ifnottex |
6447 | 429 |
430 @cindex @samp{\} in character constant | |
431 @cindex backslash in character constant | |
432 @cindex octal character code | |
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433 Finally, the most general read syntax for a character represents the |
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434 character code in either octal or hex. To use octal, write a question |
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435 mark followed by a backslash and the octal character code (up to three |
6447 | 436 octal digits); thus, @samp{?\101} for the character @kbd{A}, |
437 @samp{?\001} for the character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\002} for the | |
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438 character @kbd{C-b}. Although this syntax can represent any @acronym{ASCII} |
6447 | 439 character, it is preferred only when the precise octal value is more |
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440 important than the @acronym{ASCII} representation. |
6447 | 441 |
442 @example | |
443 @group | |
444 ?\012 @result{} 10 ?\n @result{} 10 ?\C-j @result{} 10 | |
445 ?\101 @result{} 65 ?A @result{} 65 | |
446 @end group | |
447 @end example | |
448 | |
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449 To use hex, write a question mark followed by a backslash, @samp{x}, |
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450 and the hexadecimal character code. You can use any number of hex |
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451 digits, so you can represent any character code in this way. |
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452 Thus, @samp{?\x41} for the character @kbd{A}, @samp{?\x1} for the |
35477 | 453 character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\x8e0} for the Latin-1 character |
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454 @iftex |
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455 @samp{@`a}. |
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456 @end iftex |
27193 | 457 @ifnottex |
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458 @samp{a} with grave accent. |
27193 | 459 @end ifnottex |
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460 |
6447 | 461 A backslash is allowed, and harmless, preceding any character without |
462 a special escape meaning; thus, @samp{?\+} is equivalent to @samp{?+}. | |
463 There is no reason to add a backslash before most characters. However, | |
464 you should add a backslash before any of the characters | |
465 @samp{()\|;'`"#.,} to avoid confusing the Emacs commands for editing | |
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466 Lisp code. You can also add a backslash before whitespace characters such as |
6447 | 467 space, tab, newline and formfeed. However, it is cleaner to use one of |
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468 the easily readable escape sequences, such as @samp{\t} or @samp{\s}, |
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469 instead of an actual whitespace character such as a tab or a space. |
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470 (If you do write backslash followed by a space, you should write |
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471 an extra space after the character constant to separate it from the |
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472 following text.) |
6447 | 473 |
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474 @node Symbol Type |
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475 @subsection Symbol Type |
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476 |
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477 A @dfn{symbol} in GNU Emacs Lisp is an object with a name. The symbol |
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478 name serves as the printed representation of the symbol. In ordinary |
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479 use, the name is unique---no two symbols have the same name. |
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480 |
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481 A symbol can serve as a variable, as a function name, or to hold a |
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482 property list. Or it may serve only to be distinct from all other Lisp |
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483 objects, so that its presence in a data structure may be recognized |
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484 reliably. In a given context, usually only one of these uses is |
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485 intended. But you can use one symbol in all of these ways, |
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486 independently. |
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487 |
26188 | 488 A symbol whose name starts with a colon (@samp{:}) is called a |
489 @dfn{keyword symbol}. These symbols automatically act as constants, and | |
490 are normally used only by comparing an unknown symbol with a few | |
491 specific alternatives. | |
492 | |
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493 @cindex @samp{\} in symbols |
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494 @cindex backslash in symbols |
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495 A symbol name can contain any characters whatever. Most symbol names |
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496 are written with letters, digits, and the punctuation characters |
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497 @samp{-+=*/}. Such names require no special punctuation; the characters |
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498 of the name suffice as long as the name does not look like a number. |
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499 (If it does, write a @samp{\} at the beginning of the name to force |
31561 | 500 interpretation as a symbol.) The characters @samp{_~!@@$%^&:<>@{@}?} are |
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501 less often used but also require no special punctuation. Any other |
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502 characters may be included in a symbol's name by escaping them with a |
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503 backslash. In contrast to its use in strings, however, a backslash in |
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504 the name of a symbol simply quotes the single character that follows the |
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505 backslash. For example, in a string, @samp{\t} represents a tab |
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506 character; in the name of a symbol, however, @samp{\t} merely quotes the |
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507 letter @samp{t}. To have a symbol with a tab character in its name, you |
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508 must actually use a tab (preceded with a backslash). But it's rare to |
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509 do such a thing. |
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510 |
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511 @cindex CL note---case of letters |
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512 @quotation |
7734 | 513 @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, lower case letters are always |
12098 | 514 ``folded'' to upper case, unless they are explicitly escaped. In Emacs |
515 Lisp, upper case and lower case letters are distinct. | |
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516 @end quotation |
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517 |
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518 Here are several examples of symbol names. Note that the @samp{+} in |
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519 the fifth example is escaped to prevent it from being read as a number. |
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520 This is not necessary in the seventh example because the rest of the name |
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521 makes it invalid as a number. |
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522 |
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523 @example |
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524 @group |
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525 foo ; @r{A symbol named @samp{foo}.} |
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526 FOO ; @r{A symbol named @samp{FOO}, different from @samp{foo}.} |
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527 char-to-string ; @r{A symbol named @samp{char-to-string}.} |
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528 @end group |
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529 @group |
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530 1+ ; @r{A symbol named @samp{1+}} |
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531 ; @r{(not @samp{+1}, which is an integer).} |
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532 @end group |
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533 @group |
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534 \+1 ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+1}} |
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535 ; @r{(not a very readable name).} |
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536 @end group |
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537 @group |
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538 \(*\ 1\ 2\) ; @r{A symbol named @samp{(* 1 2)} (a worse name).} |
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539 @c the @'s in this next line use up three characters, hence the |
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540 @c apparent misalignment of the comment. |
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541 +-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@} ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@}}.} |
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542 ; @r{These characters need not be escaped.} |
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543 @end group |
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544 @end example |
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545 |
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546 @ifinfo |
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547 @c This uses ``colon'' instead of a literal `:' because Info cannot |
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548 @c cope with a `:' in a menu |
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549 @cindex @samp{#@var{colon}} read syntax |
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550 @end ifinfo |
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551 @ifnotinfo |
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552 @cindex @samp{#:} read syntax |
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553 @end ifnotinfo |
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554 Normally the Lisp reader interns all symbols (@pxref{Creating |
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555 Symbols}). To prevent interning, you can write @samp{#:} before the |
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556 name of the symbol. |
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557 |
6447 | 558 @node Sequence Type |
559 @subsection Sequence Types | |
560 | |
561 A @dfn{sequence} is a Lisp object that represents an ordered set of | |
562 elements. There are two kinds of sequence in Emacs Lisp, lists and | |
563 arrays. Thus, an object of type list or of type array is also | |
564 considered a sequence. | |
565 | |
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566 Arrays are further subdivided into strings, vectors, char-tables and |
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567 bool-vectors. Vectors can hold elements of any type, but string |
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568 elements must be characters, and bool-vector elements must be @code{t} |
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569 or @code{nil}. Char-tables are like vectors except that they are |
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570 indexed by any valid character code. The characters in a string can |
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571 have text properties like characters in a buffer (@pxref{Text |
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572 Properties}), but vectors do not support text properties, even when |
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573 their elements happen to be characters. |
6447 | 574 |
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575 Lists, strings and the other array types are different, but they have |
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576 important similarities. For example, all have a length @var{l}, and all |
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577 have elements which can be indexed from zero to @var{l} minus one. |
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578 Several functions, called sequence functions, accept any kind of |
6447 | 579 sequence. For example, the function @code{elt} can be used to extract |
580 an element of a sequence, given its index. @xref{Sequences Arrays | |
581 Vectors}. | |
582 | |
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583 It is generally impossible to read the same sequence twice, since |
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584 sequences are always created anew upon reading. If you read the read |
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585 syntax for a sequence twice, you get two sequences with equal contents. |
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586 There is one exception: the empty list @code{()} always stands for the |
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587 same object, @code{nil}. |
6447 | 588 |
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589 @node Cons Cell Type |
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590 @subsection Cons Cell and List Types |
6447 | 591 @cindex address field of register |
592 @cindex decrement field of register | |
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593 @cindex pointers |
6447 | 594 |
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595 A @dfn{cons cell} is an object that consists of two slots, called the |
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596 @sc{car} slot and the @sc{cdr} slot. Each slot can @dfn{hold} or |
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597 @dfn{refer to} any Lisp object. We also say that ``the @sc{car} of |
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598 this cons cell is'' whatever object its @sc{car} slot currently holds, |
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599 and likewise for the @sc{cdr}. |
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600 |
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601 @quotation |
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602 A note to C programmers: in Lisp, we do not distinguish between |
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603 ``holding'' a value and ``pointing to'' the value, because pointers in |
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604 Lisp are implicit. |
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605 @end quotation |
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606 |
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607 A @dfn{list} is a series of cons cells, linked together so that the |
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608 @sc{cdr} slot of each cons cell holds either the next cons cell or the |
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609 empty list. @xref{Lists}, for functions that work on lists. Because |
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610 most cons cells are used as part of lists, the phrase @dfn{list |
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611 structure} has come to refer to any structure made out of cons cells. |
6447 | 612 |
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613 The names @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} derive from the history of Lisp. The |
6447 | 614 original Lisp implementation ran on an @w{IBM 704} computer which |
615 divided words into two parts, called the ``address'' part and the | |
616 ``decrement''; @sc{car} was an instruction to extract the contents of | |
617 the address part of a register, and @sc{cdr} an instruction to extract | |
618 the contents of the decrement. By contrast, ``cons cells'' are named | |
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619 for the function @code{cons} that creates them, which in turn was named |
6447 | 620 for its purpose, the construction of cells. |
621 | |
622 @cindex atom | |
623 Because cons cells are so central to Lisp, we also have a word for | |
624 ``an object which is not a cons cell''. These objects are called | |
625 @dfn{atoms}. | |
626 | |
627 @cindex parenthesis | |
628 The read syntax and printed representation for lists are identical, and | |
629 consist of a left parenthesis, an arbitrary number of elements, and a | |
630 right parenthesis. | |
631 | |
632 Upon reading, each object inside the parentheses becomes an element | |
633 of the list. That is, a cons cell is made for each element. The | |
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634 @sc{car} slot of the cons cell holds the element, and its @sc{cdr} |
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635 slot refers to the next cons cell of the list, which holds the next |
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636 element in the list. The @sc{cdr} slot of the last cons cell is set to |
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637 hold @code{nil}. |
6447 | 638 |
639 @cindex box diagrams, for lists | |
640 @cindex diagrams, boxed, for lists | |
641 A list can be illustrated by a diagram in which the cons cells are | |
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642 shown as pairs of boxes, like dominoes. (The Lisp reader cannot read |
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643 such an illustration; unlike the textual notation, which can be |
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644 understood by both humans and computers, the box illustrations can be |
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645 understood only by humans.) This picture represents the three-element |
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646 list @code{(rose violet buttercup)}: |
6447 | 647 |
648 @example | |
649 @group | |
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650 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
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651 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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652 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 653 | | | |
654 | | | | |
655 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup | |
656 @end group | |
657 @end example | |
658 | |
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659 In this diagram, each box represents a slot that can hold or refer to |
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660 any Lisp object. Each pair of boxes represents a cons cell. Each arrow |
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661 represents a reference to a Lisp object, either an atom or another cons |
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662 cell. |
6447 | 663 |
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664 In this example, the first box, which holds the @sc{car} of the first |
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665 cons cell, refers to or ``holds'' @code{rose} (a symbol). The second |
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666 box, holding the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell, refers to the next |
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667 pair of boxes, the second cons cell. The @sc{car} of the second cons |
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668 cell is @code{violet}, and its @sc{cdr} is the third cons cell. The |
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669 @sc{cdr} of the third (and last) cons cell is @code{nil}. |
6447 | 670 |
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671 Here is another diagram of the same list, @code{(rose violet |
6447 | 672 buttercup)}, sketched in a different manner: |
673 | |
674 @smallexample | |
675 @group | |
676 --------------- ---------------- ------------------- | |
677 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
678 | rose | o-------->| violet | o-------->| buttercup | nil | | |
679 | | | | | | | | | | |
680 --------------- ---------------- ------------------- | |
681 @end group | |
682 @end smallexample | |
683 | |
684 @cindex @samp{(@dots{})} in lists | |
685 @cindex @code{nil} in lists | |
686 @cindex empty list | |
687 A list with no elements in it is the @dfn{empty list}; it is identical | |
688 to the symbol @code{nil}. In other words, @code{nil} is both a symbol | |
689 and a list. | |
690 | |
691 Here are examples of lists written in Lisp syntax: | |
692 | |
693 @example | |
694 (A 2 "A") ; @r{A list of three elements.} | |
695 () ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} | |
696 nil ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} | |
697 ("A ()") ; @r{A list of one element: the string @code{"A ()"}.} | |
698 (A ()) ; @r{A list of two elements: @code{A} and the empty list.} | |
699 (A nil) ; @r{Equivalent to the previous.} | |
700 ((A B C)) ; @r{A list of one element} | |
701 ; @r{(which is a list of three elements).} | |
702 @end example | |
703 | |
704 Here is the list @code{(A ())}, or equivalently @code{(A nil)}, | |
705 depicted with boxes and arrows: | |
706 | |
707 @example | |
708 @group | |
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709 --- --- --- --- |
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710 | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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711 --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 712 | | |
713 | | | |
714 --> A --> nil | |
715 @end group | |
716 @end example | |
717 | |
718 @menu | |
719 * Dotted Pair Notation:: An alternative syntax for lists. | |
720 * Association List Type:: A specially constructed list. | |
721 @end menu | |
722 | |
723 @node Dotted Pair Notation | |
724 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
725 @subsubsection Dotted Pair Notation | |
726 @cindex dotted pair notation | |
727 @cindex @samp{.} in lists | |
728 | |
729 @dfn{Dotted pair notation} is an alternative syntax for cons cells | |
730 that represents the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} explicitly. In this syntax, | |
731 @code{(@var{a} .@: @var{b})} stands for a cons cell whose @sc{car} is | |
732 the object @var{a}, and whose @sc{cdr} is the object @var{b}. Dotted | |
733 pair notation is therefore more general than list syntax. In the dotted | |
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734 pair notation, the list @samp{(1 2 3)} is written as @samp{(1 . (2 . (3 |
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735 . nil)))}. For @code{nil}-terminated lists, you can use either |
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736 notation, but list notation is usually clearer and more convenient. |
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737 When printing a list, the dotted pair notation is only used if the |
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738 @sc{cdr} of a cons cell is not a list. |
6447 | 739 |
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740 Here's an example using boxes to illustrate dotted pair notation. |
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741 This example shows the pair @code{(rose . violet)}: |
6447 | 742 |
743 @example | |
744 @group | |
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745 --- --- |
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746 | | |--> violet |
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747 --- --- |
6447 | 748 | |
749 | | |
750 --> rose | |
751 @end group | |
752 @end example | |
753 | |
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754 You can combine dotted pair notation with list notation to represent |
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755 conveniently a chain of cons cells with a non-@code{nil} final @sc{cdr}. |
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756 You write a dot after the last element of the list, followed by the |
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757 @sc{cdr} of the final cons cell. For example, @code{(rose violet |
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758 . buttercup)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . buttercup))}. |
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759 The object looks like this: |
6447 | 760 |
761 @example | |
762 @group | |
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763 --- --- --- --- |
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764 | | |--> | | |--> buttercup |
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765 --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 766 | | |
767 | | | |
768 --> rose --> violet | |
769 @end group | |
770 @end example | |
771 | |
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772 The syntax @code{(rose .@: violet .@: buttercup)} is invalid because |
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773 there is nothing that it could mean. If anything, it would say to put |
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774 @code{buttercup} in the @sc{cdr} of a cons cell whose @sc{cdr} is already |
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775 used for @code{violet}. |
6447 | 776 |
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777 The list @code{(rose violet)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet))}, |
6447 | 778 and looks like this: |
779 | |
780 @example | |
781 @group | |
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782 --- --- --- --- |
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783 | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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784 --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 785 | | |
786 | | | |
787 --> rose --> violet | |
788 @end group | |
789 @end example | |
790 | |
791 Similarly, the three-element list @code{(rose violet buttercup)} | |
792 is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . (buttercup)))}. | |
27193 | 793 @ifnottex |
6447 | 794 It looks like this: |
795 | |
796 @example | |
797 @group | |
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798 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
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799 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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800 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 801 | | | |
802 | | | | |
803 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup | |
804 @end group | |
805 @end example | |
27193 | 806 @end ifnottex |
6447 | 807 |
808 @node Association List Type | |
809 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
810 @subsubsection Association List Type | |
811 | |
812 An @dfn{association list} or @dfn{alist} is a specially-constructed | |
813 list whose elements are cons cells. In each element, the @sc{car} is | |
814 considered a @dfn{key}, and the @sc{cdr} is considered an | |
815 @dfn{associated value}. (In some cases, the associated value is stored | |
816 in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr}.) Association lists are often used as | |
817 stacks, since it is easy to add or remove associations at the front of | |
818 the list. | |
819 | |
820 For example, | |
821 | |
822 @example | |
823 (setq alist-of-colors | |
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824 '((rose . red) (lily . white) (buttercup . yellow))) |
6447 | 825 @end example |
826 | |
827 @noindent | |
828 sets the variable @code{alist-of-colors} to an alist of three elements. In the | |
829 first element, @code{rose} is the key and @code{red} is the value. | |
830 | |
831 @xref{Association Lists}, for a further explanation of alists and for | |
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832 functions that work on alists. @xref{Hash Tables}, for another kind of |
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833 lookup table, which is much faster for handling a large number of keys. |
6447 | 834 |
835 @node Array Type | |
836 @subsection Array Type | |
837 | |
838 An @dfn{array} is composed of an arbitrary number of slots for | |
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839 holding or referring to other Lisp objects, arranged in a contiguous block of |
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840 memory. Accessing any element of an array takes approximately the same |
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841 amount of time. In contrast, accessing an element of a list requires |
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842 time proportional to the position of the element in the list. (Elements |
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843 at the end of a list take longer to access than elements at the |
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844 beginning of a list.) |
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845 |
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846 Emacs defines four types of array: strings, vectors, bool-vectors, and |
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847 char-tables. |
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848 |
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849 A string is an array of characters and a vector is an array of |
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850 arbitrary objects. A bool-vector can hold only @code{t} or @code{nil}. |
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851 These kinds of array may have any length up to the largest integer. |
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852 Char-tables are sparse arrays indexed by any valid character code; they |
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853 can hold arbitrary objects. |
6447 | 854 |
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855 The first element of an array has index zero, the second element has |
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856 index 1, and so on. This is called @dfn{zero-origin} indexing. For |
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857 example, an array of four elements has indices 0, 1, 2, @w{and 3}. The |
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858 largest possible index value is one less than the length of the array. |
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859 Once an array is created, its length is fixed. |
6447 | 860 |
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861 All Emacs Lisp arrays are one-dimensional. (Most other programming |
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862 languages support multidimensional arrays, but they are not essential; |
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863 you can get the same effect with an array of arrays.) Each type of |
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864 array has its own read syntax; see the following sections for details. |
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866 The array type is contained in the sequence type and |
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867 contains the string type, the vector type, the bool-vector type, and the |
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868 char-table type. |
6447 | 869 |
870 @node String Type | |
871 @subsection String Type | |
872 | |
873 A @dfn{string} is an array of characters. Strings are used for many | |
874 purposes in Emacs, as can be expected in a text editor; for example, as | |
875 the names of Lisp symbols, as messages for the user, and to represent | |
876 text extracted from buffers. Strings in Lisp are constants: evaluation | |
877 of a string returns the same string. | |
878 | |
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879 @xref{Strings and Characters}, for functions that operate on strings. |
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880 |
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881 @menu |
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882 * Syntax for Strings:: |
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883 * Non-ASCII in Strings:: |
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884 * Nonprinting Characters:: |
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885 * Text Props and Strings:: |
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886 @end menu |
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887 |
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888 @node Syntax for Strings |
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889 @subsubsection Syntax for Strings |
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890 |
6447 | 891 @cindex @samp{"} in strings |
892 @cindex double-quote in strings | |
893 @cindex @samp{\} in strings | |
894 @cindex backslash in strings | |
895 The read syntax for strings is a double-quote, an arbitrary number of | |
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896 characters, and another double-quote, @code{"like this"}. To include a |
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897 double-quote in a string, precede it with a backslash; thus, @code{"\""} |
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898 is a string containing just a single double-quote character. Likewise, |
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899 you can include a backslash by preceding it with another backslash, like |
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900 this: @code{"this \\ is a single embedded backslash"}. |
6447 | 901 |
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902 @cindex newline in strings |
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903 The newline character is not special in the read syntax for strings; |
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904 if you write a new line between the double-quotes, it becomes a |
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905 character in the string. But an escaped newline---one that is preceded |
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906 by @samp{\}---does not become part of the string; i.e., the Lisp reader |
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907 ignores an escaped newline while reading a string. An escaped space |
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908 @w{@samp{\ }} is likewise ignored. |
6447 | 909 |
910 @example | |
911 "It is useful to include newlines | |
912 in documentation strings, | |
913 but the newline is \ | |
914 ignored if escaped." | |
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915 @result{} "It is useful to include newlines |
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916 in documentation strings, |
6447 | 917 but the newline is ignored if escaped." |
918 @end example | |
919 | |
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920 @node Non-ASCII in Strings |
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921 @subsubsection Non-@acronym{ASCII} Characters in Strings |
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922 |
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923 You can include a non-@acronym{ASCII} international character in a string |
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924 constant by writing it literally. There are two text representations |
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925 for non-@acronym{ASCII} characters in Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte |
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926 and multibyte. If the string constant is read from a multibyte source, |
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927 such as a multibyte buffer or string, or a file that would be visited as |
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928 multibyte, then the character is read as a multibyte character, and that |
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929 makes the string multibyte. If the string constant is read from a |
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930 unibyte source, then the character is read as unibyte and that makes the |
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931 string unibyte. |
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932 |
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933 You can also represent a multibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character with its |
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934 character code: use a hex escape, @samp{\x@var{nnnnnnn}}, with as many |
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935 digits as necessary. (Multibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character codes are all |
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936 greater than 256.) Any character which is not a valid hex digit |
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937 terminates this construct. If the next character in the string could be |
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938 interpreted as a hex digit, write @w{@samp{\ }} (backslash and space) to |
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939 terminate the hex escape---for example, @w{@samp{\x8e0\ }} represents |
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940 one character, @samp{a} with grave accent. @w{@samp{\ }} in a string |
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941 constant is just like backslash-newline; it does not contribute any |
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942 character to the string, but it does terminate the preceding hex escape. |
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943 |
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944 You can represent a unibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character with its |
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945 character code, which must be in the range from 128 (0200 octal) to |
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946 255 (0377 octal). If you write all such character codes in octal and |
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947 the string contains no other characters forcing it to be multibyte, |
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948 this produces a unibyte string. However, using any hex escape in a |
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949 string (even for an @acronym{ASCII} character) forces the string to be |
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950 multibyte. |
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951 |
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952 @xref{Text Representations}, for more information about the two |
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953 text representations. |
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954 |
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955 @node Nonprinting Characters |
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956 @subsubsection Nonprinting Characters in Strings |
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957 |
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958 You can use the same backslash escape-sequences in a string constant |
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959 as in character literals (but do not use the question mark that begins a |
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960 character constant). For example, you can write a string containing the |
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961 nonprinting characters tab and @kbd{C-a}, with commas and spaces between |
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962 them, like this: @code{"\t, \C-a"}. @xref{Character Type}, for a |
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963 description of the read syntax for characters. |
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964 |
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965 However, not all of the characters you can write with backslash |
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966 escape-sequences are valid in strings. The only control characters that |
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967 a string can hold are the @acronym{ASCII} control characters. Strings do not |
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968 distinguish case in @acronym{ASCII} control characters. |
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969 |
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970 Properly speaking, strings cannot hold meta characters; but when a |
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971 string is to be used as a key sequence, there is a special convention |
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972 that provides a way to represent meta versions of @acronym{ASCII} |
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973 characters in a string. If you use the @samp{\M-} syntax to indicate |
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974 a meta character in a string constant, this sets the |
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975 @tex |
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976 @math{2^{7}} |
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977 @end tex |
27193 | 978 @ifnottex |
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979 2**7 |
27193 | 980 @end ifnottex |
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981 bit of the character in the string. If the string is used in |
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982 @code{define-key} or @code{lookup-key}, this numeric code is translated |
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983 into the equivalent meta character. @xref{Character Type}. |
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984 |
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985 Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super, or alt |
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986 modifiers. |
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987 |
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988 @node Text Props and Strings |
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989 @subsubsection Text Properties in Strings |
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990 |
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991 A string can hold properties for the characters it contains, in |
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992 addition to the characters themselves. This enables programs that copy |
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993 text between strings and buffers to copy the text's properties with no |
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994 special effort. @xref{Text Properties}, for an explanation of what text |
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995 properties mean. Strings with text properties use a special read and |
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996 print syntax: |
6447 | 997 |
998 @example | |
999 #("@var{characters}" @var{property-data}...) | |
1000 @end example | |
1001 | |
1002 @noindent | |
1003 where @var{property-data} consists of zero or more elements, in groups | |
1004 of three as follows: | |
1005 | |
1006 @example | |
1007 @var{beg} @var{end} @var{plist} | |
1008 @end example | |
1009 | |
1010 @noindent | |
1011 The elements @var{beg} and @var{end} are integers, and together specify | |
1012 a range of indices in the string; @var{plist} is the property list for | |
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1013 that range. For example, |
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1014 |
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1015 @example |
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1016 #("foo bar" 0 3 (face bold) 3 4 nil 4 7 (face italic)) |
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1017 @end example |
6447 | 1018 |
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1019 @noindent |
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1020 represents a string whose textual contents are @samp{foo bar}, in which |
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1021 the first three characters have a @code{face} property with value |
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1022 @code{bold}, and the last three have a @code{face} property with value |
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1023 @code{italic}. (The fourth character has no text properties, so its |
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1024 property list is @code{nil}. It is not actually necessary to mention |
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1025 ranges with @code{nil} as the property list, since any characters not |
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1026 mentioned in any range will default to having no properties.) |
6447 | 1027 |
1028 @node Vector Type | |
1029 @subsection Vector Type | |
1030 | |
1031 A @dfn{vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type. It | |
1032 takes a constant amount of time to access any element of a vector. (In | |
1033 a list, the access time of an element is proportional to the distance of | |
1034 the element from the beginning of the list.) | |
1035 | |
1036 The printed representation of a vector consists of a left square | |
1037 bracket, the elements, and a right square bracket. This is also the | |
1038 read syntax. Like numbers and strings, vectors are considered constants | |
1039 for evaluation. | |
1040 | |
1041 @example | |
1042 [1 "two" (three)] ; @r{A vector of three elements.} | |
1043 @result{} [1 "two" (three)] | |
1044 @end example | |
1045 | |
1046 @xref{Vectors}, for functions that work with vectors. | |
1047 | |
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1048 @node Char-Table Type |
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1049 @subsection Char-Table Type |
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1050 |
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1051 A @dfn{char-table} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type, |
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1052 indexed by character codes. Char-tables have certain extra features to |
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1053 make them more useful for many jobs that involve assigning information |
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1054 to character codes---for example, a char-table can have a parent to |
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1055 inherit from, a default value, and a small number of extra slots to use for |
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1056 special purposes. A char-table can also specify a single value for |
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1057 a whole character set. |
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1058 |
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1059 The printed representation of a char-table is like a vector |
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1060 except that there is an extra @samp{#^} at the beginning. |
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1061 |
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1062 @xref{Char-Tables}, for special functions to operate on char-tables. |
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1063 Uses of char-tables include: |
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1064 |
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1065 @itemize @bullet |
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1066 @item |
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1067 Case tables (@pxref{Case Tables}). |
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1068 |
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1069 @item |
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1070 Character category tables (@pxref{Categories}). |
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1071 |
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1072 @item |
38788 | 1073 Display tables (@pxref{Display Tables}). |
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1074 |
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1075 @item |
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1076 Syntax tables (@pxref{Syntax Tables}). |
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1077 @end itemize |
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1078 |
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1079 @node Bool-Vector Type |
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1080 @subsection Bool-Vector Type |
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1081 |
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1082 A @dfn{bool-vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements that |
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1083 must be @code{t} or @code{nil}. |
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1084 |
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1085 The printed representation of a bool-vector is like a string, except |
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1086 that it begins with @samp{#&} followed by the length. The string |
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1087 constant that follows actually specifies the contents of the bool-vector |
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1088 as a bitmap---each ``character'' in the string contains 8 bits, which |
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1089 specify the next 8 elements of the bool-vector (1 stands for @code{t}, |
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1090 and 0 for @code{nil}). The least significant bits of the character |
53217
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1091 correspond to the lowest indices in the bool-vector. |
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1092 |
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1093 @example |
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1094 (make-bool-vector 3 t) |
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1095 @result{} #&3"^G" |
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1096 (make-bool-vector 3 nil) |
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1097 @result{} #&3"^@@" |
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1098 @end example |
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1099 |
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1100 @noindent |
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1101 These results make sense, because the binary code for @samp{C-g} is |
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1102 111 and @samp{C-@@} is the character with code 0. |
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1103 |
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1104 If the length is not a multiple of 8, the printed representation |
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1105 shows extra elements, but these extras really make no difference. For |
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1106 instance, in the next example, the two bool-vectors are equal, because |
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1107 only the first 3 bits are used: |
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1108 |
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1109 @example |
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1110 (equal #&3"\377" #&3"\007") |
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1111 @result{} t |
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1112 @end example |
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1113 |
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1114 @node Hash Table Type |
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1115 @subsection Hash Table Type |
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1116 |
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1117 A hash table is a very fast kind of lookup table, somewhat like an |
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1118 alist in that it maps keys to corresponding values, but much faster. |
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1119 Hash tables are a new feature in Emacs 21; they have no read syntax, and |
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1120 print using hash notation. @xref{Hash Tables}. |
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1121 |
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1122 @example |
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1123 (make-hash-table) |
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1124 @result{} #<hash-table 'eql nil 0/65 0x83af980> |
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1125 @end example |
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1126 |
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1127 @node Function Type |
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1128 @subsection Function Type |
6447 | 1129 |
1130 Just as functions in other programming languages are executable, | |
1131 @dfn{Lisp function} objects are pieces of executable code. However, | |
1132 functions in Lisp are primarily Lisp objects, and only secondarily the | |
1133 text which represents them. These Lisp objects are lambda expressions: | |
1134 lists whose first element is the symbol @code{lambda} (@pxref{Lambda | |
1135 Expressions}). | |
1136 | |
1137 In most programming languages, it is impossible to have a function | |
1138 without a name. In Lisp, a function has no intrinsic name. A lambda | |
1139 expression is also called an @dfn{anonymous function} (@pxref{Anonymous | |
1140 Functions}). A named function in Lisp is actually a symbol with a valid | |
1141 function in its function cell (@pxref{Defining Functions}). | |
1142 | |
1143 Most of the time, functions are called when their names are written in | |
1144 Lisp expressions in Lisp programs. However, you can construct or obtain | |
1145 a function object at run time and then call it with the primitive | |
1146 functions @code{funcall} and @code{apply}. @xref{Calling Functions}. | |
1147 | |
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1148 @node Macro Type |
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1149 @subsection Macro Type |
6447 | 1150 |
1151 A @dfn{Lisp macro} is a user-defined construct that extends the Lisp | |
1152 language. It is represented as an object much like a function, but with | |
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1153 different argument-passing semantics. A Lisp macro has the form of a |
6447 | 1154 list whose first element is the symbol @code{macro} and whose @sc{cdr} |
1155 is a Lisp function object, including the @code{lambda} symbol. | |
1156 | |
1157 Lisp macro objects are usually defined with the built-in | |
1158 @code{defmacro} function, but any list that begins with @code{macro} is | |
1159 a macro as far as Emacs is concerned. @xref{Macros}, for an explanation | |
1160 of how to write a macro. | |
1161 | |
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1162 @strong{Warning}: Lisp macros and keyboard macros (@pxref{Keyboard |
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1163 Macros}) are entirely different things. When we use the word ``macro'' |
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1164 without qualification, we mean a Lisp macro, not a keyboard macro. |
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1165 |
6447 | 1166 @node Primitive Function Type |
1167 @subsection Primitive Function Type | |
1168 @cindex special forms | |
1169 | |
1170 A @dfn{primitive function} is a function callable from Lisp but | |
1171 written in the C programming language. Primitive functions are also | |
1172 called @dfn{subrs} or @dfn{built-in functions}. (The word ``subr'' is | |
1173 derived from ``subroutine''.) Most primitive functions evaluate all | |
1174 their arguments when they are called. A primitive function that does | |
1175 not evaluate all its arguments is called a @dfn{special form} | |
1176 (@pxref{Special Forms}).@refill | |
1177 | |
1178 It does not matter to the caller of a function whether the function is | |
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1179 primitive. However, this does matter if you try to redefine a primitive |
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1180 with a function written in Lisp. The reason is that the primitive |
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1181 function may be called directly from C code. Calls to the redefined |
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1182 function from Lisp will use the new definition, but calls from C code |
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1183 may still use the built-in definition. Therefore, @strong{we discourage |
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1184 redefinition of primitive functions}. |
6447 | 1185 |
1186 The term @dfn{function} refers to all Emacs functions, whether written | |
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1187 in Lisp or C. @xref{Function Type}, for information about the |
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1188 functions written in Lisp. |
6447 | 1189 |
1190 Primitive functions have no read syntax and print in hash notation | |
1191 with the name of the subroutine. | |
1192 | |
1193 @example | |
1194 @group | |
1195 (symbol-function 'car) ; @r{Access the function cell} | |
1196 ; @r{of the symbol.} | |
1197 @result{} #<subr car> | |
1198 (subrp (symbol-function 'car)) ; @r{Is this a primitive function?} | |
1199 @result{} t ; @r{Yes.} | |
1200 @end group | |
1201 @end example | |
1202 | |
1203 @node Byte-Code Type | |
1204 @subsection Byte-Code Function Type | |
1205 | |
1206 The byte compiler produces @dfn{byte-code function objects}. | |
1207 Internally, a byte-code function object is much like a vector; however, | |
1208 the evaluator handles this data type specially when it appears as a | |
1209 function to be called. @xref{Byte Compilation}, for information about | |
1210 the byte compiler. | |
1211 | |
12098 | 1212 The printed representation and read syntax for a byte-code function |
1213 object is like that for a vector, with an additional @samp{#} before the | |
1214 opening @samp{[}. | |
6447 | 1215 |
1216 @node Autoload Type | |
1217 @subsection Autoload Type | |
1218 | |
1219 An @dfn{autoload object} is a list whose first element is the symbol | |
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1220 @code{autoload}. It is stored as the function definition of a symbol, |
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1221 where it serves as a placeholder for the real definition. The autoload |
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1222 object says that the real definition is found in a file of Lisp code |
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1223 that should be loaded when necessary. It contains the name of the file, |
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1224 plus some other information about the real definition. |
6447 | 1225 |
1226 After the file has been loaded, the symbol should have a new function | |
1227 definition that is not an autoload object. The new definition is then | |
1228 called as if it had been there to begin with. From the user's point of | |
1229 view, the function call works as expected, using the function definition | |
1230 in the loaded file. | |
1231 | |
1232 An autoload object is usually created with the function | |
1233 @code{autoload}, which stores the object in the function cell of a | |
1234 symbol. @xref{Autoload}, for more details. | |
1235 | |
1236 @node Editing Types | |
1237 @section Editing Types | |
1238 @cindex editing types | |
1239 | |
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1240 The types in the previous section are used for general programming |
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1241 purposes, and most of them are common to most Lisp dialects. Emacs Lisp |
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1242 provides several additional data types for purposes connected with |
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1243 editing. |
6447 | 1244 |
1245 @menu | |
1246 * Buffer Type:: The basic object of editing. | |
1247 * Marker Type:: A position in a buffer. | |
1248 * Window Type:: Buffers are displayed in windows. | |
1249 * Frame Type:: Windows subdivide frames. | |
1250 * Window Configuration Type:: Recording the way a frame is subdivided. | |
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1251 * Frame Configuration Type:: Recording the status of all frames. |
6447 | 1252 * Process Type:: A process running on the underlying OS. |
1253 * Stream Type:: Receive or send characters. | |
1254 * Keymap Type:: What function a keystroke invokes. | |
1255 * Overlay Type:: How an overlay is represented. | |
1256 @end menu | |
1257 | |
1258 @node Buffer Type | |
1259 @subsection Buffer Type | |
1260 | |
1261 A @dfn{buffer} is an object that holds text that can be edited | |
1262 (@pxref{Buffers}). Most buffers hold the contents of a disk file | |
1263 (@pxref{Files}) so they can be edited, but some are used for other | |
1264 purposes. Most buffers are also meant to be seen by the user, and | |
1265 therefore displayed, at some time, in a window (@pxref{Windows}). But a | |
1266 buffer need not be displayed in any window. | |
1267 | |
1268 The contents of a buffer are much like a string, but buffers are not | |
1269 used like strings in Emacs Lisp, and the available operations are | |
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1270 different. For example, you can insert text efficiently into an |
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1271 existing buffer, altering the buffer's contents, whereas ``inserting'' |
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1272 text into a string requires concatenating substrings, and the result is |
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1273 an entirely new string object. |
6447 | 1274 |
1275 Each buffer has a designated position called @dfn{point} | |
1276 (@pxref{Positions}). At any time, one buffer is the @dfn{current | |
1277 buffer}. Most editing commands act on the contents of the current | |
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1278 buffer in the neighborhood of point. Many of the standard Emacs |
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1279 functions manipulate or test the characters in the current buffer; a |
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1280 whole chapter in this manual is devoted to describing these functions |
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1281 (@pxref{Text}). |
6447 | 1282 |
1283 Several other data structures are associated with each buffer: | |
1284 | |
1285 @itemize @bullet | |
1286 @item | |
1287 a local syntax table (@pxref{Syntax Tables}); | |
1288 | |
1289 @item | |
1290 a local keymap (@pxref{Keymaps}); and, | |
1291 | |
1292 @item | |
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1293 a list of buffer-local variable bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local Variables}). |
12098 | 1294 |
1295 @item | |
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1296 overlays (@pxref{Overlays}). |
12098 | 1297 |
1298 @item | |
1299 text properties for the text in the buffer (@pxref{Text Properties}). | |
6447 | 1300 @end itemize |
1301 | |
1302 @noindent | |
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1303 The local keymap and variable list contain entries that individually |
6447 | 1304 override global bindings or values. These are used to customize the |
1305 behavior of programs in different buffers, without actually changing the | |
1306 programs. | |
1307 | |
12098 | 1308 A buffer may be @dfn{indirect}, which means it shares the text |
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1309 of another buffer, but presents it differently. @xref{Indirect Buffers}. |
12098 | 1310 |
1311 Buffers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, showing the | |
6447 | 1312 buffer name. |
1313 | |
1314 @example | |
1315 @group | |
1316 (current-buffer) | |
1317 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> | |
1318 @end group | |
1319 @end example | |
1320 | |
1321 @node Marker Type | |
1322 @subsection Marker Type | |
1323 | |
1324 A @dfn{marker} denotes a position in a specific buffer. Markers | |
1325 therefore have two components: one for the buffer, and one for the | |
1326 position. Changes in the buffer's text automatically relocate the | |
1327 position value as necessary to ensure that the marker always points | |
1328 between the same two characters in the buffer. | |
1329 | |
1330 Markers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1331 current character position and the name of the buffer. | |
1332 | |
1333 @example | |
1334 @group | |
1335 (point-marker) | |
1336 @result{} #<marker at 10779 in objects.texi> | |
1337 @end group | |
1338 @end example | |
1339 | |
1340 @xref{Markers}, for information on how to test, create, copy, and move | |
1341 markers. | |
1342 | |
1343 @node Window Type | |
1344 @subsection Window Type | |
1345 | |
1346 A @dfn{window} describes the portion of the terminal screen that Emacs | |
1347 uses to display a buffer. Every window has one associated buffer, whose | |
1348 contents appear in the window. By contrast, a given buffer may appear | |
1349 in one window, no window, or several windows. | |
1350 | |
1351 Though many windows may exist simultaneously, at any time one window | |
1352 is designated the @dfn{selected window}. This is the window where the | |
1353 cursor is (usually) displayed when Emacs is ready for a command. The | |
1354 selected window usually displays the current buffer, but this is not | |
1355 necessarily the case. | |
1356 | |
1357 Windows are grouped on the screen into frames; each window belongs to | |
1358 one and only one frame. @xref{Frame Type}. | |
1359 | |
1360 Windows have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1361 window number and the name of the buffer being displayed. The window | |
1362 numbers exist to identify windows uniquely, since the buffer displayed | |
1363 in any given window can change frequently. | |
1364 | |
1365 @example | |
1366 @group | |
1367 (selected-window) | |
1368 @result{} #<window 1 on objects.texi> | |
1369 @end group | |
1370 @end example | |
1371 | |
1372 @xref{Windows}, for a description of the functions that work on windows. | |
1373 | |
1374 @node Frame Type | |
1375 @subsection Frame Type | |
1376 | |
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1377 A @dfn{frame} is a rectangle on the screen that contains one or more |
6447 | 1378 Emacs windows. A frame initially contains a single main window (plus |
1379 perhaps a minibuffer window) which you can subdivide vertically or | |
1380 horizontally into smaller windows. | |
1381 | |
1382 Frames have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1383 frame's title, plus its address in core (useful to identify the frame | |
1384 uniquely). | |
1385 | |
1386 @example | |
1387 @group | |
1388 (selected-frame) | |
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1389 @result{} #<frame emacs@@psilocin.gnu.org 0xdac80> |
6447 | 1390 @end group |
1391 @end example | |
1392 | |
1393 @xref{Frames}, for a description of the functions that work on frames. | |
1394 | |
1395 @node Window Configuration Type | |
1396 @subsection Window Configuration Type | |
1397 @cindex screen layout | |
1398 | |
1399 A @dfn{window configuration} stores information about the positions, | |
1400 sizes, and contents of the windows in a frame, so you can recreate the | |
1401 same arrangement of windows later. | |
1402 | |
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1403 Window configurations do not have a read syntax; their print syntax |
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1404 looks like @samp{#<window-configuration>}. @xref{Window |
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1405 Configurations}, for a description of several functions related to |
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1406 window configurations. |
6447 | 1407 |
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1408 @node Frame Configuration Type |
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1409 @subsection Frame Configuration Type |
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1410 @cindex screen layout |
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1411 |
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1412 A @dfn{frame configuration} stores information about the positions, |
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1413 sizes, and contents of the windows in all frames. It is actually |
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1414 a list whose @sc{car} is @code{frame-configuration} and whose |
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1415 @sc{cdr} is an alist. Each alist element describes one frame, |
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1416 which appears as the @sc{car} of that element. |
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1417 |
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1418 @xref{Frame Configurations}, for a description of several functions |
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1419 related to frame configurations. |
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1420 |
6447 | 1421 @node Process Type |
1422 @subsection Process Type | |
1423 | |
1424 The word @dfn{process} usually means a running program. Emacs itself | |
1425 runs in a process of this sort. However, in Emacs Lisp, a process is a | |
1426 Lisp object that designates a subprocess created by the Emacs process. | |
1427 Programs such as shells, GDB, ftp, and compilers, running in | |
1428 subprocesses of Emacs, extend the capabilities of Emacs. | |
1429 | |
1430 An Emacs subprocess takes textual input from Emacs and returns textual | |
1431 output to Emacs for further manipulation. Emacs can also send signals | |
1432 to the subprocess. | |
1433 | |
1434 Process objects have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, | |
1435 giving the name of the process: | |
1436 | |
1437 @example | |
1438 @group | |
1439 (process-list) | |
1440 @result{} (#<process shell>) | |
1441 @end group | |
1442 @end example | |
1443 | |
1444 @xref{Processes}, for information about functions that create, delete, | |
1445 return information about, send input or signals to, and receive output | |
1446 from processes. | |
1447 | |
1448 @node Stream Type | |
1449 @subsection Stream Type | |
1450 | |
1451 A @dfn{stream} is an object that can be used as a source or sink for | |
1452 characters---either to supply characters for input or to accept them as | |
1453 output. Many different types can be used this way: markers, buffers, | |
1454 strings, and functions. Most often, input streams (character sources) | |
1455 obtain characters from the keyboard, a buffer, or a file, and output | |
1456 streams (character sinks) send characters to a buffer, such as a | |
1457 @file{*Help*} buffer, or to the echo area. | |
1458 | |
1459 The object @code{nil}, in addition to its other meanings, may be used | |
1460 as a stream. It stands for the value of the variable | |
1461 @code{standard-input} or @code{standard-output}. Also, the object | |
1462 @code{t} as a stream specifies input using the minibuffer | |
1463 (@pxref{Minibuffers}) or output in the echo area (@pxref{The Echo | |
1464 Area}). | |
1465 | |
1466 Streams have no special printed representation or read syntax, and | |
1467 print as whatever primitive type they are. | |
1468 | |
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1469 @xref{Read and Print}, for a description of functions |
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1470 related to streams, including parsing and printing functions. |
6447 | 1471 |
1472 @node Keymap Type | |
1473 @subsection Keymap Type | |
1474 | |
1475 A @dfn{keymap} maps keys typed by the user to commands. This mapping | |
1476 controls how the user's command input is executed. A keymap is actually | |
1477 a list whose @sc{car} is the symbol @code{keymap}. | |
1478 | |
1479 @xref{Keymaps}, for information about creating keymaps, handling prefix | |
1480 keys, local as well as global keymaps, and changing key bindings. | |
1481 | |
1482 @node Overlay Type | |
1483 @subsection Overlay Type | |
1484 | |
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1485 An @dfn{overlay} specifies properties that apply to a part of a |
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1486 buffer. Each overlay applies to a specified range of the buffer, and |
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1487 contains a property list (a list whose elements are alternating property |
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1488 names and values). Overlay properties are used to present parts of the |
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1489 buffer temporarily in a different display style. Overlays have no read |
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1490 syntax, and print in hash notation, giving the buffer name and range of |
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1491 positions. |
6447 | 1492 |
12098 | 1493 @xref{Overlays}, for how to create and use overlays. |
6447 | 1494 |
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1495 @node Circular Objects |
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1496 @section Read Syntax for Circular Objects |
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1497 @cindex circular structure, read syntax |
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1498 @cindex shared structure, read syntax |
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1499 @cindex @samp{#@var{n}=} read syntax |
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1500 @cindex @samp{#@var{n}#} read syntax |
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1501 |
54037 | 1502 In Emacs 21, to represent shared or circular structures within a |
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1503 complex of Lisp objects, you can use the reader constructs |
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1504 @samp{#@var{n}=} and @samp{#@var{n}#}. |
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1505 |
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1506 Use @code{#@var{n}=} before an object to label it for later reference; |
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1507 subsequently, you can use @code{#@var{n}#} to refer the same object in |
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1508 another place. Here, @var{n} is some integer. For example, here is how |
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1509 to make a list in which the first element recurs as the third element: |
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1510 |
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1511 @example |
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1512 (#1=(a) b #1#) |
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1513 @end example |
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1514 |
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1515 @noindent |
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1516 This differs from ordinary syntax such as this |
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1517 |
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1518 @example |
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1519 ((a) b (a)) |
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1520 @end example |
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1521 |
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1522 @noindent |
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1523 which would result in a list whose first and third elements |
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1524 look alike but are not the same Lisp object. This shows the difference: |
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1525 |
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1526 @example |
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1527 (prog1 nil |
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1528 (setq x '(#1=(a) b #1#))) |
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1529 (eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x)) |
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1530 @result{} t |
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1531 (setq x '((a) b (a))) |
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1532 (eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x)) |
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1533 @result{} nil |
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1534 @end example |
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1535 |
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1536 You can also use the same syntax to make a circular structure, which |
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1537 appears as an ``element'' within itself. Here is an example: |
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1538 |
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1539 @example |
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1540 #1=(a #1#) |
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1541 @end example |
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1542 |
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1543 @noindent |
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1544 This makes a list whose second element is the list itself. |
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1545 Here's how you can see that it really works: |
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1546 |
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1547 @example |
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1548 (prog1 nil |
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1549 (setq x '#1=(a #1#))) |
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1550 (eq x (cadr x)) |
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1551 @result{} t |
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1552 @end example |
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1553 |
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1554 The Lisp printer can produce this syntax to record circular and shared |
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1555 structure in a Lisp object, if you bind the variable @code{print-circle} |
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1556 to a non-@code{nil} value. @xref{Output Variables}. |
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1557 |
6447 | 1558 @node Type Predicates |
1559 @section Type Predicates | |
1560 @cindex predicates | |
1561 @cindex type checking | |
1562 @kindex wrong-type-argument | |
1563 | |
1564 The Emacs Lisp interpreter itself does not perform type checking on | |
1565 the actual arguments passed to functions when they are called. It could | |
1566 not do so, since function arguments in Lisp do not have declared data | |
1567 types, as they do in other programming languages. It is therefore up to | |
1568 the individual function to test whether each actual argument belongs to | |
1569 a type that the function can use. | |
1570 | |
1571 All built-in functions do check the types of their actual arguments | |
1572 when appropriate, and signal a @code{wrong-type-argument} error if an | |
1573 argument is of the wrong type. For example, here is what happens if you | |
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1574 pass an argument to @code{+} that it cannot handle: |
6447 | 1575 |
1576 @example | |
1577 @group | |
1578 (+ 2 'a) | |
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1579 @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, a |
6447 | 1580 @end group |
1581 @end example | |
1582 | |
1583 @cindex type predicates | |
1584 @cindex testing types | |
12067 | 1585 If you want your program to handle different types differently, you |
1586 must do explicit type checking. The most common way to check the type | |
1587 of an object is to call a @dfn{type predicate} function. Emacs has a | |
1588 type predicate for each type, as well as some predicates for | |
1589 combinations of types. | |
1590 | |
1591 A type predicate function takes one argument; it returns @code{t} if | |
1592 the argument belongs to the appropriate type, and @code{nil} otherwise. | |
1593 Following a general Lisp convention for predicate functions, most type | |
1594 predicates' names end with @samp{p}. | |
1595 | |
1596 Here is an example which uses the predicates @code{listp} to check for | |
1597 a list and @code{symbolp} to check for a symbol. | |
6447 | 1598 |
12067 | 1599 @example |
1600 (defun add-on (x) | |
1601 (cond ((symbolp x) | |
1602 ;; If X is a symbol, put it on LIST. | |
1603 (setq list (cons x list))) | |
1604 ((listp x) | |
1605 ;; If X is a list, add its elements to LIST. | |
1606 (setq list (append x list))) | |
1607 (t | |
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1608 ;; We handle only symbols and lists. |
12067 | 1609 (error "Invalid argument %s in add-on" x)))) |
1610 @end example | |
1611 | |
1612 Here is a table of predefined type predicates, in alphabetical order, | |
6447 | 1613 with references to further information. |
1614 | |
1615 @table @code | |
1616 @item atom | |
1617 @xref{List-related Predicates, atom}. | |
1618 | |
1619 @item arrayp | |
1620 @xref{Array Functions, arrayp}. | |
1621 | |
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1622 @item bool-vector-p |
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1623 @xref{Bool-Vectors, bool-vector-p}. |
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1624 |
6447 | 1625 @item bufferp |
1626 @xref{Buffer Basics, bufferp}. | |
1627 | |
1628 @item byte-code-function-p | |
1629 @xref{Byte-Code Type, byte-code-function-p}. | |
1630 | |
1631 @item case-table-p | |
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1632 @xref{Case Tables, case-table-p}. |
6447 | 1633 |
1634 @item char-or-string-p | |
1635 @xref{Predicates for Strings, char-or-string-p}. | |
1636 | |
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1637 @item char-table-p |
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1638 @xref{Char-Tables, char-table-p}. |
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1639 |
6447 | 1640 @item commandp |
1641 @xref{Interactive Call, commandp}. | |
1642 | |
1643 @item consp | |
1644 @xref{List-related Predicates, consp}. | |
1645 | |
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1646 @item display-table-p |
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1647 @xref{Display Tables, display-table-p}. |
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1648 |
6447 | 1649 @item floatp |
1650 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, floatp}. | |
1651 | |
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1652 @item frame-configuration-p |
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1653 @xref{Frame Configurations, frame-configuration-p}. |
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1654 |
6447 | 1655 @item frame-live-p |
1656 @xref{Deleting Frames, frame-live-p}. | |
1657 | |
1658 @item framep | |
1659 @xref{Frames, framep}. | |
1660 | |
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1661 @item functionp |
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1662 @xref{Functions, functionp}. |
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1663 |
6447 | 1664 @item integer-or-marker-p |
1665 @xref{Predicates on Markers, integer-or-marker-p}. | |
1666 | |
1667 @item integerp | |
1668 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, integerp}. | |
1669 | |
1670 @item keymapp | |
1671 @xref{Creating Keymaps, keymapp}. | |
1672 | |
27528 | 1673 @item keywordp |
1674 @xref{Constant Variables}. | |
1675 | |
6447 | 1676 @item listp |
1677 @xref{List-related Predicates, listp}. | |
1678 | |
1679 @item markerp | |
1680 @xref{Predicates on Markers, markerp}. | |
1681 | |
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1682 @item wholenump |
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1683 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, wholenump}. |
6447 | 1684 |
1685 @item nlistp | |
1686 @xref{List-related Predicates, nlistp}. | |
1687 | |
1688 @item numberp | |
1689 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, numberp}. | |
1690 | |
1691 @item number-or-marker-p | |
1692 @xref{Predicates on Markers, number-or-marker-p}. | |
1693 | |
1694 @item overlayp | |
1695 @xref{Overlays, overlayp}. | |
1696 | |
1697 @item processp | |
1698 @xref{Processes, processp}. | |
1699 | |
1700 @item sequencep | |
1701 @xref{Sequence Functions, sequencep}. | |
1702 | |
1703 @item stringp | |
1704 @xref{Predicates for Strings, stringp}. | |
1705 | |
1706 @item subrp | |
1707 @xref{Function Cells, subrp}. | |
1708 | |
1709 @item symbolp | |
1710 @xref{Symbols, symbolp}. | |
1711 | |
1712 @item syntax-table-p | |
1713 @xref{Syntax Tables, syntax-table-p}. | |
1714 | |
1715 @item user-variable-p | |
1716 @xref{Defining Variables, user-variable-p}. | |
1717 | |
1718 @item vectorp | |
1719 @xref{Vectors, vectorp}. | |
1720 | |
1721 @item window-configuration-p | |
1722 @xref{Window Configurations, window-configuration-p}. | |
1723 | |
1724 @item window-live-p | |
1725 @xref{Deleting Windows, window-live-p}. | |
1726 | |
1727 @item windowp | |
1728 @xref{Basic Windows, windowp}. | |
1729 @end table | |
1730 | |
12067 | 1731 The most general way to check the type of an object is to call the |
1732 function @code{type-of}. Recall that each object belongs to one and | |
1733 only one primitive type; @code{type-of} tells you which one (@pxref{Lisp | |
1734 Data Types}). But @code{type-of} knows nothing about non-primitive | |
1735 types. In most cases, it is more convenient to use type predicates than | |
1736 @code{type-of}. | |
1737 | |
1738 @defun type-of object | |
1739 This function returns a symbol naming the primitive type of | |
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1740 @var{object}. The value is one of the symbols @code{symbol}, |
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1741 @code{integer}, @code{float}, @code{string}, @code{cons}, @code{vector}, |
26188 | 1742 @code{char-table}, @code{bool-vector}, @code{hash-table}, @code{subr}, |
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1743 @code{compiled-function}, @code{marker}, @code{overlay}, @code{window}, |
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1744 @code{buffer}, @code{frame}, @code{process}, or |
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1745 @code{window-configuration}. |
12067 | 1746 |
1747 @example | |
1748 (type-of 1) | |
1749 @result{} integer | |
1750 (type-of 'nil) | |
1751 @result{} symbol | |
1752 (type-of '()) ; @r{@code{()} is @code{nil}.} | |
1753 @result{} symbol | |
1754 (type-of '(x)) | |
1755 @result{} cons | |
1756 @end example | |
1757 @end defun | |
1758 | |
6447 | 1759 @node Equality Predicates |
1760 @section Equality Predicates | |
1761 @cindex equality | |
1762 | |
1763 Here we describe two functions that test for equality between any two | |
1764 objects. Other functions test equality between objects of specific | |
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1765 types, e.g., strings. For these predicates, see the appropriate chapter |
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1766 describing the data type. |
6447 | 1767 |
1768 @defun eq object1 object2 | |
1769 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are | |
1770 the same object, @code{nil} otherwise. The ``same object'' means that a | |
1771 change in one will be reflected by the same change in the other. | |
1772 | |
1773 @code{eq} returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are | |
1774 integers with the same value. Also, since symbol names are normally | |
1775 unique, if the arguments are symbols with the same name, they are | |
1776 @code{eq}. For other types (e.g., lists, vectors, strings), two | |
1777 arguments with the same contents or elements are not necessarily | |
1778 @code{eq} to each other: they are @code{eq} only if they are the same | |
1779 object. | |
1780 | |
1781 @example | |
1782 @group | |
1783 (eq 'foo 'foo) | |
1784 @result{} t | |
1785 @end group | |
1786 | |
1787 @group | |
1788 (eq 456 456) | |
1789 @result{} t | |
1790 @end group | |
1791 | |
1792 @group | |
1793 (eq "asdf" "asdf") | |
1794 @result{} nil | |
1795 @end group | |
1796 | |
1797 @group | |
1798 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1799 @result{} nil | |
1800 @end group | |
1801 | |
1802 @group | |
1803 (setq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1804 @result{} (1 (2 (3))) | |
1805 (eq foo foo) | |
1806 @result{} t | |
1807 (eq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1808 @result{} nil | |
1809 @end group | |
1810 | |
1811 @group | |
1812 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1813 @result{} nil | |
1814 @end group | |
1815 | |
1816 @group | |
1817 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1818 @result{} nil | |
1819 @end group | |
1820 @end example | |
1821 | |
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1822 The @code{make-symbol} function returns an uninterned symbol, distinct |
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1823 from the symbol that is used if you write the name in a Lisp expression. |
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1824 Distinct symbols with the same name are not @code{eq}. @xref{Creating |
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1825 Symbols}. |
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1826 |
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1827 @example |
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1828 @group |
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1829 (eq (make-symbol "foo") 'foo) |
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1830 @result{} nil |
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1831 @end group |
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1832 @end example |
6447 | 1833 @end defun |
1834 | |
1835 @defun equal object1 object2 | |
1836 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} have | |
1837 equal components, @code{nil} otherwise. Whereas @code{eq} tests if its | |
1838 arguments are the same object, @code{equal} looks inside nonidentical | |
26188 | 1839 arguments to see if their elements or contents are the same. So, if two |
1840 objects are @code{eq}, they are @code{equal}, but the converse is not | |
1841 always true. | |
6447 | 1842 |
1843 @example | |
1844 @group | |
1845 (equal 'foo 'foo) | |
1846 @result{} t | |
1847 @end group | |
1848 | |
1849 @group | |
1850 (equal 456 456) | |
1851 @result{} t | |
1852 @end group | |
1853 | |
1854 @group | |
1855 (equal "asdf" "asdf") | |
1856 @result{} t | |
1857 @end group | |
1858 @group | |
1859 (eq "asdf" "asdf") | |
1860 @result{} nil | |
1861 @end group | |
1862 | |
1863 @group | |
1864 (equal '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1865 @result{} t | |
1866 @end group | |
1867 @group | |
1868 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1869 @result{} nil | |
1870 @end group | |
1871 | |
1872 @group | |
1873 (equal [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1874 @result{} t | |
1875 @end group | |
1876 @group | |
1877 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1878 @result{} nil | |
1879 @end group | |
1880 | |
1881 @group | |
1882 (equal (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1883 @result{} t | |
1884 @end group | |
1885 | |
1886 @group | |
1887 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1888 @result{} nil | |
1889 @end group | |
1890 @end example | |
1891 | |
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1892 Comparison of strings is case-sensitive, but does not take account of |
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1893 text properties---it compares only the characters in the strings. For |
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1894 technical reasons, a unibyte string and a multibyte string are |
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1895 @code{equal} if and only if they contain the same sequence of |
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1896 character codes and all these codes are either in the range 0 through |
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1897 127 (@acronym{ASCII}) or 160 through 255 (@code{eight-bit-graphic}). |
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1898 (@pxref{Text Representations}). |
6447 | 1899 |
1900 @example | |
1901 @group | |
1902 (equal "asdf" "ASDF") | |
1903 @result{} nil | |
1904 @end group | |
1905 @end example | |
12098 | 1906 |
26188 | 1907 However, two distinct buffers are never considered @code{equal}, even if |
1908 their textual contents are the same. | |
6447 | 1909 @end defun |
1910 | |
26188 | 1911 The test for equality is implemented recursively; for example, given |
1912 two cons cells @var{x} and @var{y}, @code{(equal @var{x} @var{y})} | |
1913 returns @code{t} if and only if both the expressions below return | |
1914 @code{t}: | |
1915 | |
1916 @example | |
1917 (equal (car @var{x}) (car @var{y})) | |
1918 (equal (cdr @var{x}) (cdr @var{y})) | |
1919 @end example | |
1920 | |
1921 Because of this recursive method, circular lists may therefore cause | |
1922 infinite recursion (leading to an error). | |
52401 | 1923 |
1924 @ignore | |
1925 arch-tag: 9711a66e-4749-4265-9e8c-972d55b67096 | |
1926 @end ignore |