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annotate lispref/strings.texi @ 74253:6d9077dbc31a
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date | Mon, 27 Nov 2006 16:00:37 +0000 |
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6550 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2003, |
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4 @c 2004, 2005, 2006 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6550 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/strings | |
7 @node Strings and Characters, Lists, Numbers, Top | |
8 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
9 @chapter Strings and Characters | |
10 @cindex strings | |
11 @cindex character arrays | |
12 @cindex characters | |
13 @cindex bytes | |
14 | |
15 A string in Emacs Lisp is an array that contains an ordered sequence | |
16 of characters. Strings are used as names of symbols, buffers, and | |
24862 | 17 files; to send messages to users; to hold text being copied between |
18 buffers; and for many other purposes. Because strings are so important, | |
6550 | 19 Emacs Lisp has many functions expressly for manipulating them. Emacs |
20 Lisp programs use strings more often than individual characters. | |
21 | |
22 @xref{Strings of Events}, for special considerations for strings of | |
23 keyboard character events. | |
24 | |
25 @menu | |
26 * Basics: String Basics. Basic properties of strings and characters. | |
27 * Predicates for Strings:: Testing whether an object is a string or char. | |
28 * Creating Strings:: Functions to allocate new strings. | |
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29 * Modifying Strings:: Altering the contents of an existing string. |
6550 | 30 * Text Comparison:: Comparing characters or strings. |
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31 * String Conversion:: Converting to and from characters and strings. |
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32 * Formatting Strings:: @code{format}: Emacs's analogue of @code{printf}. |
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33 * Case Conversion:: Case conversion functions. |
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34 * Case Tables:: Customizing case conversion. |
6550 | 35 @end menu |
36 | |
37 @node String Basics | |
38 @section String and Character Basics | |
39 | |
24862 | 40 Characters are represented in Emacs Lisp as integers; |
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41 whether an integer is a character or not is determined only by how it is |
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42 used. Thus, strings really contain integers. |
6550 | 43 |
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44 The length of a string (like any array) is fixed, and cannot be |
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45 altered once the string exists. Strings in Lisp are @emph{not} |
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46 terminated by a distinguished character code. (By contrast, strings in |
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47 C are terminated by a character with @acronym{ASCII} code 0.) |
6550 | 48 |
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49 Since strings are arrays, and therefore sequences as well, you can |
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50 operate on them with the general array and sequence functions. |
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51 (@xref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}.) For example, you can access or |
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52 change individual characters in a string using the functions @code{aref} |
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53 and @code{aset} (@pxref{Array Functions}). |
6550 | 54 |
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55 There are two text representations for non-@acronym{ASCII} characters in |
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56 Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte and multibyte (@pxref{Text |
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57 Representations}). An @acronym{ASCII} character always occupies one byte in a |
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58 string; in fact, when a string is all @acronym{ASCII}, there is no real |
24862 | 59 difference between the unibyte and multibyte representations. |
60 For most Lisp programming, you don't need to be concerned with these two | |
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61 representations. |
6550 | 62 |
63 Sometimes key sequences are represented as strings. When a string is | |
64 a key sequence, string elements in the range 128 to 255 represent meta | |
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65 characters (which are large integers) rather than character |
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66 codes in the range 128 to 255. |
6550 | 67 |
68 Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super or alt | |
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69 modifiers; they can hold @acronym{ASCII} control characters, but no other |
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70 control characters. They do not distinguish case in @acronym{ASCII} control |
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71 characters. If you want to store such characters in a sequence, such as |
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72 a key sequence, you must use a vector instead of a string. |
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73 @xref{Character Type}, for more information about the representation of meta |
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74 and other modifiers for keyboard input characters. |
6550 | 75 |
12098 | 76 Strings are useful for holding regular expressions. You can also |
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77 match regular expressions against strings with @code{string-match} |
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78 (@pxref{Regexp Search}). The functions @code{match-string} |
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79 (@pxref{Simple Match Data}) and @code{replace-match} (@pxref{Replacing |
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80 Match}) are useful for decomposing and modifying strings after |
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81 matching regular expressions against them. |
12098 | 82 |
6550 | 83 Like a buffer, a string can contain text properties for the characters |
84 in it, as well as the characters themselves. @xref{Text Properties}. | |
12098 | 85 All the Lisp primitives that copy text from strings to buffers or other |
86 strings also copy the properties of the characters being copied. | |
6550 | 87 |
88 @xref{Text}, for information about functions that display strings or | |
89 copy them into buffers. @xref{Character Type}, and @ref{String Type}, | |
90 for information about the syntax of characters and strings. | |
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91 @xref{Non-ASCII Characters}, for functions to convert between text |
24862 | 92 representations and to encode and decode character codes. |
6550 | 93 |
94 @node Predicates for Strings | |
95 @section The Predicates for Strings | |
96 | |
97 For more information about general sequence and array predicates, | |
98 see @ref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}, and @ref{Arrays}. | |
99 | |
100 @defun stringp object | |
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101 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a string, @code{nil} |
6550 | 102 otherwise. |
103 @end defun | |
104 | |
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105 @defun string-or-null-p object |
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106 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a string or nil, |
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107 @code{nil} otherwise. |
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108 @end defun |
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109 |
6550 | 110 @defun char-or-string-p object |
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111 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a string or a |
6550 | 112 character (i.e., an integer), @code{nil} otherwise. |
113 @end defun | |
114 | |
115 @node Creating Strings | |
116 @section Creating Strings | |
117 | |
118 The following functions create strings, either from scratch, or by | |
119 putting strings together, or by taking them apart. | |
120 | |
121 @defun make-string count character | |
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122 This function returns a string made up of @var{count} repetitions of |
6550 | 123 @var{character}. If @var{count} is negative, an error is signaled. |
124 | |
125 @example | |
126 (make-string 5 ?x) | |
127 @result{} "xxxxx" | |
128 (make-string 0 ?x) | |
129 @result{} "" | |
130 @end example | |
131 | |
132 Other functions to compare with this one include @code{char-to-string} | |
133 (@pxref{String Conversion}), @code{make-vector} (@pxref{Vectors}), and | |
134 @code{make-list} (@pxref{Building Lists}). | |
135 @end defun | |
136 | |
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137 @defun string &rest characters |
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138 This returns a string containing the characters @var{characters}. |
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139 |
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140 @example |
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141 (string ?a ?b ?c) |
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142 @result{} "abc" |
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143 @end example |
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144 @end defun |
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145 |
6550 | 146 @defun substring string start &optional end |
12098 | 147 This function returns a new string which consists of those characters |
6550 | 148 from @var{string} in the range from (and including) the character at the |
149 index @var{start} up to (but excluding) the character at the index | |
150 @var{end}. The first character is at index zero. | |
151 | |
152 @example | |
153 @group | |
154 (substring "abcdefg" 0 3) | |
155 @result{} "abc" | |
156 @end group | |
157 @end example | |
158 | |
159 @noindent | |
160 Here the index for @samp{a} is 0, the index for @samp{b} is 1, and the | |
161 index for @samp{c} is 2. Thus, three letters, @samp{abc}, are copied | |
162 from the string @code{"abcdefg"}. The index 3 marks the character | |
163 position up to which the substring is copied. The character whose index | |
164 is 3 is actually the fourth character in the string. | |
165 | |
166 A negative number counts from the end of the string, so that @minus{}1 | |
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167 signifies the index of the last character of the string. For example: |
6550 | 168 |
169 @example | |
170 @group | |
171 (substring "abcdefg" -3 -1) | |
172 @result{} "ef" | |
173 @end group | |
174 @end example | |
175 | |
176 @noindent | |
177 In this example, the index for @samp{e} is @minus{}3, the index for | |
178 @samp{f} is @minus{}2, and the index for @samp{g} is @minus{}1. | |
179 Therefore, @samp{e} and @samp{f} are included, and @samp{g} is excluded. | |
180 | |
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181 When @code{nil} is used for @var{end}, it stands for the length of the |
6550 | 182 string. Thus, |
183 | |
184 @example | |
185 @group | |
186 (substring "abcdefg" -3 nil) | |
187 @result{} "efg" | |
188 @end group | |
189 @end example | |
190 | |
191 Omitting the argument @var{end} is equivalent to specifying @code{nil}. | |
192 It follows that @code{(substring @var{string} 0)} returns a copy of all | |
193 of @var{string}. | |
194 | |
195 @example | |
196 @group | |
197 (substring "abcdefg" 0) | |
198 @result{} "abcdefg" | |
199 @end group | |
200 @end example | |
201 | |
202 @noindent | |
203 But we recommend @code{copy-sequence} for this purpose (@pxref{Sequence | |
204 Functions}). | |
205 | |
12098 | 206 If the characters copied from @var{string} have text properties, the |
207 properties are copied into the new string also. @xref{Text Properties}. | |
208 | |
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209 @code{substring} also accepts a vector for the first argument. |
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210 For example: |
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211 |
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212 @example |
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213 (substring [a b (c) "d"] 1 3) |
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214 @result{} [b (c)] |
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215 @end example |
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216 |
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217 A @code{wrong-type-argument} error is signaled if @var{start} is not |
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218 an integer or if @var{end} is neither an integer nor @code{nil}. An |
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219 @code{args-out-of-range} error is signaled if @var{start} indicates a |
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220 character following @var{end}, or if either integer is out of range |
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221 for @var{string}. |
6550 | 222 |
223 Contrast this function with @code{buffer-substring} (@pxref{Buffer | |
224 Contents}), which returns a string containing a portion of the text in | |
225 the current buffer. The beginning of a string is at index 0, but the | |
226 beginning of a buffer is at index 1. | |
227 @end defun | |
228 | |
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229 @defun substring-no-properties string &optional start end |
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230 This works like @code{substring} but discards all text properties from |
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231 the value. Also, @var{start} may be omitted or @code{nil}, which is |
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232 equivalent to 0. Thus, @w{@code{(substring-no-properties |
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233 @var{string})}} returns a copy of @var{string}, with all text |
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234 properties removed. |
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235 @end defun |
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236 |
6550 | 237 @defun concat &rest sequences |
238 @cindex copying strings | |
239 @cindex concatenating strings | |
240 This function returns a new string consisting of the characters in the | |
12098 | 241 arguments passed to it (along with their text properties, if any). The |
242 arguments may be strings, lists of numbers, or vectors of numbers; they | |
243 are not themselves changed. If @code{concat} receives no arguments, it | |
244 returns an empty string. | |
6550 | 245 |
246 @example | |
247 (concat "abc" "-def") | |
248 @result{} "abc-def" | |
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249 (concat "abc" (list 120 121) [122]) |
6550 | 250 @result{} "abcxyz" |
251 ;; @r{@code{nil} is an empty sequence.} | |
252 (concat "abc" nil "-def") | |
253 @result{} "abc-def" | |
254 (concat "The " "quick brown " "fox.") | |
255 @result{} "The quick brown fox." | |
256 (concat) | |
257 @result{} "" | |
258 @end example | |
259 | |
260 @noindent | |
261 The @code{concat} function always constructs a new string that is | |
262 not @code{eq} to any existing string. | |
263 | |
30498 | 264 In Emacs versions before 21, when an argument was an integer (not a |
265 sequence of integers), it was converted to a string of digits making up | |
266 the decimal printed representation of the integer. This obsolete usage | |
267 no longer works. The proper way to convert an integer to its decimal | |
268 printed form is with @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting Strings}) or | |
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269 @code{number-to-string} (@pxref{String Conversion}). |
6550 | 270 |
271 For information about other concatenation functions, see the | |
272 description of @code{mapconcat} in @ref{Mapping Functions}, | |
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273 @code{vconcat} in @ref{Vector Functions}, and @code{append} in @ref{Building |
6550 | 274 Lists}. |
275 @end defun | |
276 | |
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277 @defun split-string string &optional separators omit-nulls |
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278 This function splits @var{string} into substrings at matches for the |
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279 regular expression @var{separators}. Each match for @var{separators} |
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280 defines a splitting point; the substrings between the splitting points |
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281 are made into a list, which is the value returned by |
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282 @code{split-string}. |
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283 |
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284 If @var{omit-nulls} is @code{nil}, the result contains null strings |
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285 whenever there are two consecutive matches for @var{separators}, or a |
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286 match is adjacent to the beginning or end of @var{string}. If |
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287 @var{omit-nulls} is @code{t}, these null strings are omitted from the |
71922 | 288 result. |
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289 |
24862 | 290 If @var{separators} is @code{nil} (or omitted), |
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291 the default is the value of @code{split-string-default-separators}. |
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292 |
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293 As a special case, when @var{separators} is @code{nil} (or omitted), |
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294 null strings are always omitted from the result. Thus: |
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295 |
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296 @example |
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297 (split-string " two words ") |
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298 @result{} ("two" "words") |
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299 @end example |
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300 |
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301 The result is not @code{("" "two" "words" "")}, which would rarely be |
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302 useful. If you need such a result, use an explicit value for |
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303 @var{separators}: |
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304 |
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305 @example |
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306 (split-string " two words " |
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307 split-string-default-separators) |
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308 @result{} ("" "two" "words" "") |
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309 @end example |
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310 |
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311 More examples: |
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312 |
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313 @example |
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314 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o") |
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315 @result{} ("S" "up is g" "" "d f" "" "d") |
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316 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o" t) |
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317 @result{} ("S" "up is g" "d f" "d") |
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318 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o+") |
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319 @result{} ("S" "up is g" "d f" "d") |
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320 @end example |
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321 |
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322 Empty matches do count, except that @code{split-string} will not look |
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323 for a final empty match when it already reached the end of the string |
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324 using a non-empty match or when @var{string} is empty: |
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325 |
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326 @example |
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327 (split-string "aooob" "o*") |
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328 @result{} ("" "a" "" "b" "") |
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329 (split-string "ooaboo" "o*") |
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330 @result{} ("" "" "a" "b" "") |
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331 (split-string "" "") |
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332 @result{} ("") |
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333 @end example |
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334 |
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335 However, when @var{separators} can match the empty string, |
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336 @var{omit-nulls} is usually @code{t}, so that the subtleties in the |
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337 three previous examples are rarely relevant: |
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338 |
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339 @example |
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340 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o*" t) |
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341 @result{} ("S" "u" "p" " " "i" "s" " " "g" "d" " " "f" "d") |
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342 (split-string "Nice doggy!" "" t) |
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343 @result{} ("N" "i" "c" "e" " " "d" "o" "g" "g" "y" "!") |
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344 (split-string "" "" t) |
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345 @result{} nil |
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346 @end example |
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347 |
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348 Somewhat odd, but predictable, behavior can occur for certain |
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349 ``non-greedy'' values of @var{separators} that can prefer empty |
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350 matches over non-empty matches. Again, such values rarely occur in |
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351 practice: |
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352 |
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353 @example |
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354 (split-string "ooo" "o*" t) |
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355 @result{} nil |
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356 (split-string "ooo" "\\|o+" t) |
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357 @result{} ("o" "o" "o") |
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358 @end example |
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359 @end defun |
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360 |
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361 @defvar split-string-default-separators |
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362 The default value of @var{separators} for @code{split-string}. Its |
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363 usual value is @w{@code{"[ \f\t\n\r\v]+"}}. |
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364 @end defvar |
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365 |
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366 @node Modifying Strings |
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367 @section Modifying Strings |
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368 |
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369 The most basic way to alter the contents of an existing string is with |
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370 @code{aset} (@pxref{Array Functions}). @code{(aset @var{string} |
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371 @var{idx} @var{char})} stores @var{char} into @var{string} at index |
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372 @var{idx}. Each character occupies one or more bytes, and if @var{char} |
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373 needs a different number of bytes from the character already present at |
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374 that index, @code{aset} signals an error. |
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375 |
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376 A more powerful function is @code{store-substring}: |
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377 |
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378 @defun store-substring string idx obj |
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379 This function alters part of the contents of the string @var{string}, by |
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380 storing @var{obj} starting at index @var{idx}. The argument @var{obj} |
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381 may be either a character or a (smaller) string. |
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382 |
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383 Since it is impossible to change the length of an existing string, it is |
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384 an error if @var{obj} doesn't fit within @var{string}'s actual length, |
24862 | 385 or if any new character requires a different number of bytes from the |
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386 character currently present at that point in @var{string}. |
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387 @end defun |
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388 |
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389 To clear out a string that contained a password, use |
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390 @code{clear-string}: |
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391 |
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392 @defun clear-string string |
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393 This clears the contents of @var{string} to zeros. |
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394 It may also change @var{string}'s length and convert it to |
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395 a unibyte string. |
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396 @end defun |
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397 |
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398 @need 2000 |
6550 | 399 @node Text Comparison |
400 @section Comparison of Characters and Strings | |
401 @cindex string equality | |
402 | |
403 @defun char-equal character1 character2 | |
404 This function returns @code{t} if the arguments represent the same | |
405 character, @code{nil} otherwise. This function ignores differences | |
406 in case if @code{case-fold-search} is non-@code{nil}. | |
407 | |
408 @example | |
409 (char-equal ?x ?x) | |
410 @result{} t | |
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411 (let ((case-fold-search nil)) |
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412 (char-equal ?x ?X)) |
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413 @result{} nil |
6550 | 414 @end example |
415 @end defun | |
416 | |
417 @defun string= string1 string2 | |
418 This function returns @code{t} if the characters of the two strings | |
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419 match exactly. Symbols are also allowed as arguments, in which case |
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420 their print names are used. |
24862 | 421 Case is always significant, regardless of @code{case-fold-search}. |
6550 | 422 |
423 @example | |
424 (string= "abc" "abc") | |
425 @result{} t | |
426 (string= "abc" "ABC") | |
427 @result{} nil | |
428 (string= "ab" "ABC") | |
429 @result{} nil | |
430 @end example | |
12067 | 431 |
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432 The function @code{string=} ignores the text properties of the two |
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433 strings. When @code{equal} (@pxref{Equality Predicates}) compares two |
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434 strings, it uses @code{string=}. |
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435 |
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436 For technical reasons, a unibyte and a multibyte string are |
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437 @code{equal} if and only if they contain the same sequence of |
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438 character codes and all these codes are either in the range 0 through |
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439 127 (@acronym{ASCII}) or 160 through 255 (@code{eight-bit-graphic}). |
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440 However, when a unibyte string gets converted to a multibyte string, |
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441 all characters with codes in the range 160 through 255 get converted |
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442 to characters with higher codes, whereas @acronym{ASCII} characters |
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443 remain unchanged. Thus, a unibyte string and its conversion to |
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444 multibyte are only @code{equal} if the string is all @acronym{ASCII}. |
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445 Character codes 160 through 255 are not entirely proper in multibyte |
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446 text, even though they can occur. As a consequence, the situation |
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447 where a unibyte and a multibyte string are @code{equal} without both |
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448 being all @acronym{ASCII} is a technical oddity that very few Emacs |
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449 Lisp programmers ever get confronted with. @xref{Text |
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450 Representations}. |
6550 | 451 @end defun |
452 | |
453 @defun string-equal string1 string2 | |
454 @code{string-equal} is another name for @code{string=}. | |
455 @end defun | |
456 | |
457 @cindex lexical comparison | |
458 @defun string< string1 string2 | |
459 @c (findex string< causes problems for permuted index!!) | |
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460 This function compares two strings a character at a time. It |
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461 scans both the strings at the same time to find the first pair of corresponding |
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462 characters that do not match. If the lesser character of these two is |
6550 | 463 the character from @var{string1}, then @var{string1} is less, and this |
464 function returns @code{t}. If the lesser character is the one from | |
465 @var{string2}, then @var{string1} is greater, and this function returns | |
466 @code{nil}. If the two strings match entirely, the value is @code{nil}. | |
467 | |
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468 Pairs of characters are compared according to their character codes. |
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469 Keep in mind that lower case letters have higher numeric values in the |
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470 @acronym{ASCII} character set than their upper case counterparts; digits and |
6550 | 471 many punctuation characters have a lower numeric value than upper case |
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472 letters. An @acronym{ASCII} character is less than any non-@acronym{ASCII} |
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473 character; a unibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character is always less than any |
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474 multibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character (@pxref{Text Representations}). |
6550 | 475 |
476 @example | |
477 @group | |
478 (string< "abc" "abd") | |
479 @result{} t | |
480 (string< "abd" "abc") | |
481 @result{} nil | |
482 (string< "123" "abc") | |
483 @result{} t | |
484 @end group | |
485 @end example | |
486 | |
487 When the strings have different lengths, and they match up to the | |
488 length of @var{string1}, then the result is @code{t}. If they match up | |
489 to the length of @var{string2}, the result is @code{nil}. A string of | |
490 no characters is less than any other string. | |
491 | |
492 @example | |
493 @group | |
494 (string< "" "abc") | |
495 @result{} t | |
496 (string< "ab" "abc") | |
497 @result{} t | |
498 (string< "abc" "") | |
499 @result{} nil | |
500 (string< "abc" "ab") | |
501 @result{} nil | |
502 (string< "" "") | |
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503 @result{} nil |
6550 | 504 @end group |
505 @end example | |
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506 |
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507 Symbols are also allowed as arguments, in which case their print names |
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508 are used. |
6550 | 509 @end defun |
510 | |
511 @defun string-lessp string1 string2 | |
512 @code{string-lessp} is another name for @code{string<}. | |
513 @end defun | |
514 | |
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515 @defun compare-strings string1 start1 end1 string2 start2 end2 &optional ignore-case |
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516 This function compares the specified part of @var{string1} with the |
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517 specified part of @var{string2}. The specified part of @var{string1} |
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518 runs from index @var{start1} up to index @var{end1} (@code{nil} means |
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519 the end of the string). The specified part of @var{string2} runs from |
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520 index @var{start2} up to index @var{end2} (@code{nil} means the end of |
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521 the string). |
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522 |
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523 The strings are both converted to multibyte for the comparison |
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524 (@pxref{Text Representations}) so that a unibyte string and its |
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525 conversion to multibyte are always regarded as equal. If |
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526 @var{ignore-case} is non-@code{nil}, then case is ignored, so that |
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527 upper case letters can be equal to lower case letters. |
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528 |
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529 If the specified portions of the two strings match, the value is |
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530 @code{t}. Otherwise, the value is an integer which indicates how many |
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531 leading characters agree, and which string is less. Its absolute value |
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532 is one plus the number of characters that agree at the beginning of the |
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533 two strings. The sign is negative if @var{string1} (or its specified |
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534 portion) is less. |
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535 @end defun |
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536 |
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537 @defun assoc-string key alist &optional case-fold |
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538 This function works like @code{assoc}, except that @var{key} must be a |
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539 string, and comparison is done using @code{compare-strings}. If |
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540 @var{case-fold} is non-@code{nil}, it ignores case differences. |
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541 Unlike @code{assoc}, this function can also match elements of the alist |
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542 that are strings rather than conses. In particular, @var{alist} can |
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543 be a list of strings rather than an actual alist. |
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544 @xref{Association Lists}. |
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545 @end defun |
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546 |
71922 | 547 See also the @code{compare-buffer-substrings} function in |
548 @ref{Comparing Text}, for a way to compare text in buffers. The | |
549 function @code{string-match}, which matches a regular expression | |
550 against a string, can be used for a kind of string comparison; see | |
551 @ref{Regexp Search}. | |
6550 | 552 |
553 @node String Conversion | |
554 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
555 @section Conversion of Characters and Strings | |
556 @cindex conversion of strings | |
557 | |
558 This section describes functions for conversions between characters, | |
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559 strings and integers. @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting Strings}) |
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560 and @code{prin1-to-string} |
6550 | 561 (@pxref{Output Functions}) can also convert Lisp objects into strings. |
562 @code{read-from-string} (@pxref{Input Functions}) can ``convert'' a | |
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563 string representation of a Lisp object into an object. The functions |
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564 @code{string-make-multibyte} and @code{string-make-unibyte} convert the |
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565 text representation of a string (@pxref{Converting Representations}). |
6550 | 566 |
567 @xref{Documentation}, for functions that produce textual descriptions | |
568 of text characters and general input events | |
569 (@code{single-key-description} and @code{text-char-description}). These | |
71922 | 570 are used primarily for making help messages. |
6550 | 571 |
572 @defun char-to-string character | |
573 @cindex character to string | |
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574 This function returns a new string containing one character, |
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575 @var{character}. This function is semi-obsolete because the function |
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576 @code{string} is more general. @xref{Creating Strings}. |
6550 | 577 @end defun |
578 | |
579 @defun string-to-char string | |
580 @cindex string to character | |
581 This function returns the first character in @var{string}. If the | |
582 string is empty, the function returns 0. The value is also 0 when the | |
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583 first character of @var{string} is the null character, @acronym{ASCII} code |
6550 | 584 0. |
585 | |
586 @example | |
587 (string-to-char "ABC") | |
588 @result{} 65 | |
589 (string-to-char "xyz") | |
590 @result{} 120 | |
591 (string-to-char "") | |
592 @result{} 0 | |
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593 @group |
6550 | 594 (string-to-char "\000") |
595 @result{} 0 | |
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596 @end group |
6550 | 597 @end example |
598 | |
599 This function may be eliminated in the future if it does not seem useful | |
600 enough to retain. | |
601 @end defun | |
602 | |
603 @defun number-to-string number | |
604 @cindex integer to string | |
605 @cindex integer to decimal | |
24862 | 606 This function returns a string consisting of the printed base-ten |
6550 | 607 representation of @var{number}, which may be an integer or a floating |
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608 point number. The returned value starts with a minus sign if the argument is |
6550 | 609 negative. |
610 | |
611 @example | |
612 (number-to-string 256) | |
613 @result{} "256" | |
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614 @group |
6550 | 615 (number-to-string -23) |
616 @result{} "-23" | |
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617 @end group |
6550 | 618 (number-to-string -23.5) |
619 @result{} "-23.5" | |
620 @end example | |
621 | |
622 @cindex int-to-string | |
623 @code{int-to-string} is a semi-obsolete alias for this function. | |
624 | |
625 See also the function @code{format} in @ref{Formatting Strings}. | |
626 @end defun | |
627 | |
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628 @defun string-to-number string &optional base |
6550 | 629 @cindex string to number |
630 This function returns the numeric value of the characters in | |
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631 @var{string}. If @var{base} is non-@code{nil}, it must be an integer |
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632 between 2 and 16 (inclusive), and integers are converted in that base. |
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633 If @var{base} is @code{nil}, then base ten is used. Floating point |
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634 conversion only works in base ten; we have not implemented other |
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635 radices for floating point numbers, because that would be much more |
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636 work and does not seem useful. If @var{string} looks like an integer |
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637 but its value is too large to fit into a Lisp integer, |
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638 @code{string-to-number} returns a floating point result. |
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639 |
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640 The parsing skips spaces and tabs at the beginning of @var{string}, |
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641 then reads as much of @var{string} as it can interpret as a number in |
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642 the given base. (On some systems it ignores other whitespace at the |
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643 beginning, not just spaces and tabs.) If the first character after |
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644 the ignored whitespace is neither a digit in the given base, nor a |
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645 plus or minus sign, nor the leading dot of a floating point number, |
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646 this function returns 0. |
6550 | 647 |
648 @example | |
649 (string-to-number "256") | |
650 @result{} 256 | |
651 (string-to-number "25 is a perfect square.") | |
652 @result{} 25 | |
653 (string-to-number "X256") | |
654 @result{} 0 | |
655 (string-to-number "-4.5") | |
656 @result{} -4.5 | |
38790 | 657 (string-to-number "1e5") |
658 @result{} 100000.0 | |
6550 | 659 @end example |
660 | |
661 @findex string-to-int | |
662 @code{string-to-int} is an obsolete alias for this function. | |
663 @end defun | |
664 | |
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665 Here are some other functions that can convert to or from a string: |
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666 |
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667 @table @code |
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668 @item concat |
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669 @code{concat} can convert a vector or a list into a string. |
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670 @xref{Creating Strings}. |
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671 |
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672 @item vconcat |
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673 @code{vconcat} can convert a string into a vector. @xref{Vector |
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674 Functions}. |
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675 |
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676 @item append |
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677 @code{append} can convert a string into a list. @xref{Building Lists}. |
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678 @end table |
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679 |
6550 | 680 @node Formatting Strings |
681 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
682 @section Formatting Strings | |
683 @cindex formatting strings | |
684 @cindex strings, formatting them | |
685 | |
686 @dfn{Formatting} means constructing a string by substitution of | |
24862 | 687 computed values at various places in a constant string. This constant string |
688 controls how the other values are printed, as well as where they appear; | |
6550 | 689 it is called a @dfn{format string}. |
690 | |
691 Formatting is often useful for computing messages to be displayed. In | |
692 fact, the functions @code{message} and @code{error} provide the same | |
693 formatting feature described here; they differ from @code{format} only | |
694 in how they use the result of formatting. | |
695 | |
696 @defun format string &rest objects | |
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697 This function returns a new string that is made by copying |
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698 @var{string} and then replacing any format specification |
6550 | 699 in the copy with encodings of the corresponding @var{objects}. The |
700 arguments @var{objects} are the computed values to be formatted. | |
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701 |
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702 The characters in @var{string}, other than the format specifications, |
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703 are copied directly into the output, including their text properties, |
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704 if any. |
6550 | 705 @end defun |
706 | |
707 @cindex @samp{%} in format | |
708 @cindex format specification | |
709 A format specification is a sequence of characters beginning with a | |
710 @samp{%}. Thus, if there is a @samp{%d} in @var{string}, the | |
711 @code{format} function replaces it with the printed representation of | |
712 one of the values to be formatted (one of the arguments @var{objects}). | |
713 For example: | |
714 | |
715 @example | |
716 @group | |
717 (format "The value of fill-column is %d." fill-column) | |
718 @result{} "The value of fill-column is 72." | |
719 @end group | |
720 @end example | |
721 | |
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722 Since @code{format} interprets @samp{%} characters as format |
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723 specifications, you should @emph{never} pass an arbitrary string as |
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724 the first argument. This is particularly true when the string is |
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725 generated by some Lisp code. Unless the string is @emph{known} to |
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726 never include any @samp{%} characters, pass @code{"%s"}, described |
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727 below, as the first argument, and the string as the second, like this: |
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728 |
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729 @example |
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730 (format "%s" @var{arbitrary-string}) |
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731 @end example |
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732 |
6550 | 733 If @var{string} contains more than one format specification, the |
24862 | 734 format specifications correspond to successive values from |
6550 | 735 @var{objects}. Thus, the first format specification in @var{string} |
736 uses the first such value, the second format specification uses the | |
737 second such value, and so on. Any extra format specifications (those | |
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738 for which there are no corresponding values) cause an error. Any |
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739 extra values to be formatted are ignored. |
6550 | 740 |
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741 Certain format specifications require values of particular types. If |
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742 you supply a value that doesn't fit the requirements, an error is |
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743 signaled. |
6550 | 744 |
745 Here is a table of valid format specifications: | |
746 | |
747 @table @samp | |
748 @item %s | |
749 Replace the specification with the printed representation of the object, | |
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750 made without quoting (that is, using @code{princ}, not |
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751 @code{prin1}---@pxref{Output Functions}). Thus, strings are represented |
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752 by their contents alone, with no @samp{"} characters, and symbols appear |
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753 without @samp{\} characters. |
6550 | 754 |
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755 If the object is a string, its text properties are |
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756 copied into the output. The text properties of the @samp{%s} itself |
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757 are also copied, but those of the object take priority. |
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758 |
6550 | 759 @item %S |
760 Replace the specification with the printed representation of the object, | |
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761 made with quoting (that is, using @code{prin1}---@pxref{Output |
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762 Functions}). Thus, strings are enclosed in @samp{"} characters, and |
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763 @samp{\} characters appear where necessary before special characters. |
6550 | 764 |
765 @item %o | |
766 @cindex integer to octal | |
767 Replace the specification with the base-eight representation of an | |
768 integer. | |
769 | |
770 @item %d | |
771 Replace the specification with the base-ten representation of an | |
772 integer. | |
773 | |
774 @item %x | |
35036 | 775 @itemx %X |
6550 | 776 @cindex integer to hexadecimal |
777 Replace the specification with the base-sixteen representation of an | |
35036 | 778 integer. @samp{%x} uses lower case and @samp{%X} uses upper case. |
6550 | 779 |
780 @item %c | |
781 Replace the specification with the character which is the value given. | |
782 | |
783 @item %e | |
784 Replace the specification with the exponential notation for a floating | |
35071 | 785 point number. |
6550 | 786 |
787 @item %f | |
788 Replace the specification with the decimal-point notation for a floating | |
789 point number. | |
790 | |
791 @item %g | |
792 Replace the specification with notation for a floating point number, | |
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793 using either exponential notation or decimal-point notation, whichever |
35071 | 794 is shorter. |
6550 | 795 |
796 @item %% | |
35036 | 797 Replace the specification with a single @samp{%}. This format |
798 specification is unusual in that it does not use a value. For example, | |
799 @code{(format "%% %d" 30)} returns @code{"% 30"}. | |
6550 | 800 @end table |
801 | |
802 Any other format character results in an @samp{Invalid format | |
803 operation} error. | |
804 | |
805 Here are several examples: | |
806 | |
807 @example | |
808 @group | |
809 (format "The name of this buffer is %s." (buffer-name)) | |
810 @result{} "The name of this buffer is strings.texi." | |
811 | |
812 (format "The buffer object prints as %s." (current-buffer)) | |
13228 | 813 @result{} "The buffer object prints as strings.texi." |
6550 | 814 |
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815 (format "The octal value of %d is %o, |
6550 | 816 and the hex value is %x." 18 18 18) |
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817 @result{} "The octal value of 18 is 22, |
6550 | 818 and the hex value is 12." |
819 @end group | |
820 @end example | |
821 | |
822 @cindex field width | |
823 @cindex padding | |
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824 All the specification characters allow an optional ``width,'' which |
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825 is a digit-string between the @samp{%} and the character. If the |
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826 printed representation of the object contains fewer characters than |
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827 this width, then it is padded. The padding is on the left if the |
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828 width is positive (or starts with zero) and on the right if the |
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829 width is negative. The padding character is normally a space, but if |
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830 the width starts with a zero, zeros are used for padding. Some of |
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831 these conventions are ignored for specification characters for which |
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832 they do not make sense. That is, @samp{%s}, @samp{%S} and @samp{%c} |
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833 accept a width starting with 0, but still pad with @emph{spaces} on |
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834 the left. Also, @samp{%%} accepts a width, but ignores it. Here are |
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835 some examples of padding: |
6550 | 836 |
837 @example | |
838 (format "%06d is padded on the left with zeros" 123) | |
839 @result{} "000123 is padded on the left with zeros" | |
840 | |
841 (format "%-6d is padded on the right" 123) | |
842 @result{} "123 is padded on the right" | |
843 @end example | |
844 | |
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845 If the width is too small, @code{format} does not truncate the |
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846 object's printed representation. Thus, you can use a width to specify |
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847 a minimum spacing between columns with no risk of losing information. |
6550 | 848 |
849 In the following three examples, @samp{%7s} specifies a minimum width | |
850 of 7. In the first case, the string inserted in place of @samp{%7s} has | |
851 only 3 letters, so 4 blank spaces are inserted for padding. In the | |
852 second case, the string @code{"specification"} is 13 letters wide but is | |
853 not truncated. In the third case, the padding is on the right. | |
854 | |
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855 @smallexample |
6550 | 856 @group |
857 (format "The word `%7s' actually has %d letters in it." | |
858 "foo" (length "foo")) | |
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859 @result{} "The word ` foo' actually has 3 letters in it." |
6550 | 860 @end group |
861 | |
862 @group | |
863 (format "The word `%7s' actually has %d letters in it." | |
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864 "specification" (length "specification")) |
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865 @result{} "The word `specification' actually has 13 letters in it." |
6550 | 866 @end group |
867 | |
868 @group | |
869 (format "The word `%-7s' actually has %d letters in it." | |
870 "foo" (length "foo")) | |
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871 @result{} "The word `foo ' actually has 3 letters in it." |
6550 | 872 @end group |
873 @end smallexample | |
874 | |
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875 @cindex precision in format specifications |
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876 All the specification characters allow an optional ``precision'' |
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877 before the character (after the width, if present). The precision is |
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878 a decimal-point @samp{.} followed by a digit-string. For the |
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879 floating-point specifications (@samp{%e}, @samp{%f}, @samp{%g}), the |
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880 precision specifies how many decimal places to show; if zero, the |
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881 decimal-point itself is also omitted. For @samp{%s} and @samp{%S}, |
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882 the precision truncates the string to the given width, so |
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883 @samp{%.3s} shows only the first three characters of the |
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884 representation for @var{object}. Precision is ignored for other |
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885 specification characters. |
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886 |
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887 @cindex flags in format specifications |
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888 Immediately after the @samp{%} and before the optional width and |
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889 precision, you can put certain ``flag'' characters. |
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890 |
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891 A space character inserts a space for positive numbers (otherwise |
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892 nothing is inserted for positive numbers). This flag is ignored |
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893 except for @samp{%d}, @samp{%e}, @samp{%f}, @samp{%g}. |
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894 |
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895 The flag @samp{#} indicates ``alternate form.'' For @samp{%o} it |
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896 ensures that the result begins with a 0. For @samp{%x} and @samp{%X} |
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897 the result is prefixed with @samp{0x} or @samp{0X}. For @samp{%e}, |
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898 @samp{%f}, and @samp{%g} a decimal point is always shown even if the |
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899 precision is zero. |
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900 |
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901 @node Case Conversion |
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902 @comment node-name, next, previous, up |
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903 @section Case Conversion in Lisp |
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904 @cindex upper case |
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905 @cindex lower case |
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906 @cindex character case |
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907 @cindex case conversion in Lisp |
6550 | 908 |
909 The character case functions change the case of single characters or | |
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910 of the contents of strings. The functions normally convert only |
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911 alphabetic characters (the letters @samp{A} through @samp{Z} and |
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912 @samp{a} through @samp{z}, as well as non-@acronym{ASCII} letters); other |
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913 characters are not altered. You can specify a different case |
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914 conversion mapping by specifying a case table (@pxref{Case Tables}). |
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915 |
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916 These functions do not modify the strings that are passed to them as |
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917 arguments. |
6550 | 918 |
919 The examples below use the characters @samp{X} and @samp{x} which have | |
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920 @acronym{ASCII} codes 88 and 120 respectively. |
6550 | 921 |
922 @defun downcase string-or-char | |
923 This function converts a character or a string to lower case. | |
924 | |
925 When the argument to @code{downcase} is a string, the function creates | |
926 and returns a new string in which each letter in the argument that is | |
927 upper case is converted to lower case. When the argument to | |
928 @code{downcase} is a character, @code{downcase} returns the | |
929 corresponding lower case character. This value is an integer. If the | |
930 original character is lower case, or is not a letter, then the value | |
931 equals the original character. | |
932 | |
933 @example | |
934 (downcase "The cat in the hat") | |
935 @result{} "the cat in the hat" | |
936 | |
937 (downcase ?X) | |
938 @result{} 120 | |
939 @end example | |
940 @end defun | |
941 | |
942 @defun upcase string-or-char | |
943 This function converts a character or a string to upper case. | |
944 | |
945 When the argument to @code{upcase} is a string, the function creates | |
946 and returns a new string in which each letter in the argument that is | |
947 lower case is converted to upper case. | |
948 | |
949 When the argument to @code{upcase} is a character, @code{upcase} | |
950 returns the corresponding upper case character. This value is an integer. | |
951 If the original character is upper case, or is not a letter, then the | |
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952 value returned equals the original character. |
6550 | 953 |
954 @example | |
955 (upcase "The cat in the hat") | |
956 @result{} "THE CAT IN THE HAT" | |
957 | |
958 (upcase ?x) | |
959 @result{} 88 | |
960 @end example | |
961 @end defun | |
962 | |
963 @defun capitalize string-or-char | |
964 @cindex capitalization | |
965 This function capitalizes strings or characters. If | |
966 @var{string-or-char} is a string, the function creates and returns a new | |
967 string, whose contents are a copy of @var{string-or-char} in which each | |
968 word has been capitalized. This means that the first character of each | |
969 word is converted to upper case, and the rest are converted to lower | |
970 case. | |
971 | |
972 The definition of a word is any sequence of consecutive characters that | |
973 are assigned to the word constituent syntax class in the current syntax | |
25454 | 974 table (@pxref{Syntax Class Table}). |
6550 | 975 |
976 When the argument to @code{capitalize} is a character, @code{capitalize} | |
977 has the same result as @code{upcase}. | |
978 | |
979 @example | |
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980 @group |
6550 | 981 (capitalize "The cat in the hat") |
982 @result{} "The Cat In The Hat" | |
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983 @end group |
6550 | 984 |
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985 @group |
6550 | 986 (capitalize "THE 77TH-HATTED CAT") |
987 @result{} "The 77th-Hatted Cat" | |
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988 @end group |
6550 | 989 |
990 @group | |
991 (capitalize ?x) | |
992 @result{} 88 | |
993 @end group | |
994 @end example | |
995 @end defun | |
996 | |
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997 @defun upcase-initials string-or-char |
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998 If @var{string-or-char} is a string, this function capitalizes the |
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999 initials of the words in @var{string-or-char}, without altering any |
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1000 letters other than the initials. It returns a new string whose |
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1001 contents are a copy of @var{string-or-char}, in which each word has |
24862 | 1002 had its initial letter converted to upper case. |
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1003 |
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1004 The definition of a word is any sequence of consecutive characters that |
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1005 are assigned to the word constituent syntax class in the current syntax |
25454 | 1006 table (@pxref{Syntax Class Table}). |
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1007 |
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1008 When the argument to @code{upcase-initials} is a character, |
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1009 @code{upcase-initials} has the same result as @code{upcase}. |
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1010 |
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1011 @example |
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1012 @group |
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1013 (upcase-initials "The CAT in the hAt") |
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1014 @result{} "The CAT In The HAt" |
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1015 @end group |
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1016 @end example |
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1017 @end defun |
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1018 |
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1019 @xref{Text Comparison}, for functions that compare strings; some of |
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1020 them ignore case differences, or can optionally ignore case differences. |
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1021 |
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1022 @node Case Tables |
6550 | 1023 @section The Case Table |
1024 | |
1025 You can customize case conversion by installing a special @dfn{case | |
1026 table}. A case table specifies the mapping between upper case and lower | |
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1027 case letters. It affects both the case conversion functions for Lisp |
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1028 objects (see the previous section) and those that apply to text in the |
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1029 buffer (@pxref{Case Changes}). Each buffer has a case table; there is |
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1030 also a standard case table which is used to initialize the case table |
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1031 of new buffers. |
6550 | 1032 |
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1033 A case table is a char-table (@pxref{Char-Tables}) whose subtype is |
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1034 @code{case-table}. This char-table maps each character into the |
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1035 corresponding lower case character. It has three extra slots, which |
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1036 hold related tables: |
6550 | 1037 |
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1038 @table @var |
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1039 @item upcase |
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1040 The upcase table maps each character into the corresponding upper |
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1041 case character. |
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1042 @item canonicalize |
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1043 The canonicalize table maps all of a set of case-related characters |
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1044 into a particular member of that set. |
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1045 @item equivalences |
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1046 The equivalences table maps each one of a set of case-related characters |
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1047 into the next character in that set. |
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1048 @end table |
6550 | 1049 |
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1050 In simple cases, all you need to specify is the mapping to lower-case; |
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1051 the three related tables will be calculated automatically from that one. |
6550 | 1052 |
1053 For some languages, upper and lower case letters are not in one-to-one | |
1054 correspondence. There may be two different lower case letters with the | |
1055 same upper case equivalent. In these cases, you need to specify the | |
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1056 maps for both lower case and upper case. |
6550 | 1057 |
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1058 The extra table @var{canonicalize} maps each character to a canonical |
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1059 equivalent; any two characters that are related by case-conversion have |
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1060 the same canonical equivalent character. For example, since @samp{a} |
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1061 and @samp{A} are related by case-conversion, they should have the same |
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1062 canonical equivalent character (which should be either @samp{a} for both |
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1063 of them, or @samp{A} for both of them). |
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1064 |
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1065 The extra table @var{equivalences} is a map that cyclically permutes |
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1066 each equivalence class (of characters with the same canonical |
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1067 equivalent). (For ordinary @acronym{ASCII}, this would map @samp{a} into |
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1068 @samp{A} and @samp{A} into @samp{a}, and likewise for each set of |
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1069 equivalent characters.) |
6550 | 1070 |
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1071 When you construct a case table, you can provide @code{nil} for |
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1072 @var{canonicalize}; then Emacs fills in this slot from the lower case |
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1073 and upper case mappings. You can also provide @code{nil} for |
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1074 @var{equivalences}; then Emacs fills in this slot from |
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1075 @var{canonicalize}. In a case table that is actually in use, those |
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1076 components are non-@code{nil}. Do not try to specify @var{equivalences} |
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1077 without also specifying @var{canonicalize}. |
6550 | 1078 |
1079 Here are the functions for working with case tables: | |
1080 | |
1081 @defun case-table-p object | |
1082 This predicate returns non-@code{nil} if @var{object} is a valid case | |
1083 table. | |
1084 @end defun | |
1085 | |
1086 @defun set-standard-case-table table | |
1087 This function makes @var{table} the standard case table, so that it will | |
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1088 be used in any buffers created subsequently. |
6550 | 1089 @end defun |
1090 | |
1091 @defun standard-case-table | |
1092 This returns the standard case table. | |
1093 @end defun | |
1094 | |
1095 @defun current-case-table | |
1096 This function returns the current buffer's case table. | |
1097 @end defun | |
1098 | |
1099 @defun set-case-table table | |
1100 This sets the current buffer's case table to @var{table}. | |
1101 @end defun | |
1102 | |
1103 The following three functions are convenient subroutines for packages | |
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1104 that define non-@acronym{ASCII} character sets. They modify the specified |
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1105 case table @var{case-table}; they also modify the standard syntax table. |
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1106 @xref{Syntax Tables}. Normally you would use these functions to change |
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1107 the standard case table. |
6550 | 1108 |
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1109 @defun set-case-syntax-pair uc lc case-table |
6550 | 1110 This function specifies a pair of corresponding letters, one upper case |
1111 and one lower case. | |
1112 @end defun | |
1113 | |
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1114 @defun set-case-syntax-delims l r case-table |
6550 | 1115 This function makes characters @var{l} and @var{r} a matching pair of |
1116 case-invariant delimiters. | |
1117 @end defun | |
1118 | |
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1119 @defun set-case-syntax char syntax case-table |
6550 | 1120 This function makes @var{char} case-invariant, with syntax |
1121 @var{syntax}. | |
1122 @end defun | |
1123 | |
1124 @deffn Command describe-buffer-case-table | |
1125 This command displays a description of the contents of the current | |
1126 buffer's case table. | |
1127 @end deffn | |
52401 | 1128 |
1129 @ignore | |
1130 arch-tag: 700b8e95-7aa5-4b52-9eb3-8f2e1ea152b4 | |
1131 @end ignore |