annotate lispref/functions.texi @ 21516:73d30d93f2b6

Update return types of declarations.
author Andreas Schwab <schwab@suse.de>
date Tue, 14 Apr 1998 12:34:43 +0000
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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5 @setfilename ../info/functions
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6 @node Functions, Macros, Variables, Top
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7 @chapter Functions
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8
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9 A Lisp program is composed mainly of Lisp functions. This chapter
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10 explains what functions are, how they accept arguments, and how to
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11 define them.
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12
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13 @menu
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14 * What Is a Function:: Lisp functions vs. primitives; terminology.
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15 * Lambda Expressions:: How functions are expressed as Lisp objects.
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16 * Function Names:: A symbol can serve as the name of a function.
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17 * Defining Functions:: Lisp expressions for defining functions.
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18 * Calling Functions:: How to use an existing function.
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19 * Mapping Functions:: Applying a function to each element of a list, etc.
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20 * Anonymous Functions:: Lambda expressions are functions with no names.
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21 * Function Cells:: Accessing or setting the function definition
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22 of a symbol.
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23 * Inline Functions:: Defining functions that the compiler will open code.
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24 * Related Topics:: Cross-references to specific Lisp primitives
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25 that have a special bearing on how functions work.
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26 @end menu
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27
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28 @node What Is a Function
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29 @section What Is a Function?
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30
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31 In a general sense, a function is a rule for carrying on a computation
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32 given several values called @dfn{arguments}. The result of the
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33 computation is called the value of the function. The computation can
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34 also have side effects: lasting changes in the values of variables or
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35 the contents of data structures.
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36
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37 Here are important terms for functions in Emacs Lisp and for other
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38 function-like objects.
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39
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40 @table @dfn
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41 @item function
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42 @cindex function
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43 In Emacs Lisp, a @dfn{function} is anything that can be applied to
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44 arguments in a Lisp program. In some cases, we use it more
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45 specifically to mean a function written in Lisp. Special forms and
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46 macros are not functions.
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47
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48 @item primitive
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49 @cindex primitive
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50 @cindex subr
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51 @cindex built-in function
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52 A @dfn{primitive} is a function callable from Lisp that is written in C,
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53 such as @code{car} or @code{append}. These functions are also called
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54 @dfn{built-in} functions or @dfn{subrs}. (Special forms are also
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55 considered primitives.)
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56
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57 Usually the reason we implement a function as a primitive is because it
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58 is fundamental, because it provides a low-level interface to operating
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59 system services, or because it needs to run fast. Primitives can be
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60 modified or added only by changing the C sources and recompiling the
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61 editor. See @ref{Writing Emacs Primitives}.
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62
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63 @item lambda expression
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64 A @dfn{lambda expression} is a function written in Lisp.
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65 These are described in the following section.
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66 @ifinfo
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67 @xref{Lambda Expressions}.
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68 @end ifinfo
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69
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70 @item special form
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71 A @dfn{special form} is a primitive that is like a function but does not
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72 evaluate all of its arguments in the usual way. It may evaluate only
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73 some of the arguments, or may evaluate them in an unusual order, or
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74 several times. Many special forms are described in @ref{Control
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75 Structures}.
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76
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77 @item macro
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78 @cindex macro
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79 A @dfn{macro} is a construct defined in Lisp by the programmer. It
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80 differs from a function in that it translates a Lisp expression that you
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81 write into an equivalent expression to be evaluated instead of the
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82 original expression. Macros enable Lisp programmers to do the sorts of
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83 things that special forms can do. @xref{Macros}, for how to define and
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84 use macros.
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85
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86 @item command
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87 @cindex command
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88 A @dfn{command} is an object that @code{command-execute} can invoke; it
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89 is a possible definition for a key sequence. Some functions are
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90 commands; a function written in Lisp is a command if it contains an
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91 interactive declaration (@pxref{Defining Commands}). Such a function
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92 can be called from Lisp expressions like other functions; in this case,
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93 the fact that the function is a command makes no difference.
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94
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95 Keyboard macros (strings and vectors) are commands also, even though
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96 they are not functions. A symbol is a command if its function
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97 definition is a command; such symbols can be invoked with @kbd{M-x}.
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98 The symbol is a function as well if the definition is a function.
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99 @xref{Command Overview}.
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100
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101 @item keystroke command
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102 @cindex keystroke command
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103 A @dfn{keystroke command} is a command that is bound to a key sequence
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104 (typically one to three keystrokes). The distinction is made here
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105 merely to avoid confusion with the meaning of ``command'' in non-Emacs
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106 editors; for Lisp programs, the distinction is normally unimportant.
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107
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108 @item byte-code function
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109 A @dfn{byte-code function} is a function that has been compiled by the
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110 byte compiler. @xref{Byte-Code Type}.
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111 @end table
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112
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113 @tindex functionp
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114 @defun functionp object
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115 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is any kind of function;
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116 that is, anything that could be called as a function.
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117 @end defun
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118
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119 @defun subrp object
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120 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a built-in function
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121 (i.e., a Lisp primitive).
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122
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123 @example
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124 @group
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125 (subrp 'message) ; @r{@code{message} is a symbol,}
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126 @result{} nil ; @r{not a subr object.}
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127 @end group
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128 @group
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129 (subrp (symbol-function 'message))
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130 @result{} t
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131 @end group
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132 @end example
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133 @end defun
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134
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135 @defun byte-code-function-p object
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136 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a byte-code
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137 function. For example:
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138
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139 @example
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140 @group
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141 (byte-code-function-p (symbol-function 'next-line))
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142 @result{} t
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143 @end group
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144 @end example
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145 @end defun
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146
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147 @node Lambda Expressions
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148 @section Lambda Expressions
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149 @cindex lambda expression
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150
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151 A function written in Lisp is a list that looks like this:
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152
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153 @example
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154 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{})
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155 @r{[}@var{documentation-string}@r{]}
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156 @r{[}@var{interactive-declaration}@r{]}
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157 @var{body-forms}@dots{})
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158 @end example
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159
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160 @noindent
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161 Such a list is called a @dfn{lambda expression}. In Emacs Lisp, it
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162 actually is valid as an expression---it evaluates to itself. In some
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163 other Lisp dialects, a lambda expression is not a valid expression at
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164 all. In either case, its main use is not to be evaluated as an
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165 expression, but to be called as a function.
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166
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167 @menu
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168 * Lambda Components:: The parts of a lambda expression.
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169 * Simple Lambda:: A simple example.
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170 * Argument List:: Details and special features of argument lists.
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171 * Function Documentation:: How to put documentation in a function.
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172 @end menu
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173
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174 @node Lambda Components
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175 @subsection Components of a Lambda Expression
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176
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177 @ifinfo
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178
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179 A function written in Lisp (a ``lambda expression'') is a list that
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180 looks like this:
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181
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182 @example
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183 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{})
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184 [@var{documentation-string}]
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185 [@var{interactive-declaration}]
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186 @var{body-forms}@dots{})
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187 @end example
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188 @end ifinfo
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189
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190 @cindex lambda list
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191 The first element of a lambda expression is always the symbol
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192 @code{lambda}. This indicates that the list represents a function. The
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193 reason functions are defined to start with @code{lambda} is so that
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194 other lists, intended for other uses, will not accidentally be valid as
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195 functions.
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196
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197 The second element is a list of symbols---the argument variable names.
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198 This is called the @dfn{lambda list}. When a Lisp function is called,
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199 the argument values are matched up against the variables in the lambda
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200 list, which are given local bindings with the values provided.
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201 @xref{Local Variables}.
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202
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203 The documentation string is a Lisp string object placed within the
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204 function definition to describe the function for the Emacs help
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205 facilities. @xref{Function Documentation}.
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206
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207 The interactive declaration is a list of the form @code{(interactive
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208 @var{code-string})}. This declares how to provide arguments if the
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209 function is used interactively. Functions with this declaration are called
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210 @dfn{commands}; they can be called using @kbd{M-x} or bound to a key.
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211 Functions not intended to be called in this way should not have interactive
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212 declarations. @xref{Defining Commands}, for how to write an interactive
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213 declaration.
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214
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215 @cindex body of function
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216 The rest of the elements are the @dfn{body} of the function: the Lisp
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217 code to do the work of the function (or, as a Lisp programmer would say,
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218 ``a list of Lisp forms to evaluate''). The value returned by the
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219 function is the value returned by the last element of the body.
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220
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221 @node Simple Lambda
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222 @subsection A Simple Lambda-Expression Example
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223
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224 Consider for example the following function:
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225
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226 @example
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227 (lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))
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228 @end example
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229
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230 @noindent
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231 We can call this function by writing it as the @sc{car} of an
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232 expression, like this:
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233
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234 @example
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235 @group
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236 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))
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237 1 2 3)
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238 @end group
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239 @end example
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240
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241 @noindent
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242 This call evaluates the body of the lambda expression with the variable
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243 @code{a} bound to 1, @code{b} bound to 2, and @code{c} bound to 3.
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244 Evaluation of the body adds these three numbers, producing the result 6;
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245 therefore, this call to the function returns the value 6.
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246
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247 Note that the arguments can be the results of other function calls, as in
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248 this example:
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249
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250 @example
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251 @group
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252 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))
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253 1 (* 2 3) (- 5 4))
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254 @end group
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255 @end example
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256
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257 @noindent
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258 This evaluates the arguments @code{1}, @code{(* 2 3)}, and @code{(- 5
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259 4)} from left to right. Then it applies the lambda expression to the
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260 argument values 1, 6 and 1 to produce the value 8.
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261
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262 It is not often useful to write a lambda expression as the @sc{car} of
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263 a form in this way. You can get the same result, of making local
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264 variables and giving them values, using the special form @code{let}
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265 (@pxref{Local Variables}). And @code{let} is clearer and easier to use.
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266 In practice, lambda expressions are either stored as the function
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267 definitions of symbols, to produce named functions, or passed as
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268 arguments to other functions (@pxref{Anonymous Functions}).
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269
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270 However, calls to explicit lambda expressions were very useful in the
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271 old days of Lisp, before the special form @code{let} was invented. At
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272 that time, they were the only way to bind and initialize local
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273 variables.
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274
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275 @node Argument List
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276 @subsection Other Features of Argument Lists
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277 @kindex wrong-number-of-arguments
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278 @cindex argument binding
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279 @cindex binding arguments
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280
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281 Our simple sample function, @code{(lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))},
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282 specifies three argument variables, so it must be called with three
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283 arguments: if you try to call it with only two arguments or four
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284 arguments, you get a @code{wrong-number-of-arguments} error.
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285
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286 It is often convenient to write a function that allows certain
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287 arguments to be omitted. For example, the function @code{substring}
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288 accepts three arguments---a string, the start index and the end
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289 index---but the third argument defaults to the @var{length} of the
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290 string if you omit it. It is also convenient for certain functions to
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291 accept an indefinite number of arguments, as the functions @code{list}
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292 and @code{+} do.
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293
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294 @cindex optional arguments
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295 @cindex rest arguments
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296 @kindex &optional
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297 @kindex &rest
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298 To specify optional arguments that may be omitted when a function
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299 is called, simply include the keyword @code{&optional} before the optional
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300 arguments. To specify a list of zero or more extra arguments, include the
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301 keyword @code{&rest} before one final argument.
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302
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303 Thus, the complete syntax for an argument list is as follows:
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304
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305 @example
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306 @group
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307 (@var{required-vars}@dots{}
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308 @r{[}&optional @var{optional-vars}@dots{}@r{]}
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309 @r{[}&rest @var{rest-var}@r{]})
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310 @end group
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311 @end example
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312
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313 @noindent
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314 The square brackets indicate that the @code{&optional} and @code{&rest}
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315 clauses, and the variables that follow them, are optional.
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316
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317 A call to the function requires one actual argument for each of the
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318 @var{required-vars}. There may be actual arguments for zero or more of
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319 the @var{optional-vars}, and there cannot be any actual arguments beyond
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320 that unless the lambda list uses @code{&rest}. In that case, there may
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321 be any number of extra actual arguments.
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322
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323 If actual arguments for the optional and rest variables are omitted,
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324 then they always default to @code{nil}. There is no way for the
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325 function to distinguish between an explicit argument of @code{nil} and
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326 an omitted argument. However, the body of the function is free to
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327 consider @code{nil} an abbreviation for some other meaningful value.
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328 This is what @code{substring} does; @code{nil} as the third argument to
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329 @code{substring} means to use the length of the string supplied.
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330
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331 @cindex CL note---default optional arg
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332 @quotation
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333 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp allows the function to specify what
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334 default value to use when an optional argument is omitted; Emacs Lisp
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335 always uses @code{nil}. Emacs Lisp does not support ``supplied-p''
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336 variables that tell you whether an argument was explicitly passed.
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337 @end quotation
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338
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339 For example, an argument list that looks like this:
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340
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341 @example
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342 (a b &optional c d &rest e)
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343 @end example
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344
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345 @noindent
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346 binds @code{a} and @code{b} to the first two actual arguments, which are
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347 required. If one or two more arguments are provided, @code{c} and
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348 @code{d} are bound to them respectively; any arguments after the first
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349 four are collected into a list and @code{e} is bound to that list. If
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350 there are only two arguments, @code{c} is @code{nil}; if two or three
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351 arguments, @code{d} is @code{nil}; if four arguments or fewer, @code{e}
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352 is @code{nil}.
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353
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354 There is no way to have required arguments following optional
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355 ones---it would not make sense. To see why this must be so, suppose
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356 that @code{c} in the example were optional and @code{d} were required.
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357 Suppose three actual arguments are given; which variable would the third
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358 argument be for? Similarly, it makes no sense to have any more
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359 arguments (either required or optional) after a @code{&rest} argument.
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360
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361 Here are some examples of argument lists and proper calls:
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362
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363 @smallexample
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364 ((lambda (n) (1+ n)) ; @r{One required:}
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365 1) ; @r{requires exactly one argument.}
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366 @result{} 2
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367 ((lambda (n &optional n1) ; @r{One required and one optional:}
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368 (if n1 (+ n n1) (1+ n))) ; @r{1 or 2 arguments.}
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369 1 2)
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370 @result{} 3
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371 ((lambda (n &rest ns) ; @r{One required and one rest:}
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372 (+ n (apply '+ ns))) ; @r{1 or more arguments.}
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373 1 2 3 4 5)
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374 @result{} 15
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375 @end smallexample
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376
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377 @node Function Documentation
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378 @subsection Documentation Strings of Functions
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379 @cindex documentation of function
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380
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381 A lambda expression may optionally have a @dfn{documentation string} just
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382 after the lambda list. This string does not affect execution of the
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383 function; it is a kind of comment, but a systematized comment which
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384 actually appears inside the Lisp world and can be used by the Emacs help
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385 facilities. @xref{Documentation}, for how the @var{documentation-string} is
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386 accessed.
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387
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388 It is a good idea to provide documentation strings for all the
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389 functions in your program, even those that are only called from within
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390 your program. Documentation strings are like comments, except that they
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391 are easier to access.
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392
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393 The first line of the documentation string should stand on its own,
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394 because @code{apropos} displays just this first line. It should consist
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395 of one or two complete sentences that summarize the function's purpose.
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396
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397 The start of the documentation string is usually indented in the source file,
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398 but since these spaces come before the starting double-quote, they are not part of
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399 the string. Some people make a practice of indenting any additional
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400 lines of the string so that the text lines up in the program source.
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401 @emph{This is a mistake.} The indentation of the following lines is
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402 inside the string; what looks nice in the source code will look ugly
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403 when displayed by the help commands.
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404
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405 You may wonder how the documentation string could be optional, since
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406 there are required components of the function that follow it (the body).
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407 Since evaluation of a string returns that string, without any side effects,
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408 it has no effect if it is not the last form in the body. Thus, in
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409 practice, there is no confusion between the first form of the body and the
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410 documentation string; if the only body form is a string then it serves both
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411 as the return value and as the documentation.
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412
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413 @node Function Names
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414 @section Naming a Function
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415 @cindex function definition
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416 @cindex named function
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417 @cindex function name
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418
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419 In most computer languages, every function has a name; the idea of a
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420 function without a name is nonsensical. In Lisp, a function in the
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421 strictest sense has no name. It is simply a list whose first element is
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422 @code{lambda}, or a primitive subr-object.
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423
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424 However, a symbol can serve as the name of a function. This happens
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425 when you put the function in the symbol's @dfn{function cell}
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426 (@pxref{Symbol Components}). Then the symbol itself becomes a valid,
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427 callable function, equivalent to the list or subr-object that its
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428 function cell refers to. The contents of the function cell are also
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429 called the symbol's @dfn{function definition}. The procedure of using a
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430 symbol's function definition in place of the symbol is called
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431 @dfn{symbol function indirection}; see @ref{Function Indirection}.
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432
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433 In practice, nearly all functions are given names in this way and
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434 referred to through their names. For example, the symbol @code{car} works
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435 as a function and does what it does because the primitive subr-object
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436 @code{#<subr car>} is stored in its function cell.
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437
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438 We give functions names because it is convenient to refer to them by
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439 their names in Lisp expressions. For primitive subr-objects such as
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440 @code{#<subr car>}, names are the only way you can refer to them: there
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441 is no read syntax for such objects. For functions written in Lisp, the
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442 name is more convenient to use in a call than an explicit lambda
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443 expression. Also, a function with a name can refer to itself---it can
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444 be recursive. Writing the function's name in its own definition is much
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445 more convenient than making the function definition point to itself
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446 (something that is not impossible but that has various disadvantages in
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447 practice).
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448
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449 We often identify functions with the symbols used to name them. For
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450 example, we often speak of ``the function @code{car}'', not
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451 distinguishing between the symbol @code{car} and the primitive
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452 subr-object that is its function definition. For most purposes, there
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453 is no need to distinguish.
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454
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455 Even so, keep in mind that a function need not have a unique name. While
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456 a given function object @emph{usually} appears in the function cell of only
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457 one symbol, this is just a matter of convenience. It is easy to store
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458 it in several symbols using @code{fset}; then each of the symbols is
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459 equally well a name for the same function.
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460
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461 A symbol used as a function name may also be used as a variable;
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462 these two uses of a symbol are independent and do not conflict.
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463 (Some Lisp dialects, such as Scheme, do not distinguish between a
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464 symbol's value and its function definition; a symbol's value as a variable
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465 is also its function definition.)
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466
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467 @node Defining Functions
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468 @section Defining Functions
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469 @cindex defining a function
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470
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471 We usually give a name to a function when it is first created. This
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472 is called @dfn{defining a function}, and it is done with the
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473 @code{defun} special form.
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474
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475 @defspec defun name argument-list body-forms
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476 @code{defun} is the usual way to define new Lisp functions. It
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477 defines the symbol @var{name} as a function that looks like this:
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478
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479 @example
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480 (lambda @var{argument-list} . @var{body-forms})
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481 @end example
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482
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483 @code{defun} stores this lambda expression in the function cell of
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484 @var{name}. It returns the value @var{name}, but usually we ignore this
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485 value.
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486
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487 As described previously (@pxref{Lambda Expressions}),
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488 @var{argument-list} is a list of argument names and may include the
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489 keywords @code{&optional} and @code{&rest}. Also, the first two of the
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490 @var{body-forms} may be a documentation string and an interactive
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491 declaration.
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492
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493 There is no conflict if the same symbol @var{name} is also used as a
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494 variable, since the symbol's value cell is independent of the function
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495 cell. @xref{Symbol Components}.
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496
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497 Here are some examples:
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498
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499 @example
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500 @group
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501 (defun foo () 5)
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502 @result{} foo
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503 @end group
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504 @group
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505 (foo)
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506 @result{} 5
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507 @end group
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508
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509 @group
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510 (defun bar (a &optional b &rest c)
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511 (list a b c))
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512 @result{} bar
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513 @end group
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514 @group
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515 (bar 1 2 3 4 5)
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516 @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5))
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517 @end group
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518 @group
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519 (bar 1)
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520 @result{} (1 nil nil)
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521 @end group
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522 @group
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523 (bar)
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524 @error{} Wrong number of arguments.
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525 @end group
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526
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527 @group
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528 (defun capitalize-backwards ()
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529 "Upcase the last letter of a word."
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530 (interactive)
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531 (backward-word 1)
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532 (forward-word 1)
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533 (backward-char 1)
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534 (capitalize-word 1))
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535 @result{} capitalize-backwards
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536 @end group
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537 @end example
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538
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539 Be careful not to redefine existing functions unintentionally.
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540 @code{defun} redefines even primitive functions such as @code{car}
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541 without any hesitation or notification. Redefining a function already
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542 defined is often done deliberately, and there is no way to distinguish
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543 deliberate redefinition from unintentional redefinition.
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544 @end defspec
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545
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546 @defun defalias name definition
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547 This special form defines the symbol @var{name} as a function, with
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548 definition @var{definition} (which can be any valid Lisp function).
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549
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550 The proper place to use @code{defalias} is where a specific function
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551 name is being defined---especially where that name appears explicitly in
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552 the source file being loaded. This is because @code{defalias} records
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553 which file defined the function, just like @code{defun}
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554 (@pxref{Unloading}).
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555
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556 By contrast, in programs that manipulate function definitions for other
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557 purposes, it is better to use @code{fset}, which does not keep such
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558 records.
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559 @end defun
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560
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561 See also @code{defsubst}, which defines a function like @code{defun}
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562 and tells the Lisp compiler to open-code it. @xref{Inline Functions}.
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563
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564 @node Calling Functions
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565 @section Calling Functions
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566 @cindex function invocation
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567 @cindex calling a function
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568
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569 Defining functions is only half the battle. Functions don't do
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570 anything until you @dfn{call} them, i.e., tell them to run. Calling a
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571 function is also known as @dfn{invocation}.
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572
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573 The most common way of invoking a function is by evaluating a list.
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574 For example, evaluating the list @code{(concat "a" "b")} calls the
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575 function @code{concat} with arguments @code{"a"} and @code{"b"}.
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576 @xref{Evaluation}, for a description of evaluation.
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577
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578 When you write a list as an expression in your program, the function
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579 name it calls is written in your program. This means that you choose
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580 which function to call, and how many arguments to give it, when you
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581 write the program. Usually that's just what you want. Occasionally you
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582 need to compute at run time which function to call. To do that, use the
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583 functions @code{funcall} and @code{apply}.
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584
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585 @defun funcall function &rest arguments
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586 @code{funcall} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, and returns
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587 whatever @var{function} returns.
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588
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589 Since @code{funcall} is a function, all of its arguments, including
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590 @var{function}, are evaluated before @code{funcall} is called. This
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591 means that you can use any expression to obtain the function to be
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592 called. It also means that @code{funcall} does not see the expressions
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593 you write for the @var{arguments}, only their values. These values are
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594 @emph{not} evaluated a second time in the act of calling @var{function};
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595 @code{funcall} enters the normal procedure for calling a function at the
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596 place where the arguments have already been evaluated.
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597
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598 The argument @var{function} must be either a Lisp function or a
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599 primitive function. Special forms and macros are not allowed, because
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600 they make sense only when given the ``unevaluated'' argument
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601 expressions. @code{funcall} cannot provide these because, as we saw
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602 above, it never knows them in the first place.
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603
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604 @example
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605 @group
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606 (setq f 'list)
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607 @result{} list
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608 @end group
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609 @group
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610 (funcall f 'x 'y 'z)
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611 @result{} (x y z)
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612 @end group
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613 @group
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614 (funcall f 'x 'y '(z))
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615 @result{} (x y (z))
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616 @end group
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617 @group
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618 (funcall 'and t nil)
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619 @error{} Invalid function: #<subr and>
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620 @end group
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621 @end example
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622
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623 Compare these example with the examples of @code{apply}.
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624 @end defun
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625
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626 @defun apply function &rest arguments
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627 @code{apply} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, just like
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628 @code{funcall} but with one difference: the last of @var{arguments} is a
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629 list of objects, which are passed to @var{function} as separate
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630 arguments, rather than a single list. We say that @code{apply}
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631 @dfn{spreads} this list so that each individual element becomes an
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632 argument.
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633
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634 @code{apply} returns the result of calling @var{function}. As with
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635 @code{funcall}, @var{function} must either be a Lisp function or a
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636 primitive function; special forms and macros do not make sense in
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637 @code{apply}.
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638
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639 @example
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640 @group
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641 (setq f 'list)
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642 @result{} list
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643 @end group
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644 @group
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645 (apply f 'x 'y 'z)
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646 @error{} Wrong type argument: listp, z
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647 @end group
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648 @group
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649 (apply '+ 1 2 '(3 4))
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650 @result{} 10
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651 @end group
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652 @group
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653 (apply '+ '(1 2 3 4))
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654 @result{} 10
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655 @end group
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656
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657 @group
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658 (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil))
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659 @result{} (a b c x y z)
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660 @end group
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661 @end example
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662
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663 For an interesting example of using @code{apply}, see the description of
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664 @code{mapcar}, in @ref{Mapping Functions}.
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665 @end defun
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666
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667 @cindex functionals
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668 It is common for Lisp functions to accept functions as arguments or
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669 find them in data structures (especially in hook variables and property
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670 lists) and call them using @code{funcall} or @code{apply}. Functions
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671 that accept function arguments are often called @dfn{functionals}.
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672
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673 Sometimes, when you call a functional, it is useful to supply a no-op
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674 function as the argument. Here are two different kinds of no-op
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675 function:
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676
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677 @defun identity arg
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678 This function returns @var{arg} and has no side effects.
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679 @end defun
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680
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681 @defun ignore &rest args
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682 This function ignores any arguments and returns @code{nil}.
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683 @end defun
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684
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685 @node Mapping Functions
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686 @section Mapping Functions
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687 @cindex mapping functions
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688
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689 A @dfn{mapping function} applies a given function to each element of a
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690 list or other collection. Emacs Lisp has several such functions;
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691 @code{mapcar} and @code{mapconcat}, which scan a list, are described
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692 here. @xref{Creating Symbols}, for the function @code{mapatoms} which
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693 maps over the symbols in an obarray. @xref{Char-Tables}, for the
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694 function @code{map-char-table}, which maps over the elements in a
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695 char-table.
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696
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697 @defun mapcar function sequence
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698 @code{mapcar} applies @var{function} to each element of @var{sequence}
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699 in turn, and returns a list of the results.
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700
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701 The argument @var{sequence} may be a list, a vector, or a string. The
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702 result is always a list. The length of the result is the same as the
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703 length of @var{sequence}.
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704
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705 @smallexample
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706 @group
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diff changeset
707 @exdent @r{For example:}
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parents:
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708
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parents:
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709 (mapcar 'car '((a b) (c d) (e f)))
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parents:
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710 @result{} (a c e)
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711 (mapcar '1+ [1 2 3])
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parents:
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712 @result{} (2 3 4)
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713 (mapcar 'char-to-string "abc")
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714 @result{} ("a" "b" "c")
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715 @end group
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716
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717 @group
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718 ;; @r{Call each function in @code{my-hooks}.}
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719 (mapcar 'funcall my-hooks)
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720 @end group
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721
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722 @group
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723 (defun mapcar* (f &rest args)
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parents:
diff changeset
724 "Apply FUNCTION to successive cars of all ARGS.
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725 Return the list of results."
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726 ;; @r{If no list is exhausted,}
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727 (if (not (memq 'nil args))
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728 ;; @r{apply function to @sc{CAR}s.}
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729 (cons (apply f (mapcar 'car args))
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730 (apply 'mapcar* f
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parents:
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731 ;; @r{Recurse for rest of elements.}
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732 (mapcar 'cdr args)))))
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733 @end group
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734
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735 @group
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736 (mapcar* 'cons '(a b c) '(1 2 3 4))
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737 @result{} ((a . 1) (b . 2) (c . 3))
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738 @end group
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739 @end smallexample
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740 @end defun
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741
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742 @defun mapconcat function sequence separator
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743 @code{mapconcat} applies @var{function} to each element of
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744 @var{sequence}: the results, which must be strings, are concatenated.
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745 Between each pair of result strings, @code{mapconcat} inserts the string
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746 @var{separator}. Usually @var{separator} contains a space or comma or
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747 other suitable punctuation.
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748
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749 The argument @var{function} must be a function that can take one
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750 argument and return a string.
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751
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752 @smallexample
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753 @group
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754 (mapconcat 'symbol-name
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755 '(The cat in the hat)
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756 " ")
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757 @result{} "The cat in the hat"
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758 @end group
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759
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760 @group
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761 (mapconcat (function (lambda (x) (format "%c" (1+ x))))
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762 "HAL-8000"
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763 "")
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764 @result{} "IBM.9111"
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765 @end group
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766 @end smallexample
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767 @end defun
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768
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769 @node Anonymous Functions
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770 @section Anonymous Functions
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771 @cindex anonymous function
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772
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773 In Lisp, a function is a list that starts with @code{lambda}, a
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774 byte-code function compiled from such a list, or alternatively a
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775 primitive subr-object; names are ``extra''. Although usually functions
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776 are defined with @code{defun} and given names at the same time, it is
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777 occasionally more concise to use an explicit lambda expression---an
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778 anonymous function. Such a list is valid wherever a function name is.
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779
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780 Any method of creating such a list makes a valid function. Even this:
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781
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782 @smallexample
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783 @group
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784 (setq silly (append '(lambda (x)) (list (list '+ (* 3 4) 'x))))
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785 @result{} (lambda (x) (+ 12 x))
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786 @end group
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787 @end smallexample
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788
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789 @noindent
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790 This computes a list that looks like @code{(lambda (x) (+ 12 x))} and
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791 makes it the value (@emph{not} the function definition!) of
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792 @code{silly}.
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793
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794 Here is how we might call this function:
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795
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796 @example
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797 @group
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798 (funcall silly 1)
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799 @result{} 13
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800 @end group
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801 @end example
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802
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803 @noindent
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804 (It does @emph{not} work to write @code{(silly 1)}, because this function
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805 is not the @emph{function definition} of @code{silly}. We have not given
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806 @code{silly} any function definition, just a value as a variable.)
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807
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808 Most of the time, anonymous functions are constants that appear in
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809 your program. For example, you might want to pass one as an argument to
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810 the function @code{mapcar}, which applies any given function to each
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811 element of a list.
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812
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813 Here we define a function @code{change-property} which
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814 uses a function as its third argument:
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815
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816 @example
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817 @group
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818 (defun change-property (symbol prop function)
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819 (let ((value (get symbol prop)))
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820 (put symbol prop (funcall function value))))
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821 @end group
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822 @end example
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823
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824 @noindent
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825 Here we define a function that uses @code{change-property},
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826 passing a function that doubles its argument:
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827
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828 @example
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829 @group
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830 (defun double-property (symbol prop)
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831 (change-property symbol prop '(lambda (x) (* 2 x))))
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832 @end group
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833 @end example
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834
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835 @noindent
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836 In such cases, we usually use the special form @code{function} instead
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837 of simple quotation to quote the anonymous function, like this:
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838
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839 @example
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840 @group
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841 (defun double-property (symbol prop)
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842 (change-property symbol prop (function (lambda (x) (* 2 x)))))
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843 @end group
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844 @end example
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845
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846 Using @code{function} instead of @code{quote} makes a difference if you
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847 compile the function @code{double-property}. For example, if you
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848 compile the second definition of @code{double-property}, the anonymous
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849 function is compiled as well. By contrast, if you compile the first
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850 definition which uses ordinary @code{quote}, the argument passed to
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851 @code{change-property} is the precise list shown:
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852
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853 @example
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854 (lambda (x) (* x 2))
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855 @end example
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856
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857 @noindent
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858 The Lisp compiler cannot assume this list is a function, even though it
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859 looks like one, since it does not know what @code{change-property} will
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860 do with the list. Perhaps will check whether the @sc{car} of the third
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861 element is the symbol @code{*}! Using @code{function} tells the
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862 compiler it is safe to go ahead and compile the constant function.
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863
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864 We sometimes write @code{function} instead of @code{quote} when
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diff changeset
865 quoting the name of a function, but this usage is just a sort of
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866 comment:
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867
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868 @example
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869 (function @var{symbol}) @equiv{} (quote @var{symbol}) @equiv{} '@var{symbol}
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870 @end example
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871
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872 @defspec function function-object
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873 @cindex function quoting
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874 This special form returns @var{function-object} without evaluating it.
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875 In this, it is equivalent to @code{quote}. However, it serves as a
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876 note to the Emacs Lisp compiler that @var{function-object} is intended
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877 to be used only as a function, and therefore can safely be compiled.
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878 Contrast this with @code{quote}, in @ref{Quoting}.
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879 @end defspec
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880
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881 See @code{documentation} in @ref{Accessing Documentation}, for a
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882 realistic example using @code{function} and an anonymous function.
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883
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884 @node Function Cells
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885 @section Accessing Function Cell Contents
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886
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887 The @dfn{function definition} of a symbol is the object stored in the
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diff changeset
888 function cell of the symbol. The functions described here access, test,
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889 and set the function cell of symbols.
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890
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891 See also the function @code{indirect-function} in @ref{Function
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892 Indirection}.
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893
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894 @defun symbol-function symbol
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895 @kindex void-function
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896 This returns the object in the function cell of @var{symbol}. If the
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897 symbol's function cell is void, a @code{void-function} error is
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898 signaled.
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899
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900 This function does not check that the returned object is a legitimate
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901 function.
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902
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903 @example
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904 @group
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905 (defun bar (n) (+ n 2))
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906 @result{} bar
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907 @end group
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908 @group
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909 (symbol-function 'bar)
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910 @result{} (lambda (n) (+ n 2))
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911 @end group
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912 @group
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913 (fset 'baz 'bar)
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914 @result{} bar
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915 @end group
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916 @group
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917 (symbol-function 'baz)
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918 @result{} bar
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919 @end group
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920 @end example
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921 @end defun
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922
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923 @cindex void function cell
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924 If you have never given a symbol any function definition, we say that
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925 that symbol's function cell is @dfn{void}. In other words, the function
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926 cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to call such a symbol
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927 as a function, it signals a @code{void-function} error.
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928
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929 Note that void is not the same as @code{nil} or the symbol
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930 @code{void}. The symbols @code{nil} and @code{void} are Lisp objects,
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931 and can be stored into a function cell just as any other object can be
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932 (and they can be valid functions if you define them in turn with
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933 @code{defun}). A void function cell contains no object whatsoever.
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934
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935 You can test the voidness of a symbol's function definition with
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936 @code{fboundp}. After you have given a symbol a function definition, you
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937 can make it void once more using @code{fmakunbound}.
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938
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939 @defun fboundp symbol
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940 This function returns @code{t} if the symbol has an object in its
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941 function cell, @code{nil} otherwise. It does not check that the object
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942 is a legitimate function.
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943 @end defun
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944
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945 @defun fmakunbound symbol
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946 This function makes @var{symbol}'s function cell void, so that a
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diff changeset
947 subsequent attempt to access this cell will cause a @code{void-function}
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948 error. (See also @code{makunbound}, in @ref{Local Variables}.)
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949
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950 @example
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951 @group
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952 (defun foo (x) x)
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953 @result{} foo
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954 @end group
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955 @group
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956 (foo 1)
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957 @result{}1
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958 @end group
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959 @group
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960 (fmakunbound 'foo)
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961 @result{} foo
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962 @end group
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963 @group
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964 (foo 1)
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965 @error{} Symbol's function definition is void: foo
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966 @end group
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967 @end example
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968 @end defun
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969
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diff changeset
970 @defun fset symbol definition
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971 This function stores @var{definition} in the function cell of
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972 @var{symbol}. The result is @var{definition}. Normally
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973 @var{definition} should be a function or the name of a function, but
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974 this is not checked. The argument @var{symbol} is an ordinary evaluated
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975 argument.
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976
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977 There are three normal uses of this function:
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978
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979 @itemize @bullet
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980 @item
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981 Copying one symbol's function definition to another. (In other words,
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982 making an alternate name for a function.)
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983
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984 @item
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985 Giving a symbol a function definition that is not a list and therefore
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986 cannot be made with @code{defun}. For example, you can use @code{fset}
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987 to give a symbol @code{s1} a function definition which is another symbol
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988 @code{s2}; then @code{s1} serves as an alias for whatever definition
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989 @code{s2} presently has.
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990
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991 @item
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992 In constructs for defining or altering functions. If @code{defun}
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993 were not a primitive, it could be written in Lisp (as a macro) using
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994 @code{fset}.
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995 @end itemize
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996
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997 Here are examples of the first two uses:
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998
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999 @example
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1000 @group
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1001 ;; @r{Give @code{first} the same definition @code{car} has.}
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1002 (fset 'first (symbol-function 'car))
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1003 @result{} #<subr car>
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1004 @end group
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1005 @group
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1006 (first '(1 2 3))
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1007 @result{} 1
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1008 @end group
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1009
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1010 @group
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1011 ;; @r{Make the symbol @code{car} the function definition of @code{xfirst}.}
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1012 (fset 'xfirst 'car)
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1013 @result{} car
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1014 @end group
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1015 @group
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1016 (xfirst '(1 2 3))
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1017 @result{} 1
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1018 @end group
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1019 @group
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1020 (symbol-function 'xfirst)
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1021 @result{} car
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1022 @end group
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1023 @group
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1024 (symbol-function (symbol-function 'xfirst))
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1025 @result{} #<subr car>
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1026 @end group
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1027
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1028 @group
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1029 ;; @r{Define a named keyboard macro.}
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1030 (fset 'kill-two-lines "\^u2\^k")
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1031 @result{} "\^u2\^k"
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1032 @end group
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1033 @end example
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1034
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1035 See also the related function @code{defalias}, in @ref{Defining
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1036 Functions}.
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1037 @end defun
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1038
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1039 When writing a function that extends a previously defined function,
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1040 the following idiom is sometimes used:
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1041
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1042 @example
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1043 (fset 'old-foo (symbol-function 'foo))
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1044 (defun foo ()
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1045 "Just like old-foo, except more so."
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1046 @group
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1047 (old-foo)
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1048 (more-so))
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1049 @end group
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1050 @end example
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1051
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1052 @noindent
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1053 This does not work properly if @code{foo} has been defined to autoload.
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1054 In such a case, when @code{foo} calls @code{old-foo}, Lisp attempts
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diff changeset
1055 to define @code{old-foo} by loading a file. Since this presumably
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diff changeset
1056 defines @code{foo} rather than @code{old-foo}, it does not produce the
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diff changeset
1057 proper results. The only way to avoid this problem is to make sure the
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1058 file is loaded before moving aside the old definition of @code{foo}.
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1059
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1060 But it is unmodular and unclean, in any case, for a Lisp file to
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1061 redefine a function defined elsewhere.
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1062
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1063 @node Inline Functions
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1064 @section Inline Functions
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1065 @cindex inline functions
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1066
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1067 @findex defsubst
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1068 You can define an @dfn{inline function} by using @code{defsubst} instead
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1069 of @code{defun}. An inline function works just like an ordinary
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1070 function except for one thing: when you compile a call to the function,
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1071 the function's definition is open-coded into the caller.
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1072
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1073 Making a function inline makes explicit calls run faster. But it also
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1074 has disadvantages. For one thing, it reduces flexibility; if you change
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1075 the definition of the function, calls already inlined still use the old
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1076 definition until you recompile them. Since the flexibility of
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1077 redefining functions is an important feature of Emacs, you should not
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1078 make a function inline unless its speed is really crucial.
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1079
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1080 Another disadvantage is that making a large function inline can increase
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1081 the size of compiled code both in files and in memory. Since the speed
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1082 advantage of inline functions is greatest for small functions, you
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1083 generally should not make large functions inline.
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1084
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1085 It's possible to define a macro to expand into the same code that an
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1086 inline function would execute. But the macro would have a limitation:
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1087 you can use it only explicitly---a macro cannot be called with
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1088 @code{apply}, @code{mapcar} and so on. Also, it takes some work to
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1089 convert an ordinary function into a macro. (@xref{Macros}.) To convert
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1090 it into an inline function is very easy; simply replace @code{defun}
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1091 with @code{defsubst}. Since each argument of an inline function is
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1092 evaluated exactly once, you needn't worry about how many times the
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1093 body uses the arguments, as you do for macros. (@xref{Argument
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1094 Evaluation}.)
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1095
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1096 Inline functions can be used and open-coded later on in the same file,
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1097 following the definition, just like macros.
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1098
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1099 @c Emacs versions prior to 19 did not have inline functions.
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1100
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1101 @node Related Topics
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1102 @section Other Topics Related to Functions
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1103
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1104 Here is a table of several functions that do things related to
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1105 function calling and function definitions. They are documented
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1106 elsewhere, but we provide cross references here.
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1107
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1108 @table @code
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1109 @item apply
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1110 See @ref{Calling Functions}.
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1111
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1112 @item autoload
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1113 See @ref{Autoload}.
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1114
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1115 @item call-interactively
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1116 See @ref{Interactive Call}.
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1117
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1118 @item commandp
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1119 See @ref{Interactive Call}.
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1120
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1121 @item documentation
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1122 See @ref{Accessing Documentation}.
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1123
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1124 @item eval
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1125 See @ref{Eval}.
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1126
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1127 @item funcall
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1128 See @ref{Calling Functions}.
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1129
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1130 @item ignore
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1131 See @ref{Calling Functions}.
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1132
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1133 @item indirect-function
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1134 See @ref{Function Indirection}.
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1135
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1136 @item interactive
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1137 See @ref{Using Interactive}.
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1138
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1139 @item interactive-p
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1140 See @ref{Interactive Call}.
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1141
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1142 @item mapatoms
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1143 See @ref{Creating Symbols}.
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1144
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1145 @item mapcar
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1146 See @ref{Mapping Functions}.
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1147
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1148 @item mapconcat
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1149 See @ref{Mapping Functions}.
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1150
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1151 @item undefined
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1152 See @ref{Key Lookup}.
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1153 @end table
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1154