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author | Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org> |
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date | Sat, 23 May 1998 20:00:18 +0000 |
parents | d4ac295a98b3 |
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6510 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6510 | 4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
5 @setfilename ../info/numbers | |
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6 @node Numbers, Strings and Characters, Lisp Data Types, Top |
6510 | 7 @chapter Numbers |
8 @cindex integers | |
9 @cindex numbers | |
10 | |
11 GNU Emacs supports two numeric data types: @dfn{integers} and | |
12 @dfn{floating point numbers}. Integers are whole numbers such as | |
13 @minus{}3, 0, 7, 13, and 511. Their values are exact. Floating point | |
14 numbers are numbers with fractional parts, such as @minus{}4.5, 0.0, or | |
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15 2.71828. They can also be expressed in exponential notation: 1.5e2 |
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16 equals 150; in this example, @samp{e2} stands for ten to the second |
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17 power, and that is multiplied by 1.5. Floating point values are not |
6510 | 18 exact; they have a fixed, limited amount of precision. |
19 | |
20 @menu | |
21 * Integer Basics:: Representation and range of integers. | |
22 * Float Basics:: Representation and range of floating point. | |
23 * Predicates on Numbers:: Testing for numbers. | |
24 * Comparison of Numbers:: Equality and inequality predicates. | |
25 * Numeric Conversions:: Converting float to integer and vice versa. | |
26 * Arithmetic Operations:: How to add, subtract, multiply and divide. | |
27 * Rounding Operations:: Explicitly rounding floating point numbers. | |
28 * Bitwise Operations:: Logical and, or, not, shifting. | |
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29 * Math Functions:: Trig, exponential and logarithmic functions. |
6510 | 30 * Random Numbers:: Obtaining random integers, predictable or not. |
31 @end menu | |
32 | |
33 @node Integer Basics | |
34 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
35 @section Integer Basics | |
36 | |
37 The range of values for an integer depends on the machine. The | |
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38 minimum range is @minus{}134217728 to 134217727 (28 bits; i.e., |
6510 | 39 @ifinfo |
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40 -2**27 |
6510 | 41 @end ifinfo |
42 @tex | |
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43 $-2^{27}$ |
6510 | 44 @end tex |
45 to | |
46 @ifinfo | |
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47 2**27 - 1), |
6510 | 48 @end ifinfo |
49 @tex | |
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50 $2^{27}-1$), |
6510 | 51 @end tex |
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52 but some machines may provide a wider range. Many examples in this |
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53 chapter assume an integer has 28 bits. |
6510 | 54 @cindex overflow |
55 | |
56 The Lisp reader reads an integer as a sequence of digits with optional | |
57 initial sign and optional final period. | |
58 | |
59 @example | |
60 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
61 1. ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
62 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} | |
63 -1 ; @r{The integer @minus{}1.} | |
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64 268435457 ; @r{Also the integer 1, due to overflow.} |
6510 | 65 0 ; @r{The integer 0.} |
66 -0 ; @r{The integer 0.} | |
67 @end example | |
68 | |
69 To understand how various functions work on integers, especially the | |
70 bitwise operators (@pxref{Bitwise Operations}), it is often helpful to | |
71 view the numbers in their binary form. | |
72 | |
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73 In 28-bit binary, the decimal integer 5 looks like this: |
6510 | 74 |
75 @example | |
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76 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101 |
6510 | 77 @end example |
78 | |
79 @noindent | |
80 (We have inserted spaces between groups of 4 bits, and two spaces | |
81 between groups of 8 bits, to make the binary integer easier to read.) | |
82 | |
83 The integer @minus{}1 looks like this: | |
84 | |
85 @example | |
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86 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 87 @end example |
88 | |
89 @noindent | |
90 @cindex two's complement | |
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91 @minus{}1 is represented as 28 ones. (This is called @dfn{two's |
6510 | 92 complement} notation.) |
93 | |
94 The negative integer, @minus{}5, is creating by subtracting 4 from | |
95 @minus{}1. In binary, the decimal integer 4 is 100. Consequently, | |
96 @minus{}5 looks like this: | |
97 | |
98 @example | |
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99 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011 |
6510 | 100 @end example |
101 | |
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102 In this implementation, the largest 28-bit binary integer value is |
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103 134,217,727 in decimal. In binary, it looks like this: |
6510 | 104 |
105 @example | |
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106 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 107 @end example |
108 | |
109 Since the arithmetic functions do not check whether integers go | |
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110 outside their range, when you add 1 to 134,217,727, the value is the |
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111 negative integer @minus{}134,217,728: |
6510 | 112 |
113 @example | |
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114 (+ 1 134217727) |
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115 @result{} -134217728 |
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116 @result{} 1000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 |
6510 | 117 @end example |
118 | |
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119 Many of the functions described in this chapter accept markers for |
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120 arguments in place of numbers. (@xref{Markers}.) Since the actual |
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121 arguments to such functions may be either numbers or markers, we often |
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122 give these arguments the name @var{number-or-marker}. When the argument |
6510 | 123 value is a marker, its position value is used and its buffer is ignored. |
124 | |
125 @node Float Basics | |
126 @section Floating Point Basics | |
127 | |
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128 Floating point numbers are useful for representing numbers that are |
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129 not integral. The precise range of floating point numbers is |
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130 machine-specific; it is the same as the range of the C data type |
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131 @code{double} on the machine you are using. |
6510 | 132 |
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133 The read-syntax for floating point numbers requires either a decimal |
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134 point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or both. For |
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135 example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, @samp{1.5e3}, and |
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136 @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point number whose |
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137 value is 1500. They are all equivalent. You can also use a minus sign |
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138 to write negative floating point numbers, as in @samp{-1.0}. |
6510 | 139 |
140 @cindex IEEE floating point | |
141 @cindex positive infinity | |
142 @cindex negative infinity | |
143 @cindex infinity | |
144 @cindex NaN | |
145 Most modern computers support the IEEE floating point standard, which | |
146 provides for positive infinity and negative infinity as floating point | |
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147 values. It also provides for a class of values called NaN or |
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148 ``not-a-number''; numerical functions return such values in cases where |
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149 there is no correct answer. For example, @code{(sqrt -1.0)} returns a |
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150 NaN. For practical purposes, there's no significant difference between |
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151 different NaN values in Emacs Lisp, and there's no rule for precisely |
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152 which NaN value should be used in a particular case, so Emacs Lisp |
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153 doesn't try to distinguish them. Here are the read syntaxes for |
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154 these special floating point values: |
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155 |
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156 @table @asis |
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157 @item positive infinity |
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158 @samp{1.0e+INF} |
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159 @item negative infinity |
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160 @samp{-1.0e+INF} |
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161 @item Not-a-number |
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162 @samp{0.0e+NaN}. |
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163 @end table |
6510 | 164 |
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165 In addition, the value @code{-0.0} is distinguishable from ordinary |
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166 zero in IEEE floating point (although @code{equal} and @code{=} consider |
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167 them equal values). |
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168 |
6510 | 169 You can use @code{logb} to extract the binary exponent of a floating |
170 point number (or estimate the logarithm of an integer): | |
171 | |
172 @defun logb number | |
173 This function returns the binary exponent of @var{number}. More | |
174 precisely, the value is the logarithm of @var{number} base 2, rounded | |
175 down to an integer. | |
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176 |
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177 @example |
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178 (logb 10) |
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179 @result{} 3 |
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180 (logb 10.0e20) |
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181 @result{} 69 |
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182 @end example |
6510 | 183 @end defun |
184 | |
185 @node Predicates on Numbers | |
186 @section Type Predicates for Numbers | |
187 | |
188 The functions in this section test whether the argument is a number or | |
189 whether it is a certain sort of number. The functions @code{integerp} | |
190 and @code{floatp} can take any type of Lisp object as argument (the | |
191 predicates would not be of much use otherwise); but the @code{zerop} | |
192 predicate requires a number as its argument. See also | |
193 @code{integer-or-marker-p} and @code{number-or-marker-p}, in | |
194 @ref{Predicates on Markers}. | |
195 | |
196 @defun floatp object | |
197 This predicate tests whether its argument is a floating point | |
198 number and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
199 | |
200 @code{floatp} does not exist in Emacs versions 18 and earlier. | |
201 @end defun | |
202 | |
203 @defun integerp object | |
204 This predicate tests whether its argument is an integer, and returns | |
205 @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
206 @end defun | |
207 | |
208 @defun numberp object | |
209 This predicate tests whether its argument is a number (either integer or | |
210 floating point), and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
211 @end defun | |
212 | |
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213 @defun wholenump object |
6510 | 214 @cindex natural numbers |
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215 The @code{wholenump} predicate (whose name comes from the phrase |
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216 ``whole-number-p'') tests to see whether its argument is a nonnegative |
6510 | 217 integer, and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. 0 is |
218 considered non-negative. | |
219 | |
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220 @findex natnump |
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221 @code{natnump} is an obsolete synonym for @code{wholenump}. |
6510 | 222 @end defun |
223 | |
224 @defun zerop number | |
225 This predicate tests whether its argument is zero, and returns @code{t} | |
226 if so, @code{nil} otherwise. The argument must be a number. | |
227 | |
228 These two forms are equivalent: @code{(zerop x)} @equiv{} @code{(= x 0)}. | |
229 @end defun | |
230 | |
231 @node Comparison of Numbers | |
232 @section Comparison of Numbers | |
233 @cindex number equality | |
234 | |
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235 To test numbers for numerical equality, you should normally use |
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236 @code{=}, not @code{eq}. There can be many distinct floating point |
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237 number objects with the same numeric value. If you use @code{eq} to |
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238 compare them, then you test whether two values are the same |
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239 @emph{object}. By contrast, @code{=} compares only the numeric values |
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240 of the objects. |
6510 | 241 |
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242 At present, each integer value has a unique Lisp object in Emacs Lisp. |
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243 Therefore, @code{eq} is equivalent to @code{=} where integers are |
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244 concerned. It is sometimes convenient to use @code{eq} for comparing an |
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245 unknown value with an integer, because @code{eq} does not report an |
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246 error if the unknown value is not a number---it accepts arguments of any |
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247 type. By contrast, @code{=} signals an error if the arguments are not |
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248 numbers or markers. However, it is a good idea to use @code{=} if you |
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249 can, even for comparing integers, just in case we change the |
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250 representation of integers in a future Emacs version. |
6510 | 251 |
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252 Sometimes it is useful to compare numbers with @code{equal}; it treats |
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253 two numbers as equal if they have the same data type (both integers, or |
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254 both floating point) and the same value. By contrast, @code{=} can |
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255 treat an integer and a floating point number as equal. |
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256 |
6510 | 257 There is another wrinkle: because floating point arithmetic is not |
258 exact, it is often a bad idea to check for equality of two floating | |
259 point values. Usually it is better to test for approximate equality. | |
260 Here's a function to do this: | |
261 | |
262 @example | |
263 (defvar fuzz-factor 1.0e-6) | |
264 (defun approx-equal (x y) | |
12098 | 265 (or (and (= x 0) (= y 0)) |
266 (< (/ (abs (- x y)) | |
267 (max (abs x) (abs y))) | |
268 fuzz-factor))) | |
6510 | 269 @end example |
270 | |
271 @cindex CL note---integers vrs @code{eq} | |
272 @quotation | |
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273 @b{Common Lisp note:} Comparing numbers in Common Lisp always requires |
6510 | 274 @code{=} because Common Lisp implements multi-word integers, and two |
275 distinct integer objects can have the same numeric value. Emacs Lisp | |
276 can have just one integer object for any given value because it has a | |
277 limited range of integer values. | |
278 @end quotation | |
279 | |
280 @defun = number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
281 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and | |
282 returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
283 @end defun | |
284 | |
285 @defun /= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
286 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and | |
287 returns @code{t} if they are not, and @code{nil} if they are. | |
288 @end defun | |
289 | |
290 @defun < number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
291 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly less than | |
292 its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
293 @end defun | |
294 | |
295 @defun <= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
296 This function tests whether its first argument is less than or equal | |
297 to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
298 otherwise. | |
299 @end defun | |
300 | |
301 @defun > number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
302 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly greater | |
303 than its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
304 otherwise. | |
305 @end defun | |
306 | |
307 @defun >= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
308 This function tests whether its first argument is greater than or | |
309 equal to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
310 otherwise. | |
311 @end defun | |
312 | |
313 @defun max number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers | |
314 This function returns the largest of its arguments. | |
315 | |
316 @example | |
317 (max 20) | |
318 @result{} 20 | |
319 (max 1 2.5) | |
320 @result{} 2.5 | |
321 (max 1 3 2.5) | |
322 @result{} 3 | |
323 @end example | |
324 @end defun | |
325 | |
326 @defun min number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers | |
327 This function returns the smallest of its arguments. | |
328 | |
329 @example | |
330 (min -4 1) | |
331 @result{} -4 | |
332 @end example | |
333 @end defun | |
334 | |
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335 @defun abs number |
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336 This function returns the absolute value of @var{number}. |
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337 @end defun |
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338 |
6510 | 339 @node Numeric Conversions |
340 @section Numeric Conversions | |
341 @cindex rounding in conversions | |
342 | |
343 To convert an integer to floating point, use the function @code{float}. | |
344 | |
345 @defun float number | |
346 This returns @var{number} converted to floating point. | |
347 If @var{number} is already a floating point number, @code{float} returns | |
348 it unchanged. | |
349 @end defun | |
350 | |
351 There are four functions to convert floating point numbers to integers; | |
352 they differ in how they round. These functions accept integer arguments | |
353 also, and return such arguments unchanged. | |
354 | |
355 @defun truncate number | |
356 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards | |
357 zero. | |
358 @end defun | |
359 | |
360 @defun floor number &optional divisor | |
361 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding downward | |
362 (towards negative infinity). | |
363 | |
364 If @var{divisor} is specified, @var{number} is divided by @var{divisor} | |
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365 before the floor is taken; this uses the kind of division operation that |
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366 corresponds to @code{mod}, rounding downward. An @code{arith-error} |
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367 results if @var{divisor} is 0. |
6510 | 368 @end defun |
369 | |
370 @defun ceiling number | |
371 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding upward | |
372 (towards positive infinity). | |
373 @end defun | |
374 | |
375 @defun round number | |
376 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards the | |
12098 | 377 nearest integer. Rounding a value equidistant between two integers |
378 may choose the integer closer to zero, or it may prefer an even integer, | |
379 depending on your machine. | |
6510 | 380 @end defun |
381 | |
382 @node Arithmetic Operations | |
383 @section Arithmetic Operations | |
384 | |
385 Emacs Lisp provides the traditional four arithmetic operations: | |
386 addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Remainder and modulus | |
387 functions supplement the division functions. The functions to | |
388 add or subtract 1 are provided because they are traditional in Lisp and | |
389 commonly used. | |
390 | |
391 All of these functions except @code{%} return a floating point value | |
392 if any argument is floating. | |
393 | |
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394 It is important to note that in Emacs Lisp, arithmetic functions |
12067 | 395 do not check for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 134217727)} may evaluate to |
396 @minus{}134217728, depending on your hardware. | |
6510 | 397 |
398 @defun 1+ number-or-marker | |
399 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} plus 1. | |
400 For example, | |
401 | |
402 @example | |
403 (setq foo 4) | |
404 @result{} 4 | |
405 (1+ foo) | |
406 @result{} 5 | |
407 @end example | |
408 | |
12098 | 409 This function is not analogous to the C operator @code{++}---it does not |
410 increment a variable. It just computes a sum. Thus, if we continue, | |
6510 | 411 |
412 @example | |
413 foo | |
414 @result{} 4 | |
415 @end example | |
416 | |
417 If you want to increment the variable, you must use @code{setq}, | |
418 like this: | |
419 | |
420 @example | |
421 (setq foo (1+ foo)) | |
422 @result{} 5 | |
423 @end example | |
424 @end defun | |
425 | |
426 @defun 1- number-or-marker | |
427 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} minus 1. | |
428 @end defun | |
429 | |
430 @defun + &rest numbers-or-markers | |
431 This function adds its arguments together. When given no arguments, | |
12098 | 432 @code{+} returns 0. |
6510 | 433 |
434 @example | |
435 (+) | |
436 @result{} 0 | |
437 (+ 1) | |
438 @result{} 1 | |
439 (+ 1 2 3 4) | |
440 @result{} 10 | |
441 @end example | |
442 @end defun | |
443 | |
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444 @defun - &optional number-or-marker &rest more-numbers-or-markers |
6510 | 445 The @code{-} function serves two purposes: negation and subtraction. |
446 When @code{-} has a single argument, the value is the negative of the | |
447 argument. When there are multiple arguments, @code{-} subtracts each of | |
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448 the @var{more-numbers-or-markers} from @var{number-or-marker}, |
12098 | 449 cumulatively. If there are no arguments, the result is 0. |
6510 | 450 |
451 @example | |
452 (- 10 1 2 3 4) | |
453 @result{} 0 | |
454 (- 10) | |
455 @result{} -10 | |
456 (-) | |
457 @result{} 0 | |
458 @end example | |
459 @end defun | |
460 | |
461 @defun * &rest numbers-or-markers | |
462 This function multiplies its arguments together, and returns the | |
12098 | 463 product. When given no arguments, @code{*} returns 1. |
6510 | 464 |
465 @example | |
466 (*) | |
467 @result{} 1 | |
468 (* 1) | |
469 @result{} 1 | |
470 (* 1 2 3 4) | |
471 @result{} 24 | |
472 @end example | |
473 @end defun | |
474 | |
475 @defun / dividend divisor &rest divisors | |
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476 This function divides @var{dividend} by @var{divisor} and returns the |
6510 | 477 quotient. If there are additional arguments @var{divisors}, then it |
478 divides @var{dividend} by each divisor in turn. Each argument may be a | |
479 number or a marker. | |
480 | |
481 If all the arguments are integers, then the result is an integer too. | |
482 This means the result has to be rounded. On most machines, the result | |
483 is rounded towards zero after each division, but some machines may round | |
484 differently with negative arguments. This is because the Lisp function | |
485 @code{/} is implemented using the C division operator, which also | |
486 permits machine-dependent rounding. As a practical matter, all known | |
487 machines round in the standard fashion. | |
488 | |
489 @cindex @code{arith-error} in division | |
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490 If you divide an integer by 0, an @code{arith-error} error is signaled. |
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491 (@xref{Errors}.) Floating point division by zero returns either |
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492 infinity or a NaN if your machine supports IEEE floating point; |
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493 otherwise, it signals an @code{arith-error} error. |
6510 | 494 |
495 @example | |
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496 @group |
6510 | 497 (/ 6 2) |
498 @result{} 3 | |
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499 @end group |
6510 | 500 (/ 5 2) |
501 @result{} 2 | |
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502 (/ 5.0 2) |
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503 @result{} 2.5 |
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504 (/ 5 2.0) |
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505 @result{} 2.5 |
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506 (/ 5.0 2.0) |
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507 @result{} 2.5 |
6510 | 508 (/ 25 3 2) |
509 @result{} 4 | |
510 (/ -17 6) | |
511 @result{} -2 | |
512 @end example | |
513 | |
514 The result of @code{(/ -17 6)} could in principle be -3 on some | |
515 machines. | |
516 @end defun | |
517 | |
518 @defun % dividend divisor | |
519 @cindex remainder | |
520 This function returns the integer remainder after division of @var{dividend} | |
521 by @var{divisor}. The arguments must be integers or markers. | |
522 | |
523 For negative arguments, the remainder is in principle machine-dependent | |
524 since the quotient is; but in practice, all known machines behave alike. | |
525 | |
526 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. | |
527 | |
528 @example | |
529 (% 9 4) | |
530 @result{} 1 | |
531 (% -9 4) | |
532 @result{} -1 | |
533 (% 9 -4) | |
534 @result{} 1 | |
535 (% -9 -4) | |
536 @result{} -1 | |
537 @end example | |
538 | |
539 For any two integers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor}, | |
540 | |
541 @example | |
542 @group | |
543 (+ (% @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) | |
544 (* (/ @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor})) | |
545 @end group | |
546 @end example | |
547 | |
548 @noindent | |
549 always equals @var{dividend}. | |
550 @end defun | |
551 | |
552 @defun mod dividend divisor | |
553 @cindex modulus | |
554 This function returns the value of @var{dividend} modulo @var{divisor}; | |
555 in other words, the remainder after division of @var{dividend} | |
556 by @var{divisor}, but with the same sign as @var{divisor}. | |
557 The arguments must be numbers or markers. | |
558 | |
559 Unlike @code{%}, @code{mod} returns a well-defined result for negative | |
560 arguments. It also permits floating point arguments; it rounds the | |
561 quotient downward (towards minus infinity) to an integer, and uses that | |
562 quotient to compute the remainder. | |
563 | |
564 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. | |
565 | |
566 @example | |
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567 @group |
6510 | 568 (mod 9 4) |
569 @result{} 1 | |
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570 @end group |
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571 @group |
6510 | 572 (mod -9 4) |
573 @result{} 3 | |
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574 @end group |
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575 @group |
6510 | 576 (mod 9 -4) |
577 @result{} -3 | |
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578 @end group |
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579 @group |
6510 | 580 (mod -9 -4) |
581 @result{} -1 | |
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582 @end group |
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583 @group |
6510 | 584 (mod 5.5 2.5) |
585 @result{} .5 | |
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586 @end group |
6510 | 587 @end example |
588 | |
589 For any two numbers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor}, | |
590 | |
591 @example | |
592 @group | |
593 (+ (mod @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) | |
594 (* (floor @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor})) | |
595 @end group | |
596 @end example | |
597 | |
598 @noindent | |
12098 | 599 always equals @var{dividend}, subject to rounding error if either |
600 argument is floating point. For @code{floor}, see @ref{Numeric | |
601 Conversions}. | |
6510 | 602 @end defun |
603 | |
604 @node Rounding Operations | |
605 @section Rounding Operations | |
606 @cindex rounding without conversion | |
607 | |
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608 The functions @code{ffloor}, @code{fceiling}, @code{fround}, and |
6510 | 609 @code{ftruncate} take a floating point argument and return a floating |
610 point result whose value is a nearby integer. @code{ffloor} returns the | |
8017 | 611 nearest integer below; @code{fceiling}, the nearest integer above; |
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612 @code{ftruncate}, the nearest integer in the direction towards zero; |
6510 | 613 @code{fround}, the nearest integer. |
614 | |
615 @defun ffloor float | |
616 This function rounds @var{float} to the next lower integral value, and | |
617 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
618 @end defun | |
619 | |
8017 | 620 @defun fceiling float |
6510 | 621 This function rounds @var{float} to the next higher integral value, and |
622 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
623 @end defun | |
624 | |
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625 @defun ftruncate float |
6510 | 626 This function rounds @var{float} towards zero to an integral value, and |
627 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
628 @end defun | |
629 | |
630 @defun fround float | |
631 This function rounds @var{float} to the nearest integral value, | |
632 and returns that value as a floating point number. | |
633 @end defun | |
634 | |
635 @node Bitwise Operations | |
636 @section Bitwise Operations on Integers | |
637 | |
638 In a computer, an integer is represented as a binary number, a | |
639 sequence of @dfn{bits} (digits which are either zero or one). A bitwise | |
640 operation acts on the individual bits of such a sequence. For example, | |
641 @dfn{shifting} moves the whole sequence left or right one or more places, | |
642 reproducing the same pattern ``moved over''. | |
643 | |
644 The bitwise operations in Emacs Lisp apply only to integers. | |
645 | |
646 @defun lsh integer1 count | |
647 @cindex logical shift | |
648 @code{lsh}, which is an abbreviation for @dfn{logical shift}, shifts the | |
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649 bits in @var{integer1} to the left @var{count} places, or to the right |
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650 if @var{count} is negative, bringing zeros into the vacated bits. If |
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651 @var{count} is negative, @code{lsh} shifts zeros into the leftmost |
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652 (most-significant) bit, producing a positive result even if |
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653 @var{integer1} is negative. Contrast this with @code{ash}, below. |
6510 | 654 |
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655 Here are two examples of @code{lsh}, shifting a pattern of bits one |
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656 place to the left. We show only the low-order eight bits of the binary |
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657 pattern; the rest are all zero. |
6510 | 658 |
659 @example | |
660 @group | |
661 (lsh 5 1) | |
662 @result{} 10 | |
663 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 10.} | |
664 00000101 @result{} 00001010 | |
665 | |
666 (lsh 7 1) | |
667 @result{} 14 | |
668 ;; @r{Decimal 7 becomes decimal 14.} | |
669 00000111 @result{} 00001110 | |
670 @end group | |
671 @end example | |
672 | |
673 @noindent | |
674 As the examples illustrate, shifting the pattern of bits one place to | |
675 the left produces a number that is twice the value of the previous | |
676 number. | |
677 | |
12098 | 678 Shifting a pattern of bits two places to the left produces results |
679 like this (with 8-bit binary numbers): | |
680 | |
681 @example | |
682 @group | |
683 (lsh 3 2) | |
684 @result{} 12 | |
685 ;; @r{Decimal 3 becomes decimal 12.} | |
686 00000011 @result{} 00001100 | |
687 @end group | |
688 @end example | |
689 | |
690 On the other hand, shifting one place to the right looks like this: | |
691 | |
692 @example | |
693 @group | |
694 (lsh 6 -1) | |
695 @result{} 3 | |
696 ;; @r{Decimal 6 becomes decimal 3.} | |
697 00000110 @result{} 00000011 | |
698 @end group | |
699 | |
700 @group | |
701 (lsh 5 -1) | |
702 @result{} 2 | |
703 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 2.} | |
704 00000101 @result{} 00000010 | |
705 @end group | |
706 @end example | |
707 | |
708 @noindent | |
709 As the example illustrates, shifting one place to the right divides the | |
710 value of a positive integer by two, rounding downward. | |
711 | |
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712 The function @code{lsh}, like all Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions, does |
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713 not check for overflow, so shifting left can discard significant bits |
12067 | 714 and change the sign of the number. For example, left shifting |
715 134,217,727 produces @minus{}2 on a 28-bit machine: | |
6510 | 716 |
717 @example | |
12067 | 718 (lsh 134217727 1) ; @r{left shift} |
6510 | 719 @result{} -2 |
720 @end example | |
721 | |
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722 In binary, in the 28-bit implementation, the argument looks like this: |
6510 | 723 |
724 @example | |
725 @group | |
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726 ;; @r{Decimal 134,217,727} |
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727 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 728 @end group |
729 @end example | |
730 | |
731 @noindent | |
732 which becomes the following when left shifted: | |
733 | |
734 @example | |
735 @group | |
736 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}2} | |
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737 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 |
6510 | 738 @end group |
739 @end example | |
740 @end defun | |
741 | |
742 @defun ash integer1 count | |
743 @cindex arithmetic shift | |
744 @code{ash} (@dfn{arithmetic shift}) shifts the bits in @var{integer1} | |
745 to the left @var{count} places, or to the right if @var{count} | |
746 is negative. | |
747 | |
748 @code{ash} gives the same results as @code{lsh} except when | |
749 @var{integer1} and @var{count} are both negative. In that case, | |
12098 | 750 @code{ash} puts ones in the empty bit positions on the left, while |
751 @code{lsh} puts zeros in those bit positions. | |
6510 | 752 |
753 Thus, with @code{ash}, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right | |
754 looks like this: | |
755 | |
756 @example | |
757 @group | |
758 (ash -6 -1) @result{} -3 | |
759 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal @minus{}3.} | |
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760 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010 |
6510 | 761 @result{} |
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762 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101 |
6510 | 763 @end group |
764 @end example | |
765 | |
766 In contrast, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right with | |
767 @code{lsh} looks like this: | |
768 | |
769 @example | |
770 @group | |
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771 (lsh -6 -1) @result{} 134217725 |
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772 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal 134,217,725.} |
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773 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010 |
6510 | 774 @result{} |
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775 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101 |
6510 | 776 @end group |
777 @end example | |
778 | |
779 Here are other examples: | |
780 | |
781 @c !!! Check if lined up in smallbook format! XDVI shows problem | |
782 @c with smallbook but not with regular book! --rjc 16mar92 | |
783 @smallexample | |
784 @group | |
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785 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 786 |
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787 (lsh 5 2) ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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788 @result{} 20 ; = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001 0100} |
6510 | 789 @end group |
790 @group | |
791 (ash 5 2) | |
792 @result{} 20 | |
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793 (lsh -5 2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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794 @result{} -20 ; = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 1100} |
6510 | 795 (ash -5 2) |
796 @result{} -20 | |
797 @end group | |
798 @group | |
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799 (lsh 5 -2) ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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800 @result{} 1 ; = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001} |
6510 | 801 @end group |
802 @group | |
803 (ash 5 -2) | |
804 @result{} 1 | |
805 @end group | |
806 @group | |
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807 (lsh -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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808 @result{} 4194302 ; = @r{0011 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110} |
6510 | 809 @end group |
810 @group | |
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811 (ash -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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812 @result{} -2 ; = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110} |
6510 | 813 @end group |
814 @end smallexample | |
815 @end defun | |
816 | |
817 @defun logand &rest ints-or-markers | |
818 @cindex logical and | |
819 @cindex bitwise and | |
820 This function returns the ``logical and'' of the arguments: the | |
821 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is | |
822 set in all the arguments. (``Set'' means that the value of the bit is 1 | |
823 rather than 0.) | |
824 | |
825 For example, using 4-bit binary numbers, the ``logical and'' of 13 and | |
826 12 is 12: 1101 combined with 1100 produces 1100. | |
827 In both the binary numbers, the leftmost two bits are set (i.e., they | |
828 are 1's), so the leftmost two bits of the returned value are set. | |
829 However, for the rightmost two bits, each is zero in at least one of | |
830 the arguments, so the rightmost two bits of the returned value are 0's. | |
831 | |
832 @noindent | |
833 Therefore, | |
834 | |
835 @example | |
836 @group | |
837 (logand 13 12) | |
838 @result{} 12 | |
839 @end group | |
840 @end example | |
841 | |
842 If @code{logand} is not passed any argument, it returns a value of | |
843 @minus{}1. This number is an identity element for @code{logand} | |
844 because its binary representation consists entirely of ones. If | |
845 @code{logand} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument. | |
846 | |
847 @smallexample | |
848 @group | |
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849 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 850 |
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851 (logand 14 13) ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
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852 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
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853 @result{} 12 ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
6510 | 854 @end group |
855 | |
856 @group | |
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857 (logand 14 13 4) ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
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858 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
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859 ; 4 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100} |
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860 @result{} 4 ; 4 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100} |
6510 | 861 @end group |
862 | |
863 @group | |
864 (logand) | |
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865 @result{} -1 ; -1 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111} |
6510 | 866 @end group |
867 @end smallexample | |
868 @end defun | |
869 | |
870 @defun logior &rest ints-or-markers | |
871 @cindex logical inclusive or | |
872 @cindex bitwise or | |
873 This function returns the ``inclusive or'' of its arguments: the @var{n}th bit | |
874 is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is set in at least | |
875 one of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the result is zero, | |
876 which is an identity element for this operation. If @code{logior} is | |
877 passed just one argument, it returns that argument. | |
878 | |
879 @smallexample | |
880 @group | |
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881 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 882 |
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883 (logior 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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884 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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885 @result{} 13 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
6510 | 886 @end group |
887 | |
888 @group | |
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889 (logior 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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890 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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891 ; 7 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111} |
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892 @result{} 15 ; 15 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111} |
6510 | 893 @end group |
894 @end smallexample | |
895 @end defun | |
896 | |
897 @defun logxor &rest ints-or-markers | |
898 @cindex bitwise exclusive or | |
899 @cindex logical exclusive or | |
900 This function returns the ``exclusive or'' of its arguments: the | |
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901 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is |
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902 set in an odd number of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the |
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903 result is 0, which is an identity element for this operation. If |
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904 @code{logxor} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument. |
6510 | 905 |
906 @smallexample | |
907 @group | |
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908 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 909 |
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910 (logxor 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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911 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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912 @result{} 9 ; 9 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1001} |
6510 | 913 @end group |
914 | |
915 @group | |
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916 (logxor 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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917 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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918 ; 7 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111} |
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919 @result{} 14 ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
6510 | 920 @end group |
921 @end smallexample | |
922 @end defun | |
923 | |
924 @defun lognot integer | |
925 @cindex logical not | |
926 @cindex bitwise not | |
927 This function returns the logical complement of its argument: the @var{n}th | |
928 bit is one in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is zero in | |
929 @var{integer}, and vice-versa. | |
930 | |
931 @example | |
932 (lognot 5) | |
933 @result{} -6 | |
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934 ;; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
6510 | 935 ;; @r{becomes} |
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936 ;; -6 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010} |
6510 | 937 @end example |
938 @end defun | |
939 | |
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940 @node Math Functions |
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941 @section Standard Mathematical Functions |
6510 | 942 @cindex transcendental functions |
943 @cindex mathematical functions | |
944 | |
21682
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945 These mathematical functions allow integers as well as floating point |
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946 numbers as arguments. |
6510 | 947 |
948 @defun sin arg | |
949 @defunx cos arg | |
950 @defunx tan arg | |
951 These are the ordinary trigonometric functions, with argument measured | |
952 in radians. | |
953 @end defun | |
954 | |
955 @defun asin arg | |
7115
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956 The value of @code{(asin @var{arg})} is a number between @minus{}pi/2 |
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957 and pi/2 (inclusive) whose sine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} |
6510 | 958 is out of range (outside [-1, 1]), then the result is a NaN. |
959 @end defun | |
960 | |
961 @defun acos arg | |
962 The value of @code{(acos @var{arg})} is a number between 0 and pi | |
963 (inclusive) whose cosine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} | |
964 is out of range (outside [-1, 1]), then the result is a NaN. | |
965 @end defun | |
966 | |
967 @defun atan arg | |
7115
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968 The value of @code{(atan @var{arg})} is a number between @minus{}pi/2 |
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969 and pi/2 (exclusive) whose tangent is @var{arg}. |
6510 | 970 @end defun |
971 | |
972 @defun exp arg | |
22138
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973 This is the exponential function; it returns |
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974 @tex |
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975 $e$ |
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976 @end tex |
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977 @ifinfo |
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978 @i{e} |
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979 @end ifinfo |
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980 to the power @var{arg}. |
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981 @tex |
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982 $e$ |
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983 @end tex |
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984 @ifinfo |
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985 @i{e} |
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986 @end ifinfo |
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987 is a fundamental mathematical constant also called the base of natural |
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988 logarithms. |
6510 | 989 @end defun |
990 | |
991 @defun log arg &optional base | |
992 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base @var{base}. | |
22138
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993 If you don't specify @var{base}, the base |
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994 @tex |
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995 $e$ |
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996 @end tex |
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997 @ifinfo |
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998 @i{e} |
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999 @end ifinfo |
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1000 is used. If @var{arg} |
6510 | 1001 is negative, the result is a NaN. |
1002 @end defun | |
1003 | |
1004 @ignore | |
1005 @defun expm1 arg | |
1006 This function returns @code{(1- (exp @var{arg}))}, but it is more | |
1007 accurate than that when @var{arg} is negative and @code{(exp @var{arg})} | |
1008 is close to 1. | |
1009 @end defun | |
1010 | |
1011 @defun log1p arg | |
1012 This function returns @code{(log (1+ @var{arg}))}, but it is more | |
1013 accurate than that when @var{arg} is so small that adding 1 to it would | |
1014 lose accuracy. | |
1015 @end defun | |
1016 @end ignore | |
1017 | |
1018 @defun log10 arg | |
1019 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base 10. If | |
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1020 @var{arg} is negative, the result is a NaN. @code{(log10 @var{x})} |
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1021 @equiv{} @code{(log @var{x} 10)}, at least approximately. |
6510 | 1022 @end defun |
1023 | |
1024 @defun expt x y | |
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1025 This function returns @var{x} raised to power @var{y}. If both |
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1026 arguments are integers and @var{y} is positive, the result is an |
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1027 integer; in this case, it is truncated to fit the range of possible |
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1028 integer values. |
6510 | 1029 @end defun |
1030 | |
1031 @defun sqrt arg | |
1032 This returns the square root of @var{arg}. If @var{arg} is negative, | |
1033 the value is a NaN. | |
1034 @end defun | |
1035 | |
1036 @node Random Numbers | |
1037 @section Random Numbers | |
1038 @cindex random numbers | |
1039 | |
1040 A deterministic computer program cannot generate true random numbers. | |
1041 For most purposes, @dfn{pseudo-random numbers} suffice. A series of | |
1042 pseudo-random numbers is generated in a deterministic fashion. The | |
1043 numbers are not truly random, but they have certain properties that | |
1044 mimic a random series. For example, all possible values occur equally | |
1045 often in a pseudo-random series. | |
1046 | |
1047 In Emacs, pseudo-random numbers are generated from a ``seed'' number. | |
1048 Starting from any given seed, the @code{random} function always | |
1049 generates the same sequence of numbers. Emacs always starts with the | |
1050 same seed value, so the sequence of values of @code{random} is actually | |
1051 the same in each Emacs run! For example, in one operating system, the | |
1052 first call to @code{(random)} after you start Emacs always returns | |
1053 -1457731, and the second one always returns -7692030. This | |
1054 repeatability is helpful for debugging. | |
1055 | |
1056 If you want truly unpredictable random numbers, execute @code{(random | |
1057 t)}. This chooses a new seed based on the current time of day and on | |
1058 Emacs's process @sc{id} number. | |
1059 | |
1060 @defun random &optional limit | |
1061 This function returns a pseudo-random integer. Repeated calls return a | |
1062 series of pseudo-random integers. | |
1063 | |
12067 | 1064 If @var{limit} is a positive integer, the value is chosen to be |
12098 | 1065 nonnegative and less than @var{limit}. |
6510 | 1066 |
1067 If @var{limit} is @code{t}, it means to choose a new seed based on the | |
1068 current time of day and on Emacs's process @sc{id} number. | |
1069 @c "Emacs'" is incorrect usage! | |
1070 | |
1071 On some machines, any integer representable in Lisp may be the result | |
1072 of @code{random}. On other machines, the result can never be larger | |
1073 than a certain maximum or less than a certain (negative) minimum. | |
1074 @end defun |