annotate lispref/numbers.texi @ 62848:75c92461a745

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author Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
date Sun, 29 May 2005 02:58:17 +0000
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2003
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4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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6 @setfilename ../info/numbers
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7 @node Numbers, Strings and Characters, Lisp Data Types, Top
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8 @chapter Numbers
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9 @cindex integers
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10 @cindex numbers
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11
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12 GNU Emacs supports two numeric data types: @dfn{integers} and
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13 @dfn{floating point numbers}. Integers are whole numbers such as
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14 @minus{}3, 0, 7, 13, and 511. Their values are exact. Floating point
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15 numbers are numbers with fractional parts, such as @minus{}4.5, 0.0, or
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16 2.71828. They can also be expressed in exponential notation: 1.5e2
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17 equals 150; in this example, @samp{e2} stands for ten to the second
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18 power, and that is multiplied by 1.5. Floating point values are not
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19 exact; they have a fixed, limited amount of precision.
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20
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21 @menu
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22 * Integer Basics:: Representation and range of integers.
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23 * Float Basics:: Representation and range of floating point.
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24 * Predicates on Numbers:: Testing for numbers.
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25 * Comparison of Numbers:: Equality and inequality predicates.
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26 * Numeric Conversions:: Converting float to integer and vice versa.
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27 * Arithmetic Operations:: How to add, subtract, multiply and divide.
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28 * Rounding Operations:: Explicitly rounding floating point numbers.
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29 * Bitwise Operations:: Logical and, or, not, shifting.
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30 * Math Functions:: Trig, exponential and logarithmic functions.
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31 * Random Numbers:: Obtaining random integers, predictable or not.
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32 @end menu
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33
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34 @node Integer Basics
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35 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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36 @section Integer Basics
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37
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38 The range of values for an integer depends on the machine. The
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39 minimum range is @minus{}268435456 to 268435455 (29 bits; i.e.,
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40 @ifnottex
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41 -2**28
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42 @end ifnottex
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43 @tex
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44 @math{-2^{28}}
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45 @end tex
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46 to
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47 @ifnottex
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48 2**28 - 1),
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49 @end ifnottex
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50 @tex
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51 @math{2^{28}-1}),
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52 @end tex
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53 but some machines may provide a wider range. Many examples in this
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54 chapter assume an integer has 29 bits.
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55 @cindex overflow
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56
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57 The Lisp reader reads an integer as a sequence of digits with optional
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58 initial sign and optional final period.
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59
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60 @example
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61 1 ; @r{The integer 1.}
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62 1. ; @r{The integer 1.}
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63 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.}
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64 -1 ; @r{The integer @minus{}1.}
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65 536870913 ; @r{Also the integer 1, due to overflow.}
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66 0 ; @r{The integer 0.}
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67 -0 ; @r{The integer 0.}
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68 @end example
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69
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70 @cindex integers in specific radix
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71 @cindex radix for reading an integer
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72 @cindex base for reading an integer
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73 @cindex hex numbers
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74 @cindex octal numbers
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75 @cindex reading numbers in hex, octal, and binary
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76 The syntax for integers in bases other than 10 uses @samp{#}
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77 followed by a letter that specifies the radix: @samp{b} for binary,
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78 @samp{o} for octal, @samp{x} for hex, or @samp{@var{radix}r} to
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79 specify radix @var{radix}. Case is not significant for the letter
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80 that specifies the radix. Thus, @samp{#b@var{integer}} reads
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81 @var{integer} in binary, and @samp{#@var{radix}r@var{integer}} reads
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82 @var{integer} in radix @var{radix}. Allowed values of @var{radix} run
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83 from 2 to 36. For example:
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84
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85 @example
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86 #b101100 @result{} 44
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87 #o54 @result{} 44
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88 #x2c @result{} 44
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89 #24r1k @result{} 44
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90 @end example
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91
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92 To understand how various functions work on integers, especially the
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93 bitwise operators (@pxref{Bitwise Operations}), it is often helpful to
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94 view the numbers in their binary form.
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95
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96 In 29-bit binary, the decimal integer 5 looks like this:
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97
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98 @example
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99 0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101
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100 @end example
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101
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102 @noindent
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103 (We have inserted spaces between groups of 4 bits, and two spaces
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104 between groups of 8 bits, to make the binary integer easier to read.)
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105
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106 The integer @minus{}1 looks like this:
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107
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108 @example
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109 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
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110 @end example
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111
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112 @noindent
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113 @cindex two's complement
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114 @minus{}1 is represented as 29 ones. (This is called @dfn{two's
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115 complement} notation.)
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116
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117 The negative integer, @minus{}5, is creating by subtracting 4 from
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118 @minus{}1. In binary, the decimal integer 4 is 100. Consequently,
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119 @minus{}5 looks like this:
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120
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121 @example
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122 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011
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123 @end example
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124
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125 In this implementation, the largest 29-bit binary integer value is
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126 268,435,455 in decimal. In binary, it looks like this:
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127
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128 @example
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129 0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
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130 @end example
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131
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132 Since the arithmetic functions do not check whether integers go
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133 outside their range, when you add 1 to 268,435,455, the value is the
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134 negative integer @minus{}268,435,456:
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135
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136 @example
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137 (+ 1 268435455)
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138 @result{} -268435456
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139 @result{} 1 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000
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140 @end example
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141
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142 Many of the functions described in this chapter accept markers for
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143 arguments in place of numbers. (@xref{Markers}.) Since the actual
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144 arguments to such functions may be either numbers or markers, we often
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145 give these arguments the name @var{number-or-marker}. When the argument
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146 value is a marker, its position value is used and its buffer is ignored.
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147
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148 @defvar most-positive-fixnum
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149 The value of this variable is the largest integer that Emacs Lisp
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150 can handle.
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151 @end defvar
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152
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153 @defvar most-negative-fixnum
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154 The value of this variable is the smallest integer that Emacs Lisp can
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155 handle. It is negative.
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156 @end defvar
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157
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158 @node Float Basics
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159 @section Floating Point Basics
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160
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161 Floating point numbers are useful for representing numbers that are
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162 not integral. The precise range of floating point numbers is
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163 machine-specific; it is the same as the range of the C data type
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164 @code{double} on the machine you are using.
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165
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166 The read-syntax for floating point numbers requires either a decimal
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167 point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or both. For
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168 example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, @samp{1.5e3}, and
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169 @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point number whose
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170 value is 1500. They are all equivalent. You can also use a minus sign
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171 to write negative floating point numbers, as in @samp{-1.0}.
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172
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173 @cindex @acronym{IEEE} floating point
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174 @cindex positive infinity
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175 @cindex negative infinity
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176 @cindex infinity
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177 @cindex NaN
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178 Most modern computers support the @acronym{IEEE} floating point standard,
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179 which provides for positive infinity and negative infinity as floating point
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180 values. It also provides for a class of values called NaN or
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181 ``not-a-number''; numerical functions return such values in cases where
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182 there is no correct answer. For example, @code{(/ 0.0 0.0)} returns a
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183 NaN. For practical purposes, there's no significant difference between
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184 different NaN values in Emacs Lisp, and there's no rule for precisely
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185 which NaN value should be used in a particular case, so Emacs Lisp
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186 doesn't try to distinguish them. Here are the read syntaxes for
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187 these special floating point values:
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188
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189 @table @asis
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190 @item positive infinity
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191 @samp{1.0e+INF}
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192 @item negative infinity
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193 @samp{-1.0e+INF}
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194 @item Not-a-number
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195 @samp{0.0e+NaN}.
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196 @end table
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197
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198 In addition, the value @code{-0.0} is distinguishable from ordinary
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199 zero in @acronym{IEEE} floating point (although @code{equal} and
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200 @code{=} consider them equal values).
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201
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202 You can use @code{logb} to extract the binary exponent of a floating
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203 point number (or estimate the logarithm of an integer):
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204
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205 @defun logb number
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206 This function returns the binary exponent of @var{number}. More
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207 precisely, the value is the logarithm of @var{number} base 2, rounded
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208 down to an integer.
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209
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210 @example
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211 (logb 10)
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212 @result{} 3
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213 (logb 10.0e20)
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214 @result{} 69
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215 @end example
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216 @end defun
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217
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218 @node Predicates on Numbers
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219 @section Type Predicates for Numbers
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220
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221 The functions in this section test for numbers, or for a specific
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222 type of number. The functions @code{integerp} and @code{floatp} can
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223 take any type of Lisp object as argument (they would not be of much
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224 use otherwise), but the @code{zerop} predicate requires a number as
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225 its argument. See also @code{integer-or-marker-p} and
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226 @code{number-or-marker-p}, in @ref{Predicates on Markers}.
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227
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228 @defun floatp object
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229 This predicate tests whether its argument is a floating point
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230 number and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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231
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232 @code{floatp} does not exist in Emacs versions 18 and earlier.
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233 @end defun
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234
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235 @defun integerp object
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236 This predicate tests whether its argument is an integer, and returns
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237 @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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238 @end defun
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239
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240 @defun numberp object
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241 This predicate tests whether its argument is a number (either integer or
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242 floating point), and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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243 @end defun
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244
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245 @defun wholenump object
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246 @cindex natural numbers
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247 The @code{wholenump} predicate (whose name comes from the phrase
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248 ``whole-number-p'') tests to see whether its argument is a nonnegative
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249 integer, and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. 0 is
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250 considered non-negative.
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251
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252 @findex natnump
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253 @code{natnump} is an obsolete synonym for @code{wholenump}.
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254 @end defun
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255
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256 @defun zerop number
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257 This predicate tests whether its argument is zero, and returns @code{t}
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258 if so, @code{nil} otherwise. The argument must be a number.
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259
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260 @code{(zerop x)} is equivalent to @code{(= x 0)}.
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261 @end defun
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262
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263 @node Comparison of Numbers
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264 @section Comparison of Numbers
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265 @cindex number equality
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266
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267 To test numbers for numerical equality, you should normally use
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268 @code{=}, not @code{eq}. There can be many distinct floating point
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269 number objects with the same numeric value. If you use @code{eq} to
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270 compare them, then you test whether two values are the same
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271 @emph{object}. By contrast, @code{=} compares only the numeric values
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272 of the objects.
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273
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274 At present, each integer value has a unique Lisp object in Emacs Lisp.
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275 Therefore, @code{eq} is equivalent to @code{=} where integers are
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276 concerned. It is sometimes convenient to use @code{eq} for comparing an
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277 unknown value with an integer, because @code{eq} does not report an
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278 error if the unknown value is not a number---it accepts arguments of any
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279 type. By contrast, @code{=} signals an error if the arguments are not
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280 numbers or markers. However, it is a good idea to use @code{=} if you
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281 can, even for comparing integers, just in case we change the
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282 representation of integers in a future Emacs version.
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283
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284 Sometimes it is useful to compare numbers with @code{equal}; it
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285 treats two numbers as equal if they have the same data type (both
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286 integers, or both floating point) and the same value. By contrast,
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287 @code{=} can treat an integer and a floating point number as equal.
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288 @xref{Equality Predicates}.
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289
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290 There is another wrinkle: because floating point arithmetic is not
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291 exact, it is often a bad idea to check for equality of two floating
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292 point values. Usually it is better to test for approximate equality.
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293 Here's a function to do this:
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294
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295 @example
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296 (defvar fuzz-factor 1.0e-6)
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297 (defun approx-equal (x y)
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298 (or (and (= x 0) (= y 0))
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299 (< (/ (abs (- x y))
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300 (max (abs x) (abs y)))
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301 fuzz-factor)))
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302 @end example
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303
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304 @cindex CL note---integers vrs @code{eq}
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305 @quotation
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306 @b{Common Lisp note:} Comparing numbers in Common Lisp always requires
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307 @code{=} because Common Lisp implements multi-word integers, and two
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308 distinct integer objects can have the same numeric value. Emacs Lisp
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309 can have just one integer object for any given value because it has a
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310 limited range of integer values.
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311 @end quotation
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312
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313 @defun = number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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314 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and
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315 returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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316 @end defun
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317
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318 @defun eql value1 value2
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319 This function acts like @code{eq} except when both arguments are
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320 numbers. It compares numbers by type and numberic value, so that
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321 @code{(eql 1.0 1)} returns @code{nil}, but @code{(eql 1.0 1.0)} and
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322 @code{(eql 1 1)} both return @code{t}.
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323 @end defun
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324
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325 @defun /= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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326 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and
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327 returns @code{t} if they are not, and @code{nil} if they are.
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328 @end defun
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329
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330 @defun < number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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331 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly less than
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332 its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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333 @end defun
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334
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335 @defun <= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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336 This function tests whether its first argument is less than or equal
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337 to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil}
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338 otherwise.
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339 @end defun
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340
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341 @defun > number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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342 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly greater
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343 than its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil}
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344 otherwise.
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345 @end defun
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346
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347 @defun >= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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348 This function tests whether its first argument is greater than or
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349 equal to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil}
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350 otherwise.
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351 @end defun
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352
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353 @defun max number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers
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354 This function returns the largest of its arguments.
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355 If any of the arguments is floating-point, the value is returned
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356 as floating point, even if it was given as an integer.
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357
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358 @example
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359 (max 20)
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360 @result{} 20
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361 (max 1 2.5)
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362 @result{} 2.5
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363 (max 1 3 2.5)
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364 @result{} 3.0
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365 @end example
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366 @end defun
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367
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368 @defun min number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers
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369 This function returns the smallest of its arguments.
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370 If any of the arguments is floating-point, the value is returned
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371 as floating point, even if it was given as an integer.
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372
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373 @example
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374 (min -4 1)
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375 @result{} -4
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376 @end example
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377 @end defun
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378
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379 @defun abs number
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380 This function returns the absolute value of @var{number}.
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381 @end defun
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382
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383 @node Numeric Conversions
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384 @section Numeric Conversions
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385 @cindex rounding in conversions
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386
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387 To convert an integer to floating point, use the function @code{float}.
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388
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389 @defun float number
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390 This returns @var{number} converted to floating point.
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391 If @var{number} is already a floating point number, @code{float} returns
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392 it unchanged.
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393 @end defun
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394
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395 There are four functions to convert floating point numbers to integers;
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396 they differ in how they round. All accept an argument @var{number}
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397 and an optional argument @var{divisor}. Both arguments may be
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398 integers or floating point numbers. @var{divisor} may also be
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399 @code{nil}. If @var{divisor} is @code{nil} or omitted, these
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400 functions convert @var{number} to an integer, or return it unchanged
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401 if it already is an integer. If @var{divisor} is non-@code{nil}, they
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402 divide @var{number} by @var{divisor} and convert the result to an
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403 integer. An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0.
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404
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405 @defun truncate number &optional divisor
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406 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards
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407 zero.
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408
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409 @example
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410 (truncate 1.2)
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411 @result{} 1
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412 (truncate 1.7)
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413 @result{} 1
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414 (truncate -1.2)
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415 @result{} -1
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416 (truncate -1.7)
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417 @result{} -1
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418 @end example
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419 @end defun
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420
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421 @defun floor number &optional divisor
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422 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding downward
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423 (towards negative infinity).
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424
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425 If @var{divisor} is specified, this uses the kind of division
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426 operation that corresponds to @code{mod}, rounding downward.
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427
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428 @example
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429 (floor 1.2)
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430 @result{} 1
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431 (floor 1.7)
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432 @result{} 1
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433 (floor -1.2)
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434 @result{} -2
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435 (floor -1.7)
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436 @result{} -2
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437 (floor 5.99 3)
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438 @result{} 1
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439 @end example
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440 @end defun
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441
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442 @defun ceiling number &optional divisor
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443 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding upward
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444 (towards positive infinity).
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445
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446 @example
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447 (ceiling 1.2)
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448 @result{} 2
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449 (ceiling 1.7)
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450 @result{} 2
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451 (ceiling -1.2)
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452 @result{} -1
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453 (ceiling -1.7)
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454 @result{} -1
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455 @end example
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456 @end defun
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457
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458 @defun round number &optional divisor
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459 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards the
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diff changeset
460 nearest integer. Rounding a value equidistant between two integers
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
461 may choose the integer closer to zero, or it may prefer an even integer,
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
462 depending on your machine.
38787
4d77816c7cad Add examples for floor, ceiling, truncate, round.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 27193
diff changeset
463
4d77816c7cad Add examples for floor, ceiling, truncate, round.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 27193
diff changeset
464 @example
4d77816c7cad Add examples for floor, ceiling, truncate, round.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 27193
diff changeset
465 (round 1.2)
4d77816c7cad Add examples for floor, ceiling, truncate, round.
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diff changeset
466 @result{} 1
4d77816c7cad Add examples for floor, ceiling, truncate, round.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 27193
diff changeset
467 (round 1.7)
4d77816c7cad Add examples for floor, ceiling, truncate, round.
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parents: 27193
diff changeset
468 @result{} 2
4d77816c7cad Add examples for floor, ceiling, truncate, round.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 27193
diff changeset
469 (round -1.2)
4d77816c7cad Add examples for floor, ceiling, truncate, round.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 27193
diff changeset
470 @result{} -1
4d77816c7cad Add examples for floor, ceiling, truncate, round.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 27193
diff changeset
471 (round -1.7)
4d77816c7cad Add examples for floor, ceiling, truncate, round.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
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472 @result{} -2
4d77816c7cad Add examples for floor, ceiling, truncate, round.
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473 @end example
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474 @end defun
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475
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476 @node Arithmetic Operations
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477 @section Arithmetic Operations
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478
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479 Emacs Lisp provides the traditional four arithmetic operations:
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parents:
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480 addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Remainder and modulus
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481 functions supplement the division functions. The functions to
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parents:
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482 add or subtract 1 are provided because they are traditional in Lisp and
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483 commonly used.
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parents:
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484
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parents:
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485 All of these functions except @code{%} return a floating point value
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parents:
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486 if any argument is floating.
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parents:
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487
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
488 It is important to note that in Emacs Lisp, arithmetic functions
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
489 do not check for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 268435455)} may evaluate to
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
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490 @minus{}268435456, depending on your hardware.
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491
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492 @defun 1+ number-or-marker
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493 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} plus 1.
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494 For example,
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495
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496 @example
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497 (setq foo 4)
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498 @result{} 4
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499 (1+ foo)
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500 @result{} 5
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501 @end example
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502
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parents: 12067
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503 This function is not analogous to the C operator @code{++}---it does not
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Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
504 increment a variable. It just computes a sum. Thus, if we continue,
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505
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506 @example
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507 foo
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508 @result{} 4
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509 @end example
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parents:
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510
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511 If you want to increment the variable, you must use @code{setq},
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parents:
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512 like this:
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513
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514 @example
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515 (setq foo (1+ foo))
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516 @result{} 5
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517 @end example
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518 @end defun
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519
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diff changeset
520 @defun 1- number-or-marker
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521 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} minus 1.
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522 @end defun
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diff changeset
523
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524 @defun + &rest numbers-or-markers
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525 This function adds its arguments together. When given no arguments,
12098
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
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526 @code{+} returns 0.
6510
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527
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528 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
529 (+)
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530 @result{} 0
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531 (+ 1)
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532 @result{} 1
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533 (+ 1 2 3 4)
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parents:
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534 @result{} 10
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535 @end example
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parents:
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536 @end defun
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
537
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 16736
diff changeset
538 @defun - &optional number-or-marker &rest more-numbers-or-markers
6510
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parents:
diff changeset
539 The @code{-} function serves two purposes: negation and subtraction.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
540 When @code{-} has a single argument, the value is the negative of the
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
541 argument. When there are multiple arguments, @code{-} subtracts each of
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 16736
diff changeset
542 the @var{more-numbers-or-markers} from @var{number-or-marker},
12098
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
543 cumulatively. If there are no arguments, the result is 0.
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diff changeset
544
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parents:
diff changeset
545 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
546 (- 10 1 2 3 4)
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parents:
diff changeset
547 @result{} 0
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parents:
diff changeset
548 (- 10)
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parents:
diff changeset
549 @result{} -10
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parents:
diff changeset
550 (-)
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parents:
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551 @result{} 0
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552 @end example
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553 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
554
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diff changeset
555 @defun * &rest numbers-or-markers
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parents:
diff changeset
556 This function multiplies its arguments together, and returns the
12098
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
557 product. When given no arguments, @code{*} returns 1.
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558
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diff changeset
559 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
560 (*)
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parents:
diff changeset
561 @result{} 1
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parents:
diff changeset
562 (* 1)
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parents:
diff changeset
563 @result{} 1
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parents:
diff changeset
564 (* 1 2 3 4)
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parents:
diff changeset
565 @result{} 24
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parents:
diff changeset
566 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
567 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
568
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
569 @defun / dividend divisor &rest divisors
7115
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
570 This function divides @var{dividend} by @var{divisor} and returns the
6510
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parents:
diff changeset
571 quotient. If there are additional arguments @var{divisors}, then it
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
572 divides @var{dividend} by each divisor in turn. Each argument may be a
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
573 number or a marker.
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parents:
diff changeset
574
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diff changeset
575 If all the arguments are integers, then the result is an integer too.
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parents:
diff changeset
576 This means the result has to be rounded. On most machines, the result
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parents:
diff changeset
577 is rounded towards zero after each division, but some machines may round
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
578 differently with negative arguments. This is because the Lisp function
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
579 @code{/} is implemented using the C division operator, which also
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parents:
diff changeset
580 permits machine-dependent rounding. As a practical matter, all known
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
581 machines round in the standard fashion.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
582
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
583 @cindex @code{arith-error} in division
21682
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
584 If you divide an integer by 0, an @code{arith-error} error is signaled.
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
585 (@xref{Errors}.) Floating point division by zero returns either
52978
1a5c50faf357 Replace @sc{foo} with @acronym{FOO}.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents: 52901
diff changeset
586 infinity or a NaN if your machine supports @acronym{IEEE} floating point;
21682
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
587 otherwise, it signals an @code{arith-error} error.
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588
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parents:
diff changeset
589 @example
12282
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Melissa Weisshaus <melissa@gnu.org>
parents: 12128
diff changeset
590 @group
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diff changeset
591 (/ 6 2)
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parents:
diff changeset
592 @result{} 3
12282
586e3ea81792 updates for version 19.29 made by melissa; also needed to check out files
Melissa Weisshaus <melissa@gnu.org>
parents: 12128
diff changeset
593 @end group
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594 (/ 5 2)
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
595 @result{} 2
21682
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
596 (/ 5.0 2)
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
597 @result{} 2.5
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
598 (/ 5 2.0)
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
599 @result{} 2.5
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
600 (/ 5.0 2.0)
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
601 @result{} 2.5
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diff changeset
602 (/ 25 3 2)
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parents:
diff changeset
603 @result{} 4
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
604 (/ -17 6)
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parents:
diff changeset
605 @result{} -2
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606 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
607
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parents:
diff changeset
608 The result of @code{(/ -17 6)} could in principle be -3 on some
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
609 machines.
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parents:
diff changeset
610 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
611
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parents:
diff changeset
612 @defun % dividend divisor
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parents:
diff changeset
613 @cindex remainder
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
614 This function returns the integer remainder after division of @var{dividend}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
615 by @var{divisor}. The arguments must be integers or markers.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
616
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parents:
diff changeset
617 For negative arguments, the remainder is in principle machine-dependent
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parents:
diff changeset
618 since the quotient is; but in practice, all known machines behave alike.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
619
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diff changeset
620 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0.
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parents:
diff changeset
621
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diff changeset
622 @example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
623 (% 9 4)
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diff changeset
624 @result{} 1
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
625 (% -9 4)
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
626 @result{} -1
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
627 (% 9 -4)
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
628 @result{} 1
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
629 (% -9 -4)
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
630 @result{} -1
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631 @end example
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632
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633 For any two integers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor},
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634
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635 @example
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636 @group
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637 (+ (% @var{dividend} @var{divisor})
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638 (* (/ @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor}))
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639 @end group
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640 @end example
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parents:
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641
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642 @noindent
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643 always equals @var{dividend}.
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644 @end defun
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645
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646 @defun mod dividend divisor
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parents:
diff changeset
647 @cindex modulus
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parents:
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648 This function returns the value of @var{dividend} modulo @var{divisor};
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parents:
diff changeset
649 in other words, the remainder after division of @var{dividend}
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parents:
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650 by @var{divisor}, but with the same sign as @var{divisor}.
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parents:
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651 The arguments must be numbers or markers.
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parents:
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652
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653 Unlike @code{%}, @code{mod} returns a well-defined result for negative
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parents:
diff changeset
654 arguments. It also permits floating point arguments; it rounds the
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parents:
diff changeset
655 quotient downward (towards minus infinity) to an integer, and uses that
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
656 quotient to compute the remainder.
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parents:
diff changeset
657
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parents:
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658 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0.
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parents:
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659
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parents:
diff changeset
660 @example
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661 @group
6510
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662 (mod 9 4)
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parents:
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663 @result{} 1
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664 @end group
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Melissa Weisshaus <melissa@gnu.org>
parents: 12128
diff changeset
665 @group
6510
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parents:
diff changeset
666 (mod -9 4)
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parents:
diff changeset
667 @result{} 3
12282
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Melissa Weisshaus <melissa@gnu.org>
parents: 12128
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668 @end group
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Melissa Weisshaus <melissa@gnu.org>
parents: 12128
diff changeset
669 @group
6510
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parents:
diff changeset
670 (mod 9 -4)
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parents:
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671 @result{} -3
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diff changeset
672 @end group
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diff changeset
673 @group
6510
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parents:
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674 (mod -9 -4)
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parents:
diff changeset
675 @result{} -1
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parents: 12128
diff changeset
676 @end group
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parents: 12128
diff changeset
677 @group
6510
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parents:
diff changeset
678 (mod 5.5 2.5)
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parents:
diff changeset
679 @result{} .5
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diff changeset
680 @end group
6510
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681 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
682
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parents:
diff changeset
683 For any two numbers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor},
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
684
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parents:
diff changeset
685 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
686 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
687 (+ (mod @var{dividend} @var{divisor})
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
688 (* (floor @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor}))
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
689 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
690 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
691
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parents:
diff changeset
692 @noindent
12098
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Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
693 always equals @var{dividend}, subject to rounding error if either
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
694 argument is floating point. For @code{floor}, see @ref{Numeric
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
695 Conversions}.
6510
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parents:
diff changeset
696 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
697
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parents:
diff changeset
698 @node Rounding Operations
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parents:
diff changeset
699 @section Rounding Operations
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
700 @cindex rounding without conversion
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
701
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
702 The functions @code{ffloor}, @code{fceiling}, @code{fround}, and
6510
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
703 @code{ftruncate} take a floating point argument and return a floating
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
704 point result whose value is a nearby integer. @code{ffloor} returns the
8017
ae1a594ebb1d entered into RCS
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 7115
diff changeset
705 nearest integer below; @code{fceiling}, the nearest integer above;
7115
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
706 @code{ftruncate}, the nearest integer in the direction towards zero;
6510
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
707 @code{fround}, the nearest integer.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
708
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
709 @defun ffloor float
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
710 This function rounds @var{float} to the next lower integral value, and
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
711 returns that value as a floating point number.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
712 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
713
8017
ae1a594ebb1d entered into RCS
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 7115
diff changeset
714 @defun fceiling float
6510
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
715 This function rounds @var{float} to the next higher integral value, and
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
716 returns that value as a floating point number.
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parents:
diff changeset
717 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
718
7115
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6510
diff changeset
719 @defun ftruncate float
6510
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
720 This function rounds @var{float} towards zero to an integral value, and
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
721 returns that value as a floating point number.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
722 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
723
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
724 @defun fround float
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
725 This function rounds @var{float} to the nearest integral value,
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
726 and returns that value as a floating point number.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
727 @end defun
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
728
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
729 @node Bitwise Operations
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
730 @section Bitwise Operations on Integers
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
731
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
732 In a computer, an integer is represented as a binary number, a
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
733 sequence of @dfn{bits} (digits which are either zero or one). A bitwise
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
734 operation acts on the individual bits of such a sequence. For example,
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
735 @dfn{shifting} moves the whole sequence left or right one or more places,
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
736 reproducing the same pattern ``moved over''.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
737
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
738 The bitwise operations in Emacs Lisp apply only to integers.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
739
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
740 @defun lsh integer1 count
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
741 @cindex logical shift
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
742 @code{lsh}, which is an abbreviation for @dfn{logical shift}, shifts the
7115
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parents: 6510
diff changeset
743 bits in @var{integer1} to the left @var{count} places, or to the right
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6510
diff changeset
744 if @var{count} is negative, bringing zeros into the vacated bits. If
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6510
diff changeset
745 @var{count} is negative, @code{lsh} shifts zeros into the leftmost
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
746 (most-significant) bit, producing a positive result even if
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
747 @var{integer1} is negative. Contrast this with @code{ash}, below.
6510
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parents:
diff changeset
748
7115
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6510
diff changeset
749 Here are two examples of @code{lsh}, shifting a pattern of bits one
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6510
diff changeset
750 place to the left. We show only the low-order eight bits of the binary
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6510
diff changeset
751 pattern; the rest are all zero.
6510
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parents:
diff changeset
752
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parents:
diff changeset
753 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
754 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
755 (lsh 5 1)
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
756 @result{} 10
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parents:
diff changeset
757 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 10.}
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parents:
diff changeset
758 00000101 @result{} 00001010
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parents:
diff changeset
759
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parents:
diff changeset
760 (lsh 7 1)
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
761 @result{} 14
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parents:
diff changeset
762 ;; @r{Decimal 7 becomes decimal 14.}
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parents:
diff changeset
763 00000111 @result{} 00001110
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parents:
diff changeset
764 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
765 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
766
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parents:
diff changeset
767 @noindent
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parents:
diff changeset
768 As the examples illustrate, shifting the pattern of bits one place to
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
769 the left produces a number that is twice the value of the previous
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
770 number.
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parents:
diff changeset
771
12098
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parents: 12067
diff changeset
772 Shifting a pattern of bits two places to the left produces results
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 12067
diff changeset
773 like this (with 8-bit binary numbers):
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parents: 12067
diff changeset
774
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 12067
diff changeset
775 @example
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diff changeset
776 @group
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parents: 12067
diff changeset
777 (lsh 3 2)
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parents: 12067
diff changeset
778 @result{} 12
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 12067
diff changeset
779 ;; @r{Decimal 3 becomes decimal 12.}
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parents: 48700
diff changeset
780 00000011 @result{} 00001100
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781 @end group
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
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diff changeset
782 @end example
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parents: 12067
diff changeset
783
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 12067
diff changeset
784 On the other hand, shifting one place to the right looks like this:
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parents: 12067
diff changeset
785
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
786 @example
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 12067
diff changeset
787 @group
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
788 (lsh 6 -1)
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
789 @result{} 3
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 12067
diff changeset
790 ;; @r{Decimal 6 becomes decimal 3.}
49600
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Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents: 48700
diff changeset
791 00000110 @result{} 00000011
12098
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diff changeset
792 @end group
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
793
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
794 @group
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
795 (lsh 5 -1)
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
796 @result{} 2
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
797 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 2.}
49600
23a1cea22d13 Trailing whitespace deleted.
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents: 48700
diff changeset
798 00000101 @result{} 00000010
12098
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
799 @end group
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
800 @end example
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
801
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
802 @noindent
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
803 As the example illustrates, shifting one place to the right divides the
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
804 value of a positive integer by two, rounding downward.
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
805
7115
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
806 The function @code{lsh}, like all Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions, does
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
807 not check for overflow, so shifting left can discard significant bits
12067
73dc8205d259 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 11230
diff changeset
808 and change the sign of the number. For example, left shifting
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
809 268,435,455 produces @minus{}2 on a 29-bit machine:
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
810
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
811 @example
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
812 (lsh 268435455 1) ; @r{left shift}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
813 @result{} -2
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
814 @end example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
815
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
816 In binary, in the 29-bit implementation, the argument looks like this:
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
817
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
818 @example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
819 @group
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
820 ;; @r{Decimal 268,435,455}
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
821 0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
822 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
823 @end example
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
824
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
825 @noindent
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
826 which becomes the following when left shifted:
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
827
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
828 @example
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
829 @group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
830 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}2}
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
831 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
832 @end group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
833 @end example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
834 @end defun
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
835
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
836 @defun ash integer1 count
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
837 @cindex arithmetic shift
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
838 @code{ash} (@dfn{arithmetic shift}) shifts the bits in @var{integer1}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
839 to the left @var{count} places, or to the right if @var{count}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
840 is negative.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
841
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
842 @code{ash} gives the same results as @code{lsh} except when
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
843 @var{integer1} and @var{count} are both negative. In that case,
12098
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
844 @code{ash} puts ones in the empty bit positions on the left, while
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
845 @code{lsh} puts zeros in those bit positions.
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
846
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
847 Thus, with @code{ash}, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
848 looks like this:
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
849
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
850 @example
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
851 @group
49600
23a1cea22d13 Trailing whitespace deleted.
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents: 48700
diff changeset
852 (ash -6 -1) @result{} -3
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
853 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal @minus{}3.}
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
854 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010
49600
23a1cea22d13 Trailing whitespace deleted.
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents: 48700
diff changeset
855 @result{}
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
856 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
857 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
858 @end example
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
859
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
860 In contrast, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right with
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
861 @code{lsh} looks like this:
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
862
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
863 @example
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
864 @group
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
865 (lsh -6 -1) @result{} 268435453
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
866 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal 268,435,453.}
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
867 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010
49600
23a1cea22d13 Trailing whitespace deleted.
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents: 48700
diff changeset
868 @result{}
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
869 0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
870 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
871 @end example
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
872
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
873 Here are other examples:
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
874
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
875 @c !!! Check if lined up in smallbook format! XDVI shows problem
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
876 @c with smallbook but not with regular book! --rjc 16mar92
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
877 @smallexample
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
878 @group
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
879 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
880
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
881 (lsh 5 2) ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
882 @result{} 20 ; = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001 0100}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
883 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
884 @group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
885 (ash 5 2)
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
886 @result{} 20
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
887 (lsh -5 2) ; -5 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011}
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
888 @result{} -20 ; = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 1100}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
889 (ash -5 2)
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
890 @result{} -20
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
891 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
892 @group
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
893 (lsh 5 -2) ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
894 @result{} 1 ; = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
895 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
896 @group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
897 (ash 5 -2)
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
898 @result{} 1
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
899 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
900 @group
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
901 (lsh -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011}
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
902 @result{} 134217726 ; = @r{0 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
903 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
904 @group
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
905 (ash -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011}
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
906 @result{} -2 ; = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
907 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
908 @end smallexample
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
909 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
910
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
911 @defun logand &rest ints-or-markers
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
912 @cindex logical and
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
913 @cindex bitwise and
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
914 This function returns the ``logical and'' of the arguments: the
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
915 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
916 set in all the arguments. (``Set'' means that the value of the bit is 1
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
917 rather than 0.)
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
918
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
919 For example, using 4-bit binary numbers, the ``logical and'' of 13 and
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
920 12 is 12: 1101 combined with 1100 produces 1100.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
921 In both the binary numbers, the leftmost two bits are set (i.e., they
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
922 are 1's), so the leftmost two bits of the returned value are set.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
923 However, for the rightmost two bits, each is zero in at least one of
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
924 the arguments, so the rightmost two bits of the returned value are 0's.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
925
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
926 @noindent
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
927 Therefore,
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
928
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
929 @example
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
930 @group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
931 (logand 13 12)
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
932 @result{} 12
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
933 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
934 @end example
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
935
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
936 If @code{logand} is not passed any argument, it returns a value of
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
937 @minus{}1. This number is an identity element for @code{logand}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
938 because its binary representation consists entirely of ones. If
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
939 @code{logand} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
940
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
941 @smallexample
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
942 @group
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
943 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
944
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
945 (logand 14 13) ; 14 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110}
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
946 ; 13 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101}
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
947 @result{} 12 ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
948 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
949
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
950 @group
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
951 (logand 14 13 4) ; 14 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110}
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
952 ; 13 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101}
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
953 ; 4 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100}
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
954 @result{} 4 ; 4 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
955 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
956
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
957 @group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
958 (logand)
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
959 @result{} -1 ; -1 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
960 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
961 @end smallexample
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
962 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
963
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
964 @defun logior &rest ints-or-markers
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
965 @cindex logical inclusive or
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
966 @cindex bitwise or
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
967 This function returns the ``inclusive or'' of its arguments: the @var{n}th bit
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
968 is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is set in at least
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
969 one of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the result is zero,
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
970 which is an identity element for this operation. If @code{logior} is
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
971 passed just one argument, it returns that argument.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
972
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
973 @smallexample
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
974 @group
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
975 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
976
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
977 (logior 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
978 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
979 @result{} 13 ; 13 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
980 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
981
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
982 @group
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
983 (logior 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
984 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
985 ; 7 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111}
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
986 @result{} 15 ; 15 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
987 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
988 @end smallexample
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
989 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
990
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
991 @defun logxor &rest ints-or-markers
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
992 @cindex bitwise exclusive or
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
993 @cindex logical exclusive or
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
994 This function returns the ``exclusive or'' of its arguments: the
7115
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
995 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
996 set in an odd number of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
997 result is 0, which is an identity element for this operation. If
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
998 @code{logxor} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument.
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
999
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1000 @smallexample
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1001 @group
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
1002 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1003
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
1004 (logxor 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
1005 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
1006 @result{} 9 ; 9 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1001}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1007 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1008
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1009 @group
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
1010 (logxor 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
1011 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
1012 ; 7 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111}
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
1013 @result{} 14 ; 14 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1014 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1015 @end smallexample
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1016 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1017
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1018 @defun lognot integer
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1019 @cindex logical not
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1020 @cindex bitwise not
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1021 This function returns the logical complement of its argument: the @var{n}th
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1022 bit is one in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is zero in
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1023 @var{integer}, and vice-versa.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1024
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1025 @example
49600
23a1cea22d13 Trailing whitespace deleted.
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents: 48700
diff changeset
1026 (lognot 5)
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1027 @result{} -6
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
1028 ;; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1029 ;; @r{becomes}
52886
3a30e4cd22e9 Update for extra bit of integer range.
Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca>
parents: 52863
diff changeset
1030 ;; -6 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1031 @end example
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1032 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1033
11230
c6b70cdf844e Don't call the special math functions "transcendental".
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 10558
diff changeset
1034 @node Math Functions
c6b70cdf844e Don't call the special math functions "transcendental".
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 10558
diff changeset
1035 @section Standard Mathematical Functions
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1036 @cindex transcendental functions
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1037 @cindex mathematical functions
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1038
21682
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
1039 These mathematical functions allow integers as well as floating point
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21007
diff changeset
1040 numbers as arguments.
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1041
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1042 @defun sin arg
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1043 @defunx cos arg
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1044 @defunx tan arg
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1045 These are the ordinary trigonometric functions, with argument measured
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1046 in radians.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1047 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1048
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1049 @defun asin arg
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
1050 The value of @code{(asin @var{arg})} is a number between
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
1051 @ifnottex
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
1052 @minus{}pi/2
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
1053 @end ifnottex
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
1054 @tex
25751
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25454
diff changeset
1055 @math{-\pi/2}
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
1056 @end tex
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
1057 and
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
1058 @ifnottex
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
1059 pi/2
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
1060 @end ifnottex
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
1061 @tex
25751
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25454
diff changeset
1062 @math{\pi/2}
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
1063 @end tex
53432
7dd1ab1ebb2c (Math Functions): asin, acos, log, log10 report domain-error errors.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 53044
diff changeset
1064 (inclusive) whose sine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} is out of
7dd1ab1ebb2c (Math Functions): asin, acos, log, log10 report domain-error errors.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 53044
diff changeset
1065 range (outside [-1, 1]), it signals a @code{domain-error} error.
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1066 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1067
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1068 @defun acos arg
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
1069 The value of @code{(acos @var{arg})} is a number between 0 and
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
1070 @ifnottex
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
1071 pi
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
1072 @end ifnottex
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
1073 @tex
25751
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25454
diff changeset
1074 @math{\pi}
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
1075 @end tex
53432
7dd1ab1ebb2c (Math Functions): asin, acos, log, log10 report domain-error errors.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 53044
diff changeset
1076 (inclusive) whose cosine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} is out
7dd1ab1ebb2c (Math Functions): asin, acos, log, log10 report domain-error errors.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 53044
diff changeset
1077 of range (outside [-1, 1]), it signals a @code{domain-error} error.
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1078 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1079
43414
90f3a1f6ee84 (Math Functions): Document the optional second arg of atan.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents: 39198
diff changeset
1080 @defun atan y &optional x
90f3a1f6ee84 (Math Functions): Document the optional second arg of atan.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents: 39198
diff changeset
1081 The value of @code{(atan @var{y})} is a number between
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
1082 @ifnottex
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
1083 @minus{}pi/2
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
1084 @end ifnottex
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
1085 @tex
25751
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25454
diff changeset
1086 @math{-\pi/2}
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
1087 @end tex
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
1088 and
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
1089 @ifnottex
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
1090 pi/2
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
1091 @end ifnottex
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
1092 @tex
25751
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25454
diff changeset
1093 @math{\pi/2}
25454
80ac191b6d2b *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
1094 @end tex
43414
90f3a1f6ee84 (Math Functions): Document the optional second arg of atan.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents: 39198
diff changeset
1095 (exclusive) whose tangent is @var{y}. If the optional second
90f3a1f6ee84 (Math Functions): Document the optional second arg of atan.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents: 39198
diff changeset
1096 argument @var{x} is given, the value of @code{(atan y x)} is the
90f3a1f6ee84 (Math Functions): Document the optional second arg of atan.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents: 39198
diff changeset
1097 angle in radians between the vector @code{[@var{x}, @var{y}]} and the
90f3a1f6ee84 (Math Functions): Document the optional second arg of atan.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents: 39198
diff changeset
1098 @code{X} axis.
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1099 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1100
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1101 @defun exp arg
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1102 This is the exponential function; it returns
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1103 @tex
25751
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25454
diff changeset
1104 @math{e}
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1105 @end tex
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
1106 @ifnottex
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1107 @i{e}
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
1108 @end ifnottex
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1109 to the power @var{arg}.
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1110 @tex
25751
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25454
diff changeset
1111 @math{e}
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1112 @end tex
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
1113 @ifnottex
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1114 @i{e}
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
1115 @end ifnottex
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1116 is a fundamental mathematical constant also called the base of natural
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1117 logarithms.
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1118 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1119
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1120 @defun log arg &optional base
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1121 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base @var{base}.
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1122 If you don't specify @var{base}, the base
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1123 @tex
25751
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25454
diff changeset
1124 @math{e}
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1125 @end tex
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
1126 @ifnottex
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1127 @i{e}
27193
89afca54a135 @ifinto -> @ifnottex.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents: 27189
diff changeset
1128 @end ifnottex
53432
7dd1ab1ebb2c (Math Functions): asin, acos, log, log10 report domain-error errors.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 53044
diff changeset
1129 is used. If @var{arg} is negative, it signals a @code{domain-error}
7dd1ab1ebb2c (Math Functions): asin, acos, log, log10 report domain-error errors.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 53044
diff changeset
1130 error.
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1131 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1132
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1133 @ignore
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1134 @defun expm1 arg
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1135 This function returns @code{(1- (exp @var{arg}))}, but it is more
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1136 accurate than that when @var{arg} is negative and @code{(exp @var{arg})}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1137 is close to 1.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1138 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1139
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1140 @defun log1p arg
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1141 This function returns @code{(log (1+ @var{arg}))}, but it is more
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1142 accurate than that when @var{arg} is so small that adding 1 to it would
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1143 lose accuracy.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1144 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1145 @end ignore
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1146
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1147 @defun log10 arg
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1148 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base 10. If
53432
7dd1ab1ebb2c (Math Functions): asin, acos, log, log10 report domain-error errors.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 53044
diff changeset
1149 @var{arg} is negative, it signals a @code{domain-error} error.
7dd1ab1ebb2c (Math Functions): asin, acos, log, log10 report domain-error errors.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 53044
diff changeset
1150 @code{(log10 @var{x})} @equiv{} @code{(log @var{x} 10)}, at least
7dd1ab1ebb2c (Math Functions): asin, acos, log, log10 report domain-error errors.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 53044
diff changeset
1151 approximately.
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1152 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1153
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1154 @defun expt x y
10306
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
1155 This function returns @var{x} raised to power @var{y}. If both
89f8d7f3bd73 Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 8017
diff changeset
1156 arguments are integers and @var{y} is positive, the result is an
60043
d262f544d0bf (Integer Basics): Clarify radix explanation.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 58499
diff changeset
1157 integer; in this case, overflow causes truncation, so watch out.
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1158 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1159
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1160 @defun sqrt arg
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1161 This returns the square root of @var{arg}. If @var{arg} is negative,
53465
a603854deb89 (Math Functions): sqrt reports a domain-error
Andreas Schwab <schwab@suse.de>
parents: 53432
diff changeset
1162 it signals a @code{domain-error} error.
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1163 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1164
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1165 @node Random Numbers
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1166 @section Random Numbers
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1167 @cindex random numbers
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1168
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1169 A deterministic computer program cannot generate true random numbers.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1170 For most purposes, @dfn{pseudo-random numbers} suffice. A series of
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1171 pseudo-random numbers is generated in a deterministic fashion. The
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1172 numbers are not truly random, but they have certain properties that
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1173 mimic a random series. For example, all possible values occur equally
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1174 often in a pseudo-random series.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1175
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1176 In Emacs, pseudo-random numbers are generated from a ``seed'' number.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1177 Starting from any given seed, the @code{random} function always
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1178 generates the same sequence of numbers. Emacs always starts with the
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1179 same seed value, so the sequence of values of @code{random} is actually
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1180 the same in each Emacs run! For example, in one operating system, the
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1181 first call to @code{(random)} after you start Emacs always returns
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1182 -1457731, and the second one always returns -7692030. This
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1183 repeatability is helpful for debugging.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1184
25751
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25454
diff changeset
1185 If you want random numbers that don't always come out the same, execute
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 25454
diff changeset
1186 @code{(random t)}. This chooses a new seed based on the current time of
52978
1a5c50faf357 Replace @sc{foo} with @acronym{FOO}.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents: 52901
diff changeset
1187 day and on Emacs's process @acronym{ID} number.
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1188
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1189 @defun random &optional limit
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1190 This function returns a pseudo-random integer. Repeated calls return a
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1191 series of pseudo-random integers.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1192
12067
73dc8205d259 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 11230
diff changeset
1193 If @var{limit} is a positive integer, the value is chosen to be
12098
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 12067
diff changeset
1194 nonnegative and less than @var{limit}.
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1195
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1196 If @var{limit} is @code{t}, it means to choose a new seed based on the
52978
1a5c50faf357 Replace @sc{foo} with @acronym{FOO}.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents: 52901
diff changeset
1197 current time of day and on Emacs's process @acronym{ID} number.
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1198 @c "Emacs'" is incorrect usage!
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1199
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1200 On some machines, any integer representable in Lisp may be the result
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1201 of @code{random}. On other machines, the result can never be larger
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1202 than a certain maximum or less than a certain (negative) minimum.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1203 @end defun
52401
695cf19ef79e Add arch taglines
Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 51920
diff changeset
1204
695cf19ef79e Add arch taglines
Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 51920
diff changeset
1205 @ignore
695cf19ef79e Add arch taglines
Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 51920
diff changeset
1206 arch-tag: 574e8dd2-d513-4616-9844-c9a27869782e
695cf19ef79e Add arch taglines
Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 51920
diff changeset
1207 @end ignore