annotate lispref/objects.texi @ 7966:76118755a179

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author Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
date Sun, 19 Jun 1994 18:04:35 +0000
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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5 @setfilename ../info/objects
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6 @node Lisp Data Types, Numbers, Introduction, Top
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7 @chapter Lisp Data Types
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8 @cindex object
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9 @cindex Lisp object
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10 @cindex type
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11 @cindex data type
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12
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13 A Lisp @dfn{object} is a piece of data used and manipulated by Lisp
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14 programs. For our purposes, a @dfn{type} or @dfn{data type} is a set of
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15 possible objects.
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16
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17 Every object belongs to at least one type. Objects of the same type
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18 have similar structures and may usually be used in the same contexts.
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19 Types can overlap, and objects can belong to two or more types.
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20 Consequently, we can ask whether an object belongs to a particular type,
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21 but not for ``the'' type of an object.
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22
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23 @cindex primitive type
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24 A few fundamental object types are built into Emacs. These, from
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25 which all other types are constructed, are called @dfn{primitive
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26 types}. Each object belongs to one and only one primitive type. These
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27 types include @dfn{integer}, @dfn{float}, @dfn{cons}, @dfn{symbol},
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28 @dfn{string}, @dfn{vector}, @dfn{subr}, @dfn{byte-code function}, and
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29 several special types, such as @dfn{buffer}, that are related to
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30 editing. (@xref{Editing Types}.)
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31
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32 Each primitive type has a corresponding Lisp function that checks
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33 whether an object is a member of that type.
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34
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35 Note that Lisp is unlike many other languages in that Lisp objects are
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36 @dfn{self-typing}: the primitive type of the object is implicit in the
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37 object itself. For example, if an object is a vector, nothing can treat
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38 it as a number; Lisp knows it is a vector, not a number.
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39
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40 In most languages, the programmer must declare the data type of each
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41 variable, and the type is known by the compiler but not represented in
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42 the data. Such type declarations do not exist in Emacs Lisp. A Lisp
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43 variable can have any type of value, and it remembers whatever value
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44 you store in it, type and all.
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45
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46 This chapter describes the purpose, printed representation, and read
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47 syntax of each of the standard types in GNU Emacs Lisp. Details on how
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48 to use these types can be found in later chapters.
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49
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50 @menu
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51 * Printed Representation:: How Lisp objects are represented as text.
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52 * Comments:: Comments and their formatting conventions.
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53 * Programming Types:: Types found in all Lisp systems.
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54 * Editing Types:: Types specific to Emacs.
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55 * Type Predicates:: Tests related to types.
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56 * Equality Predicates:: Tests of equality between any two objects.
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57 @end menu
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58
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59 @node Printed Representation
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60 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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61 @section Printed Representation and Read Syntax
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62 @cindex printed representation
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63 @cindex read syntax
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64
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65 The @dfn{printed representation} of an object is the format of the
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66 output generated by the Lisp printer (the function @code{prin1}) for
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67 that object. The @dfn{read syntax} of an object is the format of the
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68 input accepted by the Lisp reader (the function @code{read}) for that
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69 object. Most objects have more than one possible read syntax. Some
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70 types of object have no read syntax; except for these cases, the printed
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71 representation of an object is also a read syntax for it.
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72
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73 In other languages, an expression is text; it has no other form. In
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74 Lisp, an expression is primarily a Lisp object and only secondarily the
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75 text that is the object's read syntax. Often there is no need to
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76 emphasize this distinction, but you must keep it in the back of your
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77 mind, or you will occasionally be very confused.
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78
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79 @cindex hash notation
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80 Every type has a printed representation. Some types have no read
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81 syntax, since it may not make sense to enter objects of these types
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82 directly in a Lisp program. For example, the buffer type does not have
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83 a read syntax. Objects of these types are printed in @dfn{hash
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84 notation}: the characters @samp{#<} followed by a descriptive string
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85 (typically the type name followed by the name of the object), and closed
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86 with a matching @samp{>}. Hash notation cannot be read at all, so the
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87 Lisp reader signals the error @code{invalid-read-syntax} whenever it
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88 encounters @samp{#<}.
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89 @kindex invalid-read-syntax
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90
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91 @example
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92 (current-buffer)
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93 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi>
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94 @end example
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95
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96 When you evaluate an expression interactively, the Lisp interpreter
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97 first reads the textual representation of it, producing a Lisp object,
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98 and then evaluates that object (@pxref{Evaluation}). However,
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99 evaluation and reading are separate activities. Reading returns the
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100 Lisp object represented by the text that is read; the object may or may
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101 not be evaluated later. @xref{Input Functions}, for a description of
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102 @code{read}, the basic function for reading objects.
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103
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104 @node Comments
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105 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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106 @section Comments
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107 @cindex comments
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108 @cindex @samp{;} in comment
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109
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110 A @dfn{comment} is text that is written in a program only for the sake
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111 of humans that read the program, and that has no effect on the meaning
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112 of the program. In Lisp, a semicolon (@samp{;}) starts a comment if it
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113 is not within a string or character constant. The comment continues to
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114 the end of line. The Lisp reader discards comments; they do not become
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115 part of the Lisp objects which represent the program within the Lisp
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116 system.
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117
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118 @xref{Comment Tips}, for conventions for formatting comments.
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119
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120 @node Programming Types
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121 @section Programming Types
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122 @cindex programming types
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123
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124 There are two general categories of types in Emacs Lisp: those having
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125 to do with Lisp programming, and those having to do with editing. The
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126 former exist in many Lisp implementations, in one form or another. The
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127 latter are unique to Emacs Lisp.
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128
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129 @menu
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130 * Integer Type:: Numbers without fractional parts.
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131 * Floating Point Type:: Numbers with fractional parts and with a large range.
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132 * Character Type:: The representation of letters, numbers and
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133 control characters.
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134 * Symbol Type:: A multi-use object that refers to a function,
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135 variable, or property list, and has a unique identity.
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136 * Sequence Type:: Both lists and arrays are classified as sequences.
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137 * Cons Cell Type:: Cons cells, and lists (which are made from cons cells).
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138 * Array Type:: Arrays include strings and vectors.
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139 * String Type:: An (efficient) array of characters.
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140 * Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays.
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141 * Function Type:: A piece of executable code you can call from elsewhere.
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142 * Macro Type:: A method of expanding an expression into another
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143 expression, more fundamental but less pretty.
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144 * Primitive Function Type:: A function written in C, callable from Lisp.
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145 * Byte-Code Type:: A function written in Lisp, then compiled.
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146 * Autoload Type:: A type used for automatically loading seldom-used
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147 functions.
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148 @end menu
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149
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150 @node Integer Type
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151 @subsection Integer Type
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152
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153 Integers were the only kind of number in Emacs version 18. The range
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154 of values for integers is @minus{}8388608 to 8388607 (24 bits; i.e.,
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155 @ifinfo
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156 -2**23
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157 @end ifinfo
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158 @tex
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159 $-2^{23}$
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160 @end tex
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161 to
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162 @ifinfo
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163 2**23 - 1)
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164 @end ifinfo
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165 @tex
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166 $2^{23}-1$)
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167 @end tex
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168 on most machines, but is 25 or 26 bits on some systems. It is important
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169 to note that the Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions do not check for
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170 overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 8388607)} is @minus{}8388608 on 24-bit
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171 implementations.@refill
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172
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173 The read syntax for integers is a sequence of (base ten) digits with an
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174 optional sign at the beginning and an optional period at the end. The
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175 printed representation produced by the Lisp interpreter never has a
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176 leading @samp{+} or a final @samp{.}.
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177
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178 @example
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179 @group
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180 -1 ; @r{The integer -1.}
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181 1 ; @r{The integer 1.}
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182 1. ; @r{Also The integer 1.}
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183 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.}
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184 16777217 ; @r{Also the integer 1!}
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185 ; @r{ (on a 24-bit or 25-bit implementation)}
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186 @end group
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187 @end example
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188
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189 @xref{Numbers}, for more information.
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190
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191 @node Floating Point Type
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192 @subsection Floating Point Type
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193
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194 Emacs version 19 supports floating point numbers (though there is a
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195 compilation option to disable them). The precise range of floating
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196 point numbers is machine-specific.
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197
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198 The printed representation for floating point numbers requires either
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199 a decimal point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or
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200 both. For example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2},
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201 @samp{1.5e3}, and @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point
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202 number whose value is 1500. They are all equivalent.
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203
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204 @xref{Numbers}, for more information.
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205
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206 @node Character Type
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207 @subsection Character Type
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208 @cindex @sc{ASCII} character codes
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209
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210 A @dfn{character} in Emacs Lisp is nothing more than an integer. In
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211 other words, characters are represented by their character codes. For
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212 example, the character @kbd{A} is represented as the @w{integer 65}.
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213
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214 Individual characters are not often used in programs. It is far more
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215 common to work with @emph{strings}, which are sequences composed of
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216 characters. @xref{String Type}.
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217
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218 Characters in strings, buffers, and files are currently limited to the
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219 range of 0 to 255---eight bits. If you store a larger integer into a
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220 string, buffer or file, it is truncated to that range. Characters that
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221 represent keyboard input have a much wider range.
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222
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223 @cindex read syntax for characters
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224 @cindex printed representation for characters
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225 @cindex syntax for characters
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226 Since characters are really integers, the printed representation of a
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227 character is a decimal number. This is also a possible read syntax for
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228 a character, but writing characters that way in Lisp programs is a very
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229 bad idea. You should @emph{always} use the special read syntax formats
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230 that Emacs Lisp provides for characters. These syntax formats start
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231 with a question mark.
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232
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233 The usual read syntax for alphanumeric characters is a question mark
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234 followed by the character; thus, @samp{?A} for the character
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235 @kbd{A}, @samp{?B} for the character @kbd{B}, and @samp{?a} for the
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236 character @kbd{a}.
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237
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238 For example:
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239
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240 @example
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241 ?Q @result{} 81 ?q @result{} 113
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242 @end example
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243
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244 You can use the same syntax for punctuation characters, but it is
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245 often a good idea to add a @samp{\} so that the Emacs commands for
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246 editing Lisp code don't get confused. For example, @samp{?\ } is the
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247 way to write the space character. If the character is @samp{\}, you
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248 @emph{must} use a second @samp{\} to quote it: @samp{?\\}.
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249
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250 @cindex whitespace
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251 @cindex bell character
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252 @cindex @samp{\a}
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253 @cindex backspace
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254 @cindex @samp{\b}
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255 @cindex tab
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256 @cindex @samp{\t}
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257 @cindex vertical tab
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258 @cindex @samp{\v}
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259 @cindex formfeed
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260 @cindex @samp{\f}
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261 @cindex newline
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262 @cindex @samp{\n}
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263 @cindex return
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264 @cindex @samp{\r}
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265 @cindex escape
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266 @cindex @samp{\e}
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267 You can express the characters Control-g, backspace, tab, newline,
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268 vertical tab, formfeed, return, and escape as @samp{?\a}, @samp{?\b},
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269 @samp{?\t}, @samp{?\n}, @samp{?\v}, @samp{?\f}, @samp{?\r}, @samp{?\e},
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270 respectively. Those values are 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 27 in
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271 decimal. Thus,
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272
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273 @example
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274 ?\a @result{} 7 ; @r{@kbd{C-g}}
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275 ?\b @result{} 8 ; @r{backspace, @key{BS}, @kbd{C-h}}
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276 ?\t @result{} 9 ; @r{tab, @key{TAB}, @kbd{C-i}}
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277 ?\n @result{} 10 ; @r{newline, @key{LFD}, @kbd{C-j}}
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278 ?\v @result{} 11 ; @r{vertical tab, @kbd{C-k}}
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279 ?\f @result{} 12 ; @r{formfeed character, @kbd{C-l}}
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280 ?\r @result{} 13 ; @r{carriage return, @key{RET}, @kbd{C-m}}
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281 ?\e @result{} 27 ; @r{escape character, @key{ESC}, @kbd{C-[}}
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282 ?\\ @result{} 92 ; @r{backslash character, @kbd{\}}
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283 @end example
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284
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285 @cindex escape sequence
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286 These sequences which start with backslash are also known as
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287 @dfn{escape sequences}, because backslash plays the role of an escape
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288 character; this usage has nothing to do with the character @key{ESC}.
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289
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290 @cindex control characters
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291 Control characters may be represented using yet another read syntax.
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292 This consists of a question mark followed by a backslash, caret, and the
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293 corresponding non-control character, in either upper or lower case. For
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294 example, both @samp{?\^I} and @samp{?\^i} are valid read syntax for the
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295 character @kbd{C-i}, the character whose value is 9.
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296
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297 Instead of the @samp{^}, you can use @samp{C-}; thus, @samp{?\C-i} is
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298 equivalent to @samp{?\^I} and to @samp{?\^i}:
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299
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300 @example
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301 ?\^I @result{} 9 ?\C-I @result{} 9
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302 @end example
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303
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304 For use in strings and buffers, you are limited to the control
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305 characters that exist in @sc{ASCII}, but for keyboard input purposes,
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306 you can turn any character into a control character with @samp{C-}. The
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307 character codes for these non-@sc{ASCII} control characters include the
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308 2**22 bit as well as the code for the corresponding non-control
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309 character. Ordinary terminals have no way of generating non-@sc{ASCII}
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310 control characters, but you can generate them straightforwardly using an
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311 X terminal.
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312
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313 You can think of the @key{DEL} character as @kbd{Control-?}:
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314
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315 @example
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316 ?\^? @result{} 127 ?\C-? @result{} 127
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317 @end example
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318
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319 For representing control characters to be found in files or strings,
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320 we recommend the @samp{^} syntax; for control characters in keyboard
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321 input, we prefer the @samp{C-} syntax. This does not affect the meaning
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322 of the program, but may guide the understanding of people who read it.
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323
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324 @cindex meta characters
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325 A @dfn{meta character} is a character typed with the @key{META}
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326 modifier key. The integer that represents such a character has the
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327 2**23 bit set (which on most machines makes it a negative number). We
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328 use high bits for this and other modifiers to make possible a wide range
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329 of basic character codes.
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330
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331 In a string, the 2**7 bit indicates a meta character, so the meta
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332 characters that can fit in a string have codes in the range from 128 to
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333 255, and are the meta versions of the ordinary @sc{ASCII} characters.
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334 (In Emacs versions 18 and older, this convention was used for characters
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335 outside of strings as well.)
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336
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337 The read syntax for meta characters uses @samp{\M-}. For example,
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338 @samp{?\M-A} stands for @kbd{M-A}. You can use @samp{\M-} together with
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339 octal character codes (see below), with @samp{\C-}, or with any other
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340 syntax for a character. Thus, you can write @kbd{M-A} as @samp{?\M-A},
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341 or as @samp{?\M-\101}. Likewise, you can write @kbd{C-M-b} as
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342 @samp{?\M-\C-b}, @samp{?\C-\M-b}, or @samp{?\M-\002}.
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343
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344 The case of an ordinary letter is indicated by its character code as
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345 part of @sc{ASCII}, but @sc{ASCII} has no way to represent whether a
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346 control character is upper case or lower case. Emacs uses the 2**21 bit
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347 to indicate that the shift key was used for typing a control character.
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348 This distinction is possible only when you use X terminals or other
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349 special terminals; ordinary terminals do not indicate the distinction to
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350 the computer in any way.
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351
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352 @cindex hyper characters
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353 @cindex super characters
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354 @cindex alt characters
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355 The X Window System defines three other modifier bits that can be set
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356 in a character: @dfn{hyper}, @dfn{super} and @dfn{alt}. The syntaxes
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357 for these bits are @samp{\H-}, @samp{\s-} and @samp{\A-}. Thus,
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358 @samp{?\H-\M-\A-x} represents @kbd{Alt-Hyper-Meta-x}. Numerically, the
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359 bit values are 2**18 for alt, 2**19 for super and 2**20 for hyper.
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360
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361 @cindex @samp{?} in character constant
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362 @cindex question mark in character constant
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363 @cindex @samp{\} in character constant
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364 @cindex backslash in character constant
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365 @cindex octal character code
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366 Finally, the most general read syntax consists of a question mark
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367 followed by a backslash and the character code in octal (up to three
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368 octal digits); thus, @samp{?\101} for the character @kbd{A},
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369 @samp{?\001} for the character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\002} for the
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370 character @kbd{C-b}. Although this syntax can represent any @sc{ASCII}
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371 character, it is preferred only when the precise octal value is more
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372 important than the @sc{ASCII} representation.
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373
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374 @example
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375 @group
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376 ?\012 @result{} 10 ?\n @result{} 10 ?\C-j @result{} 10
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377 ?\101 @result{} 65 ?A @result{} 65
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378 @end group
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379 @end example
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380
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381 A backslash is allowed, and harmless, preceding any character without
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382 a special escape meaning; thus, @samp{?\+} is equivalent to @samp{?+}.
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383 There is no reason to add a backslash before most characters. However,
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384 you should add a backslash before any of the characters
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385 @samp{()\|;'`"#.,} to avoid confusing the Emacs commands for editing
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386 Lisp code. Also add a backslash before whitespace characters such as
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387 space, tab, newline and formfeed. However, it is cleaner to use one of
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388 the easily readable escape sequences, such as @samp{\t}, instead of an
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389 actual whitespace character such as a tab.
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390
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391 @node Symbol Type
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392 @subsection Symbol Type
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393
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394 A @dfn{symbol} in GNU Emacs Lisp is an object with a name. The symbol
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395 name serves as the printed representation of the symbol. In ordinary
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396 use, the name is unique---no two symbols have the same name.
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397
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398 A symbol can serve as a variable, as a function name, or to hold a
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399 property list. Or it may serve only to be distinct from all other Lisp
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400 objects, so that its presence in a data structure may be recognized
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401 reliably. In a given context, usually only one of these uses is
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402 intended. But you can use one symbol in all of these ways,
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403 independently.
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404
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405 @cindex @samp{\} in symbols
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406 @cindex backslash in symbols
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407 A symbol name can contain any characters whatever. Most symbol names
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408 are written with letters, digits, and the punctuation characters
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409 @samp{-+=*/}. Such names require no special punctuation; the characters
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410 of the name suffice as long as the name does not look like a number.
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411 (If it does, write a @samp{\} at the beginning of the name to force
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412 interpretation as a symbol.) The characters @samp{_~!@@$%^&:<>@{@}} are
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413 less often used but also require no special punctuation. Any other
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414 characters may be included in a symbol's name by escaping them with a
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415 backslash. In contrast to its use in strings, however, a backslash in
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416 the name of a symbol simply quotes the single character that follows the
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417 backslash. For example, in a string, @samp{\t} represents a tab
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418 character; in the name of a symbol, however, @samp{\t} merely quotes the
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419 letter @kbd{t}. To have a symbol with a tab character in its name, you
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420 must actually use a tab (preceded with a backslash). But it's rare to
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421 do such a thing.
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422
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423 @cindex CL note---case of letters
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424 @quotation
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425 @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, lower case letters are always
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426 ``folded'' to upper case, unless they are explicitly escaped. This is
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427 in contrast to Emacs Lisp, in which upper case and lower case letters
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428 are distinct.
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429 @end quotation
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430
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431 Here are several examples of symbol names. Note that the @samp{+} in
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432 the fifth example is escaped to prevent it from being read as a number.
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433 This is not necessary in the last example because the rest of the name
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434 makes it invalid as a number.
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435
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436 @example
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437 @group
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438 foo ; @r{A symbol named @samp{foo}.}
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439 FOO ; @r{A symbol named @samp{FOO}, different from @samp{foo}.}
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440 char-to-string ; @r{A symbol named @samp{char-to-string}.}
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441 @end group
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442 @group
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443 1+ ; @r{A symbol named @samp{1+}}
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444 ; @r{(not @samp{+1}, which is an integer).}
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445 @end group
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446 @group
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447 \+1 ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+1}}
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448 ; @r{(not a very readable name).}
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449 @end group
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450 @group
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451 \(*\ 1\ 2\) ; @r{A symbol named @samp{(* 1 2)} (a worse name).}
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452 @c the @'s in this next line use up three characters, hence the
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453 @c apparent misalignment of the comment.
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454 +-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@} ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@}}.}
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455 ; @r{These characters need not be escaped.}
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456 @end group
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457 @end example
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458
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459 @node Sequence Type
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460 @subsection Sequence Types
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461
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462 A @dfn{sequence} is a Lisp object that represents an ordered set of
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463 elements. There are two kinds of sequence in Emacs Lisp, lists and
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464 arrays. Thus, an object of type list or of type array is also
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465 considered a sequence.
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466
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467 Arrays are further subdivided into strings and vectors. Vectors can
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468 hold elements of any type, but string elements must be characters in the
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469 range from 0 to 255. However, the characters in a string can have text
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470 properties like characters in a buffer (@pxref{Text Properties});
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471 vectors do not support text properties even when their elements happen
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472 to be characters.
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473
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474 Lists, strings and vectors are different, but they have important
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475 similarities. For example, all have a length @var{l}, and all have
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476 elements which can be indexed from zero to @var{l} minus one. Also,
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477 several functions, called sequence functions, accept any kind of
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478 sequence. For example, the function @code{elt} can be used to extract
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479 an element of a sequence, given its index. @xref{Sequences Arrays
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480 Vectors}.
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481
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482 It is impossible to read the same sequence twice, since sequences are
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483 always created anew upon reading. If you read the read syntax for a
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484 sequence twice, you get two sequences with equal contents. There is one
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485 exception: the empty list @code{()} always stands for the same object,
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486 @code{nil}.
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487
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488 @node Cons Cell Type
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489 @subsection Cons Cell and List Types
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490 @cindex address field of register
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491 @cindex decrement field of register
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492
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493 A @dfn{cons cell} is an object comprising two pointers named the
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494 @sc{car} and the @sc{cdr}. Each of them can point to any Lisp object.
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495
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496 A @dfn{list} is a series of cons cells, linked together so that the
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497 @sc{cdr} of each cons cell points either to another cons cell or to the
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498 empty list. @xref{Lists}, for functions that work on lists. Because
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499 most cons cells are used as part of lists, the phrase @dfn{list
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500 structure} has come to refer to any structure made out of cons cells.
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501
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502 The names @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} have only historical meaning now. The
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503 original Lisp implementation ran on an @w{IBM 704} computer which
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504 divided words into two parts, called the ``address'' part and the
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505 ``decrement''; @sc{car} was an instruction to extract the contents of
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506 the address part of a register, and @sc{cdr} an instruction to extract
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507 the contents of the decrement. By contrast, ``cons cells'' are named
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508 for the function @code{cons} that creates them, which in turn is named
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509 for its purpose, the construction of cells.
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510
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511 @cindex atom
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512 Because cons cells are so central to Lisp, we also have a word for
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513 ``an object which is not a cons cell''. These objects are called
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514 @dfn{atoms}.
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515
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516 @cindex parenthesis
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517 The read syntax and printed representation for lists are identical, and
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518 consist of a left parenthesis, an arbitrary number of elements, and a
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519 right parenthesis.
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520
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521 Upon reading, each object inside the parentheses becomes an element
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522 of the list. That is, a cons cell is made for each element. The
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523 @sc{car} of the cons cell points to the element, and its @sc{cdr} points
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524 to the next cons cell of the list, which holds the next element in the
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525 list. The @sc{cdr} of the last cons cell is set to point to @code{nil}.
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526
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527 @cindex box diagrams, for lists
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528 @cindex diagrams, boxed, for lists
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529 A list can be illustrated by a diagram in which the cons cells are
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530 shown as pairs of boxes. (The Lisp reader cannot read such an
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531 illustration; unlike the textual notation, which can be understood by
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532 both humans and computers, the box illustrations can be understood only
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533 by humans.) The following represents the three-element list @code{(rose
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534 violet buttercup)}:
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535
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536 @example
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537 @group
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538 ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
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539 |___|___|--> |___|___|--> |___|___|--> nil
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540 | | |
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541 | | |
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542 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup
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543 @end group
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544 @end example
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545
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546 In this diagram, each box represents a slot that can refer to any Lisp
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547 object. Each pair of boxes represents a cons cell. Each arrow is a
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548 reference to a Lisp object, either an atom or another cons cell.
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549
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550 In this example, the first box, the @sc{car} of the first cons cell,
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551 refers to or ``contains'' @code{rose} (a symbol). The second box, the
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552 @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell, refers to the next pair of boxes, the
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553 second cons cell. The @sc{car} of the second cons cell refers to
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554 @code{violet} and the @sc{cdr} refers to the third cons cell. The
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555 @sc{cdr} of the third (and last) cons cell refers to @code{nil}.
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556
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557 Here is another diagram of the same list, @code{(rose violet
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558 buttercup)}, sketched in a different manner:
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559
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560 @smallexample
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561 @group
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562 --------------- ---------------- -------------------
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563 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr |
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564 | rose | o-------->| violet | o-------->| buttercup | nil |
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565 | | | | | | | | |
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566 --------------- ---------------- -------------------
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567 @end group
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568 @end smallexample
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569
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570 @cindex @samp{(@dots{})} in lists
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571 @cindex @code{nil} in lists
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572 @cindex empty list
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573 A list with no elements in it is the @dfn{empty list}; it is identical
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574 to the symbol @code{nil}. In other words, @code{nil} is both a symbol
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575 and a list.
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576
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577 Here are examples of lists written in Lisp syntax:
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578
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579 @example
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580 (A 2 "A") ; @r{A list of three elements.}
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581 () ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).}
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582 nil ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).}
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583 ("A ()") ; @r{A list of one element: the string @code{"A ()"}.}
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584 (A ()) ; @r{A list of two elements: @code{A} and the empty list.}
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585 (A nil) ; @r{Equivalent to the previous.}
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586 ((A B C)) ; @r{A list of one element}
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587 ; @r{(which is a list of three elements).}
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588 @end example
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589
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590 Here is the list @code{(A ())}, or equivalently @code{(A nil)},
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591 depicted with boxes and arrows:
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592
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593 @example
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594 @group
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595 ___ ___ ___ ___
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596 |___|___|--> |___|___|--> nil
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597 | |
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598 | |
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599 --> A --> nil
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600 @end group
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601 @end example
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602
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603 @menu
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604 * Dotted Pair Notation:: An alternative syntax for lists.
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605 * Association List Type:: A specially constructed list.
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606 @end menu
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607
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608 @node Dotted Pair Notation
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609 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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610 @subsubsection Dotted Pair Notation
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611 @cindex dotted pair notation
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612 @cindex @samp{.} in lists
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613
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614 @dfn{Dotted pair notation} is an alternative syntax for cons cells
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615 that represents the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} explicitly. In this syntax,
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616 @code{(@var{a} .@: @var{b})} stands for a cons cell whose @sc{car} is
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617 the object @var{a}, and whose @sc{cdr} is the object @var{b}. Dotted
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618 pair notation is therefore more general than list syntax. In the dotted
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619 pair notation, the list @samp{(1 2 3)} is written as @samp{(1 . (2 . (3
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620 . nil)))}. For @code{nil}-terminated lists, the two notations produce
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621 the same result, but list notation is usually clearer and more
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622 convenient when it is applicable. When printing a list, the dotted pair
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623 notation is only used if the @sc{cdr} of a cell is not a list.
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624
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625 Here's how box notation can illustrate dotted pairs. This example
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626 shows the pair @code{(rose . violet)}:
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627
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628 @example
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629 @group
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630 ___ ___
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631 |___|___|--> violet
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632 |
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633 |
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634 --> rose
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635 @end group
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636 @end example
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637
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638 Dotted pair notation can be combined with list notation to represent a
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639 chain of cons cells with a non-@code{nil} final @sc{cdr}. For example,
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640 @code{(rose violet . buttercup)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet
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641 . buttercup))}. The object looks like this:
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642
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643 @example
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644 @group
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645 ___ ___ ___ ___
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646 |___|___|--> |___|___|--> buttercup
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parents:
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647 | |
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648 | |
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649 --> rose --> violet
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650 @end group
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651 @end example
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652
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653 These diagrams make it evident why @w{@code{(rose .@: violet .@:
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parents:
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654 buttercup)}} is invalid syntax; it would require a cons cell that has
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diff changeset
655 three parts rather than two.
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656
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diff changeset
657 The list @code{(rose violet)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet))}
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658 and looks like this:
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parents:
diff changeset
659
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diff changeset
660 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
661 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
662 ___ ___ ___ ___
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parents:
diff changeset
663 |___|___|--> |___|___|--> nil
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parents:
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664 | |
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parents:
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665 | |
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666 --> rose --> violet
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667 @end group
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668 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
669
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parents:
diff changeset
670 Similarly, the three-element list @code{(rose violet buttercup)}
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
671 is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . (buttercup)))}.
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parents:
diff changeset
672 @ifinfo
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673 It looks like this:
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parents:
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674
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diff changeset
675 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
676 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
677 ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
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parents:
diff changeset
678 |___|___|--> |___|___|--> |___|___|--> nil
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parents:
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679 | | |
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parents:
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680 | | |
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681 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup
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682 @end group
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683 @end example
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684 @end ifinfo
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parents:
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685
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686 @node Association List Type
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687 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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parents:
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688 @subsubsection Association List Type
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parents:
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689
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parents:
diff changeset
690 An @dfn{association list} or @dfn{alist} is a specially-constructed
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parents:
diff changeset
691 list whose elements are cons cells. In each element, the @sc{car} is
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parents:
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692 considered a @dfn{key}, and the @sc{cdr} is considered an
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parents:
diff changeset
693 @dfn{associated value}. (In some cases, the associated value is stored
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
694 in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr}.) Association lists are often used as
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
695 stacks, since it is easy to add or remove associations at the front of
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diff changeset
696 the list.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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697
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diff changeset
698 For example,
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699
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diff changeset
700 @example
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diff changeset
701 (setq alist-of-colors
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702 '((rose . red) (lily . white) (buttercup . yellow)))
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diff changeset
703 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
704
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diff changeset
705 @noindent
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parents:
diff changeset
706 sets the variable @code{alist-of-colors} to an alist of three elements. In the
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parents:
diff changeset
707 first element, @code{rose} is the key and @code{red} is the value.
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parents:
diff changeset
708
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parents:
diff changeset
709 @xref{Association Lists}, for a further explanation of alists and for
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
710 functions that work on alists.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
711
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diff changeset
712 @node Array Type
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parents:
diff changeset
713 @subsection Array Type
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parents:
diff changeset
714
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diff changeset
715 An @dfn{array} is composed of an arbitrary number of slots for
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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diff changeset
716 referring to other Lisp objects, arranged in a contiguous block of
7118
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
717 memory. Accessing any element of an array takes the same amount of
6447
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diff changeset
718 time. In contrast, accessing an element of a list requires time
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
719 proportional to the position of the element in the list. (Elements at
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
720 the end of a list take longer to access than elements at the beginning
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
721 of a list.)
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parents:
diff changeset
722
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parents:
diff changeset
723 Emacs defines two types of array, strings and vectors. A string is an
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
724 array of characters and a vector is an array of arbitrary objects. Both
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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diff changeset
725 are one-dimensional. (Most other programming languages support
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
726 multidimensional arrays, but they are not essential; you can get the
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
727 same effect with an array of arrays.) Each type of array has its own
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
728 read syntax; see @ref{String Type}, and @ref{Vector Type}.
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parents:
diff changeset
729
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diff changeset
730 An array may have any length up to the largest integer; but once
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diff changeset
731 created, it has a fixed size. The first element of an array has index
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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diff changeset
732 zero, the second element has index 1, and so on. This is called
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
733 @dfn{zero-origin} indexing. For example, an array of four elements has
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
734 indices 0, 1, 2, @w{and 3}.
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parents:
diff changeset
735
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
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diff changeset
736 The array type is contained in the sequence type and contains both the
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
737 string type and the vector type.
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parents:
diff changeset
738
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diff changeset
739 @node String Type
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
740 @subsection String Type
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parents:
diff changeset
741
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diff changeset
742 A @dfn{string} is an array of characters. Strings are used for many
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
743 purposes in Emacs, as can be expected in a text editor; for example, as
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diff changeset
744 the names of Lisp symbols, as messages for the user, and to represent
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diff changeset
745 text extracted from buffers. Strings in Lisp are constants: evaluation
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
746 of a string returns the same string.
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parents:
diff changeset
747
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parents:
diff changeset
748 @cindex @samp{"} in strings
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parents:
diff changeset
749 @cindex double-quote in strings
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diff changeset
750 @cindex @samp{\} in strings
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parents:
diff changeset
751 @cindex backslash in strings
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parents:
diff changeset
752 The read syntax for strings is a double-quote, an arbitrary number of
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
753 characters, and another double-quote, @code{"like this"}. The Lisp
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
754 reader accepts the same formats for reading the characters of a string
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
755 as it does for reading single characters (without the question mark that
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
756 begins a character literal). You can enter a nonprinting character such
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
757 as tab, @kbd{C-a} or @kbd{M-C-A} using the convenient escape sequences,
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
758 like this: @code{"\t, \C-a, \M-\C-a"}. You can include a double-quote
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parents:
diff changeset
759 in a string by preceding it with a backslash; thus, @code{"\""} is a
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diff changeset
760 string containing just a single double-quote character.
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parents:
diff changeset
761 (@xref{Character Type}, for a description of the read syntax for
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diff changeset
762 characters.)
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parents:
diff changeset
763
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parents:
diff changeset
764 If you use the @samp{\M-} syntax to indicate a meta character in a
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
765 string constant, this sets the 2**7 bit of the character in the string.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
766 This is not the same representation that the meta modifier has in a
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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diff changeset
767 character on its own (not inside a string). @xref{Character Type}.
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diff changeset
768
7118
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
769 Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super, or alt
6447
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diff changeset
770 modifiers; they can hold @sc{ASCII} control characters, but no others.
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parents:
diff changeset
771 They do not distinguish case in @sc{ASCII} control characters.
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parents:
diff changeset
772
7118
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
773 The printed representation of a string consists of a double-quote, the
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
774 characters it contains, and another double-quote. However, you must
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
775 escape any backslash or double-quote characters in the string with a
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
776 backslash, like this: @code{"this \" is an embedded quote"}.
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
777
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
778 The newline character is not special in the read syntax for strings;
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6447
diff changeset
779 if you write a new line between the double-quotes, it becomes a
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
780 character in the string. But an escaped newline---one that is preceded
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
781 by @samp{\}---does not become part of the string; i.e., the Lisp reader
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6447
diff changeset
782 ignores an escaped newline while reading a string.
6447
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diff changeset
783 @cindex newline in strings
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parents:
diff changeset
784
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diff changeset
785 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
786 "It is useful to include newlines
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
787 in documentation strings,
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
788 but the newline is \
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
789 ignored if escaped."
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parents:
diff changeset
790 @result{} "It is useful to include newlines
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parents:
diff changeset
791 in documentation strings,
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
792 but the newline is ignored if escaped."
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parents:
diff changeset
793 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
794
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parents:
diff changeset
795 A string can hold properties of the text it contains, in addition to
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parents:
diff changeset
796 the characters themselves. This enables programs that copy text between
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parents:
diff changeset
797 strings and buffers to preserve the properties with no special effort.
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parents:
diff changeset
798 @xref{Text Properties}. Strings with text properties have a special
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
799 read and print syntax:
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parents:
diff changeset
800
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parents:
diff changeset
801 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
802 #("@var{characters}" @var{property-data}...)
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diff changeset
803 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
804
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parents:
diff changeset
805 @noindent
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parents:
diff changeset
806 where @var{property-data} consists of zero or more elements, in groups
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
807 of three as follows:
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parents:
diff changeset
808
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diff changeset
809 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
810 @var{beg} @var{end} @var{plist}
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parents:
diff changeset
811 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
812
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parents:
diff changeset
813 @noindent
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diff changeset
814 The elements @var{beg} and @var{end} are integers, and together specify
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diff changeset
815 a range of indices in the string; @var{plist} is the property list for
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parents:
diff changeset
816 that range.
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parents:
diff changeset
817
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parents:
diff changeset
818 @xref{Strings and Characters}, for functions that work on strings.
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diff changeset
819
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diff changeset
820 @node Vector Type
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diff changeset
821 @subsection Vector Type
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diff changeset
822
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diff changeset
823 A @dfn{vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type. It
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parents:
diff changeset
824 takes a constant amount of time to access any element of a vector. (In
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parents:
diff changeset
825 a list, the access time of an element is proportional to the distance of
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parents:
diff changeset
826 the element from the beginning of the list.)
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parents:
diff changeset
827
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diff changeset
828 The printed representation of a vector consists of a left square
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parents:
diff changeset
829 bracket, the elements, and a right square bracket. This is also the
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parents:
diff changeset
830 read syntax. Like numbers and strings, vectors are considered constants
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parents:
diff changeset
831 for evaluation.
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diff changeset
832
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diff changeset
833 @example
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diff changeset
834 [1 "two" (three)] ; @r{A vector of three elements.}
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diff changeset
835 @result{} [1 "two" (three)]
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diff changeset
836 @end example
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diff changeset
837
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diff changeset
838 @xref{Vectors}, for functions that work with vectors.
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diff changeset
839
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diff changeset
840 @node Function Type
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diff changeset
841 @subsection Function Type
6447
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diff changeset
842
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diff changeset
843 Just as functions in other programming languages are executable,
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diff changeset
844 @dfn{Lisp function} objects are pieces of executable code. However,
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diff changeset
845 functions in Lisp are primarily Lisp objects, and only secondarily the
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diff changeset
846 text which represents them. These Lisp objects are lambda expressions:
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diff changeset
847 lists whose first element is the symbol @code{lambda} (@pxref{Lambda
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parents:
diff changeset
848 Expressions}).
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parents:
diff changeset
849
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diff changeset
850 In most programming languages, it is impossible to have a function
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diff changeset
851 without a name. In Lisp, a function has no intrinsic name. A lambda
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diff changeset
852 expression is also called an @dfn{anonymous function} (@pxref{Anonymous
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diff changeset
853 Functions}). A named function in Lisp is actually a symbol with a valid
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diff changeset
854 function in its function cell (@pxref{Defining Functions}).
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diff changeset
855
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diff changeset
856 Most of the time, functions are called when their names are written in
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parents:
diff changeset
857 Lisp expressions in Lisp programs. However, you can construct or obtain
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
858 a function object at run time and then call it with the primitive
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parents:
diff changeset
859 functions @code{funcall} and @code{apply}. @xref{Calling Functions}.
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parents:
diff changeset
860
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
861 @node Macro Type
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
862 @subsection Macro Type
6447
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
863
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parents:
diff changeset
864 A @dfn{Lisp macro} is a user-defined construct that extends the Lisp
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
865 language. It is represented as an object much like a function, but with
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
866 different parameter-passing semantics. A Lisp macro has the form of a
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
867 list whose first element is the symbol @code{macro} and whose @sc{cdr}
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
868 is a Lisp function object, including the @code{lambda} symbol.
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parents:
diff changeset
869
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diff changeset
870 Lisp macro objects are usually defined with the built-in
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
871 @code{defmacro} function, but any list that begins with @code{macro} is
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
872 a macro as far as Emacs is concerned. @xref{Macros}, for an explanation
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
873 of how to write a macro.
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parents:
diff changeset
874
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parents:
diff changeset
875 @node Primitive Function Type
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parents:
diff changeset
876 @subsection Primitive Function Type
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parents:
diff changeset
877 @cindex special forms
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
878
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parents:
diff changeset
879 A @dfn{primitive function} is a function callable from Lisp but
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
880 written in the C programming language. Primitive functions are also
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parents:
diff changeset
881 called @dfn{subrs} or @dfn{built-in functions}. (The word ``subr'' is
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diff changeset
882 derived from ``subroutine''.) Most primitive functions evaluate all
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
883 their arguments when they are called. A primitive function that does
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
884 not evaluate all its arguments is called a @dfn{special form}
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
885 (@pxref{Special Forms}).@refill
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
886
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
887 It does not matter to the caller of a function whether the function is
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
888 primitive. However, this does matter if you try to substitute a
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
889 function written in Lisp for a primitive of the same name. The reason
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
890 is that the primitive function may be called directly from C code.
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parents:
diff changeset
891 Calls to the redefined function from Lisp will use the new definition,
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
892 but calls from C code may still use the built-in definition.
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parents:
diff changeset
893
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parents:
diff changeset
894 The term @dfn{function} refers to all Emacs functions, whether written
7118
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6447
diff changeset
895 in Lisp or C. @xref{Function Type}, for information about the
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6447
diff changeset
896 functions written in Lisp.
6447
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
897
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parents:
diff changeset
898 Primitive functions have no read syntax and print in hash notation
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parents:
diff changeset
899 with the name of the subroutine.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
900
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parents:
diff changeset
901 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
902 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
903 (symbol-function 'car) ; @r{Access the function cell}
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
904 ; @r{of the symbol.}
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parents:
diff changeset
905 @result{} #<subr car>
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
906 (subrp (symbol-function 'car)) ; @r{Is this a primitive function?}
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parents:
diff changeset
907 @result{} t ; @r{Yes.}
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diff changeset
908 @end group
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diff changeset
909 @end example
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
910
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
911 @node Byte-Code Type
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parents:
diff changeset
912 @subsection Byte-Code Function Type
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
913
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parents:
diff changeset
914 The byte compiler produces @dfn{byte-code function objects}.
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parents:
diff changeset
915 Internally, a byte-code function object is much like a vector; however,
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parents:
diff changeset
916 the evaluator handles this data type specially when it appears as a
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
917 function to be called. @xref{Byte Compilation}, for information about
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
918 the byte compiler.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
919
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
920 The printed representation for a byte-code function object is like that
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
921 for a vector, with an additional @samp{#} before the opening @samp{[}.
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parents:
diff changeset
922
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
923 @node Autoload Type
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
924 @subsection Autoload Type
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
925
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
926 An @dfn{autoload object} is a list whose first element is the symbol
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
927 @code{autoload}. It is stored as the function definition of a symbol as
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
928 a placeholder for the real definition; it says that the real definition
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
929 is found in a file of Lisp code that should be loaded when necessary.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
930 The autoload object contains the name of the file, plus some other
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
931 information about the real definition.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
932
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
933 After the file has been loaded, the symbol should have a new function
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
934 definition that is not an autoload object. The new definition is then
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
935 called as if it had been there to begin with. From the user's point of
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
936 view, the function call works as expected, using the function definition
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
937 in the loaded file.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
938
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
939 An autoload object is usually created with the function
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
940 @code{autoload}, which stores the object in the function cell of a
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
941 symbol. @xref{Autoload}, for more details.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
942
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
943 @node Editing Types
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
944 @section Editing Types
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
945 @cindex editing types
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
946
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
947 The types in the previous section are common to many Lisp dialects.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
948 Emacs Lisp provides several additional data types for purposes connected
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
949 with editing.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
950
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
951 @menu
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
952 * Buffer Type:: The basic object of editing.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
953 * Marker Type:: A position in a buffer.
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parents:
diff changeset
954 * Window Type:: Buffers are displayed in windows.
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parents:
diff changeset
955 * Frame Type:: Windows subdivide frames.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
956 * Window Configuration Type:: Recording the way a frame is subdivided.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
957 * Process Type:: A process running on the underlying OS.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
958 * Stream Type:: Receive or send characters.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
959 * Keymap Type:: What function a keystroke invokes.
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parents:
diff changeset
960 * Syntax Table Type:: What a character means.
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parents:
diff changeset
961 * Display Table Type:: How display tables are represented.
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parents:
diff changeset
962 * Overlay Type:: How an overlay is represented.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
963 @end menu
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
964
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diff changeset
965 @node Buffer Type
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parents:
diff changeset
966 @subsection Buffer Type
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
967
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
968 A @dfn{buffer} is an object that holds text that can be edited
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parents:
diff changeset
969 (@pxref{Buffers}). Most buffers hold the contents of a disk file
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parents:
diff changeset
970 (@pxref{Files}) so they can be edited, but some are used for other
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
971 purposes. Most buffers are also meant to be seen by the user, and
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
972 therefore displayed, at some time, in a window (@pxref{Windows}). But a
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
973 buffer need not be displayed in any window.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
974
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
975 The contents of a buffer are much like a string, but buffers are not
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
976 used like strings in Emacs Lisp, and the available operations are
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
977 different. For example, insertion of text into a buffer is very
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
978 efficient, whereas ``inserting'' text into a string requires
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979 concatenating substrings, and the result is an entirely new string
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diff changeset
980 object.
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diff changeset
981
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diff changeset
982 Each buffer has a designated position called @dfn{point}
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diff changeset
983 (@pxref{Positions}). At any time, one buffer is the @dfn{current
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diff changeset
984 buffer}. Most editing commands act on the contents of the current
7118
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
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diff changeset
985 buffer in the neighborhood of point. Many of the standard Emacs
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
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diff changeset
986 functions manipulate or test the characters in the current buffer; a
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
987 whole chapter in this manual is devoted to describing these functions
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diff changeset
988 (@pxref{Text}).
6447
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989
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990 Several other data structures are associated with each buffer:
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991
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diff changeset
992 @itemize @bullet
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993 @item
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994 a local syntax table (@pxref{Syntax Tables});
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995
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diff changeset
996 @item
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997 a local keymap (@pxref{Keymaps}); and,
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998
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diff changeset
999 @item
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diff changeset
1000 a local variable binding list (@pxref{Buffer-Local Variables}).
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1001 @end itemize
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1002
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1003 @noindent
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diff changeset
1004 The local keymap and variable list contain entries that individually
6447
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diff changeset
1005 override global bindings or values. These are used to customize the
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diff changeset
1006 behavior of programs in different buffers, without actually changing the
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1007 programs.
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diff changeset
1008
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diff changeset
1009 Buffers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation with the
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1010 buffer name.
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1011
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1012 @example
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diff changeset
1013 @group
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1014 (current-buffer)
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diff changeset
1015 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi>
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1016 @end group
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1017 @end example
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diff changeset
1018
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diff changeset
1019 @node Marker Type
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diff changeset
1020 @subsection Marker Type
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diff changeset
1021
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diff changeset
1022 A @dfn{marker} denotes a position in a specific buffer. Markers
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diff changeset
1023 therefore have two components: one for the buffer, and one for the
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1024 position. Changes in the buffer's text automatically relocate the
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diff changeset
1025 position value as necessary to ensure that the marker always points
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diff changeset
1026 between the same two characters in the buffer.
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diff changeset
1027
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diff changeset
1028 Markers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the
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diff changeset
1029 current character position and the name of the buffer.
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1030
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diff changeset
1031 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
1032 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1033 (point-marker)
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parents:
diff changeset
1034 @result{} #<marker at 10779 in objects.texi>
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diff changeset
1035 @end group
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diff changeset
1036 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
1037
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diff changeset
1038 @xref{Markers}, for information on how to test, create, copy, and move
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parents:
diff changeset
1039 markers.
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diff changeset
1040
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diff changeset
1041 @node Window Type
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diff changeset
1042 @subsection Window Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1043
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diff changeset
1044 A @dfn{window} describes the portion of the terminal screen that Emacs
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diff changeset
1045 uses to display a buffer. Every window has one associated buffer, whose
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1046 contents appear in the window. By contrast, a given buffer may appear
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diff changeset
1047 in one window, no window, or several windows.
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parents:
diff changeset
1048
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diff changeset
1049 Though many windows may exist simultaneously, at any time one window
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diff changeset
1050 is designated the @dfn{selected window}. This is the window where the
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diff changeset
1051 cursor is (usually) displayed when Emacs is ready for a command. The
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diff changeset
1052 selected window usually displays the current buffer, but this is not
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parents:
diff changeset
1053 necessarily the case.
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parents:
diff changeset
1054
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diff changeset
1055 Windows are grouped on the screen into frames; each window belongs to
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parents:
diff changeset
1056 one and only one frame. @xref{Frame Type}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1057
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diff changeset
1058 Windows have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the
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parents:
diff changeset
1059 window number and the name of the buffer being displayed. The window
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parents:
diff changeset
1060 numbers exist to identify windows uniquely, since the buffer displayed
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diff changeset
1061 in any given window can change frequently.
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diff changeset
1062
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diff changeset
1063 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
1064 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1065 (selected-window)
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parents:
diff changeset
1066 @result{} #<window 1 on objects.texi>
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diff changeset
1067 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
1068 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
1069
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diff changeset
1070 @xref{Windows}, for a description of the functions that work on windows.
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parents:
diff changeset
1071
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diff changeset
1072 @node Frame Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1073 @subsection Frame Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1074
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diff changeset
1075 A @var{frame} is a rectangle on the screen that contains one or more
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parents:
diff changeset
1076 Emacs windows. A frame initially contains a single main window (plus
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parents:
diff changeset
1077 perhaps a minibuffer window) which you can subdivide vertically or
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parents:
diff changeset
1078 horizontally into smaller windows.
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parents:
diff changeset
1079
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diff changeset
1080 Frames have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the
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parents:
diff changeset
1081 frame's title, plus its address in core (useful to identify the frame
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parents:
diff changeset
1082 uniquely).
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parents:
diff changeset
1083
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parents:
diff changeset
1084 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
1085 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1086 (selected-frame)
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parents:
diff changeset
1087 @result{} #<frame xemacs@@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu 0xdac80>
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diff changeset
1088 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
1089 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
1090
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parents:
diff changeset
1091 @xref{Frames}, for a description of the functions that work on frames.
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parents:
diff changeset
1092
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parents:
diff changeset
1093 @node Window Configuration Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1094 @subsection Window Configuration Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1095 @cindex screen layout
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parents:
diff changeset
1096
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parents:
diff changeset
1097 A @dfn{window configuration} stores information about the positions,
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1098 sizes, and contents of the windows in a frame, so you can recreate the
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1099 same arrangement of windows later.
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parents:
diff changeset
1100
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diff changeset
1101 Window configurations do not have a read syntax. They print as
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parents:
diff changeset
1102 @samp{#<window-configuration>}. @xref{Window Configurations}, for a
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1103 description of several functions related to window configurations.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1104
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parents:
diff changeset
1105 @node Process Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1106 @subsection Process Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1107
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diff changeset
1108 The word @dfn{process} usually means a running program. Emacs itself
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parents:
diff changeset
1109 runs in a process of this sort. However, in Emacs Lisp, a process is a
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1110 Lisp object that designates a subprocess created by the Emacs process.
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parents:
diff changeset
1111 Programs such as shells, GDB, ftp, and compilers, running in
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parents:
diff changeset
1112 subprocesses of Emacs, extend the capabilities of Emacs.
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parents:
diff changeset
1113
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diff changeset
1114 An Emacs subprocess takes textual input from Emacs and returns textual
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parents:
diff changeset
1115 output to Emacs for further manipulation. Emacs can also send signals
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parents:
diff changeset
1116 to the subprocess.
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parents:
diff changeset
1117
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diff changeset
1118 Process objects have no read syntax. They print in hash notation,
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parents:
diff changeset
1119 giving the name of the process:
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parents:
diff changeset
1120
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diff changeset
1121 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
1122 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1123 (process-list)
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parents:
diff changeset
1124 @result{} (#<process shell>)
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1125 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
1126 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
1127
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parents:
diff changeset
1128 @xref{Processes}, for information about functions that create, delete,
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1129 return information about, send input or signals to, and receive output
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parents:
diff changeset
1130 from processes.
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parents:
diff changeset
1131
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diff changeset
1132 @node Stream Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1133 @subsection Stream Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1134
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parents:
diff changeset
1135 A @dfn{stream} is an object that can be used as a source or sink for
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parents:
diff changeset
1136 characters---either to supply characters for input or to accept them as
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parents:
diff changeset
1137 output. Many different types can be used this way: markers, buffers,
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1138 strings, and functions. Most often, input streams (character sources)
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1139 obtain characters from the keyboard, a buffer, or a file, and output
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1140 streams (character sinks) send characters to a buffer, such as a
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1141 @file{*Help*} buffer, or to the echo area.
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parents:
diff changeset
1142
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diff changeset
1143 The object @code{nil}, in addition to its other meanings, may be used
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parents:
diff changeset
1144 as a stream. It stands for the value of the variable
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parents:
diff changeset
1145 @code{standard-input} or @code{standard-output}. Also, the object
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parents:
diff changeset
1146 @code{t} as a stream specifies input using the minibuffer
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parents:
diff changeset
1147 (@pxref{Minibuffers}) or output in the echo area (@pxref{The Echo
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parents:
diff changeset
1148 Area}).
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parents:
diff changeset
1149
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diff changeset
1150 Streams have no special printed representation or read syntax, and
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1151 print as whatever primitive type they are.
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parents:
diff changeset
1152
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cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
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parents: 7118
diff changeset
1153 @xref{Read and Print}, for a description of functions
7118
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6447
diff changeset
1154 related to streams, including parsing and printing functions.
6447
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parents:
diff changeset
1155
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parents:
diff changeset
1156 @node Keymap Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1157 @subsection Keymap Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1158
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diff changeset
1159 A @dfn{keymap} maps keys typed by the user to commands. This mapping
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parents:
diff changeset
1160 controls how the user's command input is executed. A keymap is actually
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1161 a list whose @sc{car} is the symbol @code{keymap}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1162
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parents:
diff changeset
1163 @xref{Keymaps}, for information about creating keymaps, handling prefix
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1164 keys, local as well as global keymaps, and changing key bindings.
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parents:
diff changeset
1165
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parents:
diff changeset
1166 @node Syntax Table Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1167 @subsection Syntax Table Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1168
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parents:
diff changeset
1169 A @dfn{syntax table} is a vector of 256 integers. Each element of the
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parents:
diff changeset
1170 vector defines how one character is interpreted when it appears in a
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1171 buffer. For example, in C mode (@pxref{Major Modes}), the @samp{+}
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1172 character is punctuation, but in Lisp mode it is a valid character in a
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1173 symbol. These modes specify different interpretations by changing the
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1174 syntax table entry for @samp{+}, at index 43 in the syntax table.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1175
7118
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
1176 Syntax tables are used only for scanning text in buffers, not for
6447
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parents:
diff changeset
1177 reading Lisp expressions. The table the Lisp interpreter uses to read
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1178 expressions is built into the Emacs source code and cannot be changed;
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1179 thus, to change the list delimiters to be @samp{@{} and @samp{@}}
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1180 instead of @samp{(} and @samp{)} would be impossible.
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parents:
diff changeset
1181
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parents:
diff changeset
1182 @xref{Syntax Tables}, for details about syntax classes and how to make
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1183 and modify syntax tables.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1184
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parents:
diff changeset
1185 @node Display Table Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1186 @subsection Display Table Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1187
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parents:
diff changeset
1188 A @dfn{display table} specifies how to display each character code.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1189 Each buffer and each window can have its own display table. A display
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1190 table is actually a vector of length 261. @xref{Display Tables}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1191
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diff changeset
1192 @node Overlay Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1193 @subsection Overlay Type
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parents:
diff changeset
1194
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parents:
diff changeset
1195 An @dfn{overlay} specifies temporary alteration of the display
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1196 appearance of a part of a buffer. It contains markers delimiting a
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1197 range of the buffer, plus a property list (a list whose elements are
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1198 alternating property names and values). Overlays are used to present
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1199 parts of the buffer temporarily in a different display style.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1200
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1201 @xref{Overlays}, for how to create and use overlays. They have no
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1202 read syntax, and print in hash notation, giving the buffer name and
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1203 range of positions.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1204
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1205 @node Type Predicates
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1206 @section Type Predicates
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1207 @cindex predicates
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1208 @cindex type checking
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1209 @kindex wrong-type-argument
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parents:
diff changeset
1210
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parents:
diff changeset
1211 The Emacs Lisp interpreter itself does not perform type checking on
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1212 the actual arguments passed to functions when they are called. It could
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1213 not do so, since function arguments in Lisp do not have declared data
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1214 types, as they do in other programming languages. It is therefore up to
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1215 the individual function to test whether each actual argument belongs to
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1216 a type that the function can use.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1217
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1218 All built-in functions do check the types of their actual arguments
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1219 when appropriate, and signal a @code{wrong-type-argument} error if an
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1220 argument is of the wrong type. For example, here is what happens if you
7118
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6447
diff changeset
1221 pass an argument to @code{+} that it cannot handle:
6447
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1222
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1223 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
1224 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1225 (+ 2 'a)
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1226 @error{} Wrong type argument: integer-or-marker-p, a
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1227 @end group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1228 @end example
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1229
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1230 @cindex type predicates
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1231 @cindex testing types
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1232 Lisp provides functions, called @dfn{type predicates}, to test whether
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1233 an object is a member of a given type. (Following a convention of long
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1234 standing, the names of most Emacs Lisp predicates end in @samp{p}.)
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1235
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1236 Here is a table of predefined type predicates, in alphabetical order,
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1237 with references to further information.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1238
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1239 @table @code
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1240 @item atom
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1241 @xref{List-related Predicates, atom}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1242
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1243 @item arrayp
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1244 @xref{Array Functions, arrayp}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1245
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1246 @item bufferp
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1247 @xref{Buffer Basics, bufferp}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1248
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1249 @item byte-code-function-p
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1250 @xref{Byte-Code Type, byte-code-function-p}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1251
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1252 @item case-table-p
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1253 @xref{Case Table, case-table-p}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1254
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1255 @item char-or-string-p
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1256 @xref{Predicates for Strings, char-or-string-p}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1257
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1258 @item commandp
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1259 @xref{Interactive Call, commandp}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1260
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1261 @item consp
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1262 @xref{List-related Predicates, consp}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1263
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1264 @item floatp
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1265 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, floatp}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1266
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1267 @item frame-live-p
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1268 @xref{Deleting Frames, frame-live-p}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1269
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1270 @item framep
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1271 @xref{Frames, framep}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1272
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1273 @item integer-or-marker-p
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1274 @xref{Predicates on Markers, integer-or-marker-p}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1275
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1276 @item integerp
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1277 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, integerp}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1278
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1279 @item keymapp
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1280 @xref{Creating Keymaps, keymapp}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1281
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1282 @item listp
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1283 @xref{List-related Predicates, listp}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1284
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1285 @item markerp
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parents:
diff changeset
1286 @xref{Predicates on Markers, markerp}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1287
7118
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
1288 @item wholenump
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6447
diff changeset
1289 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, wholenump}.
6447
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1290
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1291 @item nlistp
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1292 @xref{List-related Predicates, nlistp}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1293
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1294 @item numberp
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1295 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, numberp}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1296
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1297 @item number-or-marker-p
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1298 @xref{Predicates on Markers, number-or-marker-p}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1299
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1300 @item overlayp
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parents:
diff changeset
1301 @xref{Overlays, overlayp}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1302
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1303 @item processp
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1304 @xref{Processes, processp}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1305
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1306 @item sequencep
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1307 @xref{Sequence Functions, sequencep}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1308
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1309 @item stringp
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1310 @xref{Predicates for Strings, stringp}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1311
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1312 @item subrp
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1313 @xref{Function Cells, subrp}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1314
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1315 @item symbolp
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1316 @xref{Symbols, symbolp}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1317
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1318 @item syntax-table-p
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1319 @xref{Syntax Tables, syntax-table-p}.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1320
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1321 @item user-variable-p
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1322 @xref{Defining Variables, user-variable-p}.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1323
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1324 @item vectorp
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1325 @xref{Vectors, vectorp}.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1326
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1327 @item window-configuration-p
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1328 @xref{Window Configurations, window-configuration-p}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1329
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parents:
diff changeset
1330 @item window-live-p
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1331 @xref{Deleting Windows, window-live-p}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1332
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parents:
diff changeset
1333 @item windowp
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1334 @xref{Basic Windows, windowp}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1335 @end table
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parents:
diff changeset
1336
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parents:
diff changeset
1337 @node Equality Predicates
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1338 @section Equality Predicates
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1339 @cindex equality
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1340
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1341 Here we describe two functions that test for equality between any two
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parents:
diff changeset
1342 objects. Other functions test equality between objects of specific
7118
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6447
diff changeset
1343 types, e.g., strings. For these predicates, see the appropriate chapter
08d61ef58d13 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6447
diff changeset
1344 describing the data type.
6447
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parents:
diff changeset
1345
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parents:
diff changeset
1346 @defun eq object1 object2
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1347 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1348 the same object, @code{nil} otherwise. The ``same object'' means that a
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1349 change in one will be reflected by the same change in the other.
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parents:
diff changeset
1350
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parents:
diff changeset
1351 @code{eq} returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1352 integers with the same value. Also, since symbol names are normally
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parents:
diff changeset
1353 unique, if the arguments are symbols with the same name, they are
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1354 @code{eq}. For other types (e.g., lists, vectors, strings), two
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1355 arguments with the same contents or elements are not necessarily
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1356 @code{eq} to each other: they are @code{eq} only if they are the same
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1357 object.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1358
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1359 (The @code{make-symbol} function returns an uninterned symbol that is
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1360 not interned in the standard @code{obarray}. When uninterned symbols
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1361 are in use, symbol names are no longer unique. Distinct symbols with
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1362 the same name are not @code{eq}. @xref{Creating Symbols}.)
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1363
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1364 @example
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1365 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1366 (eq 'foo 'foo)
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1367 @result{} t
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1368 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1369
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1370 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1371 (eq 456 456)
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1372 @result{} t
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1373 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1374
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1375 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1376 (eq "asdf" "asdf")
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1377 @result{} nil
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1378 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1379
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1380 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1381 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3))))
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1382 @result{} nil
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1383 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1384
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1385 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1386 (setq foo '(1 (2 (3))))
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1387 @result{} (1 (2 (3)))
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1388 (eq foo foo)
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1389 @result{} t
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1390 (eq foo '(1 (2 (3))))
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1391 @result{} nil
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1392 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1393
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1394 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1395 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3])
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1396 @result{} nil
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1397 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1398
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1399 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1400 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker))
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1401 @result{} nil
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1402 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1403 @end example
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1404
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1405 @end defun
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1406
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1407 @defun equal object1 object2
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1408 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} have
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1409 equal components, @code{nil} otherwise. Whereas @code{eq} tests if its
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1410 arguments are the same object, @code{equal} looks inside nonidentical
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1411 arguments to see if their elements are the same. So, if two objects are
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1412 @code{eq}, they are @code{equal}, but the converse is not always true.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1413
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1414 @example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1415 @group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1416 (equal 'foo 'foo)
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1417 @result{} t
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1418 @end group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1419
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1420 @group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1421 (equal 456 456)
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1422 @result{} t
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1423 @end group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1424
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1425 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1426 (equal "asdf" "asdf")
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1427 @result{} t
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1428 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1429 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1430 (eq "asdf" "asdf")
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1431 @result{} nil
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1432 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1433
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1434 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1435 (equal '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3))))
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1436 @result{} t
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1437 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1438 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1439 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3))))
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1440 @result{} nil
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1441 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1442
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1443 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1444 (equal [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3])
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1445 @result{} t
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1446 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1447 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1448 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3])
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1449 @result{} nil
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1450 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1451
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1452 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1453 (equal (point-marker) (point-marker))
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1454 @result{} t
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1455 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1456
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1457 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1458 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker))
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1459 @result{} nil
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1460 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1461 @end example
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1462
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1463 Comparison of strings uses @code{string=}, and is case-sensitive.
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1464
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1465 @example
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1466 @group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1467 (equal "asdf" "ASDF")
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1468 @result{} nil
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1469 @end group
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1470 @end example
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1471 @end defun
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1472
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1473 The test for equality is implemented recursively, and circular lists may
dcbbdafaf41e Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1474 therefore cause infinite recursion (leading to an error).