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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999
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4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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6 @setfilename ../info/strings
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7 @node Strings and Characters, Lists, Numbers, Top
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8 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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9 @chapter Strings and Characters
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10 @cindex strings
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11 @cindex character arrays
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12 @cindex characters
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13 @cindex bytes
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14
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15 A string in Emacs Lisp is an array that contains an ordered sequence
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16 of characters. Strings are used as names of symbols, buffers, and
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17 files; to send messages to users; to hold text being copied between
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18 buffers; and for many other purposes. Because strings are so important,
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19 Emacs Lisp has many functions expressly for manipulating them. Emacs
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20 Lisp programs use strings more often than individual characters.
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21
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22 @xref{Strings of Events}, for special considerations for strings of
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23 keyboard character events.
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24
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25 @menu
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26 * Basics: String Basics. Basic properties of strings and characters.
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27 * Predicates for Strings:: Testing whether an object is a string or char.
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28 * Creating Strings:: Functions to allocate new strings.
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29 * Modifying Strings:: Altering the contents of an existing string.
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30 * Text Comparison:: Comparing characters or strings.
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31 * String Conversion:: Converting to and from characters and strings.
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32 * Formatting Strings:: @code{format}: Emacs's analogue of @code{printf}.
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33 * Case Conversion:: Case conversion functions.
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34 * Case Tables:: Customizing case conversion.
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35 @end menu
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36
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37 @node String Basics
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38 @section String and Character Basics
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39
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40 Characters are represented in Emacs Lisp as integers;
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41 whether an integer is a character or not is determined only by how it is
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42 used. Thus, strings really contain integers.
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43
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44 The length of a string (like any array) is fixed, and cannot be
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45 altered once the string exists. Strings in Lisp are @emph{not}
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46 terminated by a distinguished character code. (By contrast, strings in
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47 C are terminated by a character with @sc{ascii} code 0.)
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48
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49 Since strings are arrays, and therefore sequences as well, you can
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50 operate on them with the general array and sequence functions.
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51 (@xref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}.) For example, you can access or
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52 change individual characters in a string using the functions @code{aref}
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53 and @code{aset} (@pxref{Array Functions}).
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54
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55 There are two text representations for non-@sc{ascii} characters in
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56 Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte and multibyte (@pxref{Text
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57 Representations}). An @sc{ascii} character always occupies one byte in a
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58 string; in fact, when a string is all @sc{ascii}, there is no real
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59 difference between the unibyte and multibyte representations.
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60 For most Lisp programming, you don't need to be concerned with these two
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61 representations.
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62
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63 Sometimes key sequences are represented as strings. When a string is
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64 a key sequence, string elements in the range 128 to 255 represent meta
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65 characters (which are large integers) rather than character
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66 codes in the range 128 to 255.
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67
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68 Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super or alt
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69 modifiers; they can hold @sc{ascii} control characters, but no other
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70 control characters. They do not distinguish case in @sc{ascii} control
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71 characters. If you want to store such characters in a sequence, such as
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72 a key sequence, you must use a vector instead of a string.
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73 @xref{Character Type}, for more information about the representation of meta
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74 and other modifiers for keyboard input characters.
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75
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76 Strings are useful for holding regular expressions. You can also
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77 match regular expressions against strings (@pxref{Regexp Search}). The
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78 functions @code{match-string} (@pxref{Simple Match Data}) and
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79 @code{replace-match} (@pxref{Replacing Match}) are useful for
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80 decomposing and modifying strings based on regular expression matching.
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81
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82 Like a buffer, a string can contain text properties for the characters
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83 in it, as well as the characters themselves. @xref{Text Properties}.
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84 All the Lisp primitives that copy text from strings to buffers or other
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85 strings also copy the properties of the characters being copied.
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86
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87 @xref{Text}, for information about functions that display strings or
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88 copy them into buffers. @xref{Character Type}, and @ref{String Type},
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89 for information about the syntax of characters and strings.
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90 @xref{Non-ASCII Characters}, for functions to convert between text
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91 representations and to encode and decode character codes.
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92
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93 @node Predicates for Strings
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94 @section The Predicates for Strings
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95
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96 For more information about general sequence and array predicates,
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97 see @ref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}, and @ref{Arrays}.
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98
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99 @defun stringp object
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100 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a string, @code{nil}
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101 otherwise.
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102 @end defun
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103
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104 @defun char-or-string-p object
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105 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a string or a
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106 character (i.e., an integer), @code{nil} otherwise.
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107 @end defun
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108
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109 @node Creating Strings
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110 @section Creating Strings
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111
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112 The following functions create strings, either from scratch, or by
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113 putting strings together, or by taking them apart.
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114
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115 @defun make-string count character
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116 This function returns a string made up of @var{count} repetitions of
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117 @var{character}. If @var{count} is negative, an error is signaled.
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118
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119 @example
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120 (make-string 5 ?x)
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121 @result{} "xxxxx"
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122 (make-string 0 ?x)
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123 @result{} ""
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124 @end example
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125
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126 Other functions to compare with this one include @code{char-to-string}
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127 (@pxref{String Conversion}), @code{make-vector} (@pxref{Vectors}), and
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128 @code{make-list} (@pxref{Building Lists}).
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129 @end defun
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130
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131 @defun string &rest characters
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132 This returns a string containing the characters @var{characters}.
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133
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134 @example
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135 (string ?a ?b ?c)
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136 @result{} "abc"
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137 @end example
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138 @end defun
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139
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140 @defun substring string start &optional end
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141 This function returns a new string which consists of those characters
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142 from @var{string} in the range from (and including) the character at the
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143 index @var{start} up to (but excluding) the character at the index
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144 @var{end}. The first character is at index zero.
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145
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146 @example
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147 @group
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148 (substring "abcdefg" 0 3)
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149 @result{} "abc"
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150 @end group
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151 @end example
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152
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153 @noindent
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154 Here the index for @samp{a} is 0, the index for @samp{b} is 1, and the
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155 index for @samp{c} is 2. Thus, three letters, @samp{abc}, are copied
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156 from the string @code{"abcdefg"}. The index 3 marks the character
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157 position up to which the substring is copied. The character whose index
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158 is 3 is actually the fourth character in the string.
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159
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160 A negative number counts from the end of the string, so that @minus{}1
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161 signifies the index of the last character of the string. For example:
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162
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163 @example
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164 @group
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165 (substring "abcdefg" -3 -1)
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166 @result{} "ef"
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167 @end group
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168 @end example
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169
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170 @noindent
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171 In this example, the index for @samp{e} is @minus{}3, the index for
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172 @samp{f} is @minus{}2, and the index for @samp{g} is @minus{}1.
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173 Therefore, @samp{e} and @samp{f} are included, and @samp{g} is excluded.
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174
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175 When @code{nil} is used as an index, it stands for the length of the
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176 string. Thus,
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177
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178 @example
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179 @group
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180 (substring "abcdefg" -3 nil)
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181 @result{} "efg"
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182 @end group
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183 @end example
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184
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185 Omitting the argument @var{end} is equivalent to specifying @code{nil}.
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186 It follows that @code{(substring @var{string} 0)} returns a copy of all
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187 of @var{string}.
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188
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189 @example
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190 @group
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191 (substring "abcdefg" 0)
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192 @result{} "abcdefg"
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193 @end group
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194 @end example
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195
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196 @noindent
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197 But we recommend @code{copy-sequence} for this purpose (@pxref{Sequence
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198 Functions}).
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199
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200 If the characters copied from @var{string} have text properties, the
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201 properties are copied into the new string also. @xref{Text Properties}.
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202
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203 @code{substring} also accepts a vector for the first argument.
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204 For example:
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205
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206 @example
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207 (substring [a b (c) "d"] 1 3)
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208 @result{} [b (c)]
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209 @end example
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210
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211 A @code{wrong-type-argument} error is signaled if either @var{start} or
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212 @var{end} is not an integer or @code{nil}. An @code{args-out-of-range}
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213 error is signaled if @var{start} indicates a character following
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214 @var{end}, or if either integer is out of range for @var{string}.
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215
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216 Contrast this function with @code{buffer-substring} (@pxref{Buffer
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217 Contents}), which returns a string containing a portion of the text in
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218 the current buffer. The beginning of a string is at index 0, but the
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219 beginning of a buffer is at index 1.
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220 @end defun
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221
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222 @defun concat &rest sequences
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223 @cindex copying strings
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224 @cindex concatenating strings
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225 This function returns a new string consisting of the characters in the
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226 arguments passed to it (along with their text properties, if any). The
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227 arguments may be strings, lists of numbers, or vectors of numbers; they
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228 are not themselves changed. If @code{concat} receives no arguments, it
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229 returns an empty string.
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230
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231 @example
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232 (concat "abc" "-def")
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233 @result{} "abc-def"
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234 (concat "abc" (list 120 121) [122])
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235 @result{} "abcxyz"
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236 ;; @r{@code{nil} is an empty sequence.}
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237 (concat "abc" nil "-def")
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238 @result{} "abc-def"
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239 (concat "The " "quick brown " "fox.")
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240 @result{} "The quick brown fox."
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241 (concat)
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242 @result{} ""
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243 @end example
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244
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245 @noindent
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246 The @code{concat} function always constructs a new string that is
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247 not @code{eq} to any existing string.
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248
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249 In Emacs versions before 21, when an argument was an integer (not a
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250 sequence of integers), it was converted to a string of digits making up
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251 the decimal printed representation of the integer. This obsolete usage
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252 no longer works. The proper way to convert an integer to its decimal
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253 printed form is with @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting Strings}) or
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254 @code{number-to-string} (@pxref{String Conversion}).
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255
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256 For information about other concatenation functions, see the
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257 description of @code{mapconcat} in @ref{Mapping Functions},
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258 @code{vconcat} in @ref{Vectors}, and @code{append} in @ref{Building
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259 Lists}.
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260 @end defun
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261
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262 @defun split-string string separators
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263 This function splits @var{string} into substrings at matches for the regular
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264 expression @var{separators}. Each match for @var{separators} defines a
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265 splitting point; the substrings between the splitting points are made
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266 into a list, which is the value returned by @code{split-string}.
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267 If @var{separators} is @code{nil} (or omitted),
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268 the default is @code{"[ \f\t\n\r\v]+"}.
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269
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270 For example,
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271
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272 @example
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273 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o")
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274 @result{} ("S" "up is g" "" "d f" "" "d")
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275 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o+")
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276 @result{} ("S" "up is g" "d f" "d")
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277 @end example
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278
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279 When there is a match adjacent to the beginning or end of the string,
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280 this does not cause a null string to appear at the beginning or end
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281 of the list:
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282
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283 @example
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284 (split-string "out to moo" "o+")
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285 @result{} ("ut t" " m")
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286 @end example
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287
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288 Empty matches do count, when not adjacent to another match:
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289
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290 @example
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291 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o*")
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292 @result{}("S" "u" "p" " " "i" "s" " " "g" "d" " " "f" "d")
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293 (split-string "Nice doggy!" "")
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294 @result{}("N" "i" "c" "e" " " "d" "o" "g" "g" "y" "!")
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295 @end example
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296 @end defun
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297
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298 @node Modifying Strings
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299 @section Modifying Strings
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300
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301 The most basic way to alter the contents of an existing string is with
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302 @code{aset} (@pxref{Array Functions}). @code{(aset @var{string}
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303 @var{idx} @var{char})} stores @var{char} into @var{string} at index
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304 @var{idx}. Each character occupies one or more bytes, and if @var{char}
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305 needs a different number of bytes from the character already present at
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306 that index, @code{aset} signals an error.
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307
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308 A more powerful function is @code{store-substring}:
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309
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310 @defun store-substring string idx obj
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311 This function alters part of the contents of the string @var{string}, by
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312 storing @var{obj} starting at index @var{idx}. The argument @var{obj}
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313 may be either a character or a (smaller) string.
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314
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315 Since it is impossible to change the length of an existing string, it is
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316 an error if @var{obj} doesn't fit within @var{string}'s actual length,
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317 or if any new character requires a different number of bytes from the
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318 character currently present at that point in @var{string}.
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319 @end defun
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320
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updates for version 19.29 made by melissa; also needed to check out files
Melissa Weisshaus <melissa@gnu.org>
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changeset
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321 @need 2000
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322 @node Text Comparison
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323 @section Comparison of Characters and Strings
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324 @cindex string equality
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325
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326 @defun char-equal character1 character2
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327 This function returns @code{t} if the arguments represent the same
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328 character, @code{nil} otherwise. This function ignores differences
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329 in case if @code{case-fold-search} is non-@code{nil}.
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330
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331 @example
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332 (char-equal ?x ?x)
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333 @result{} t
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334 (let ((case-fold-search nil))
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335 (char-equal ?x ?X))
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336 @result{} nil
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337 @end example
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338 @end defun
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339
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340 @defun string= string1 string2
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341 This function returns @code{t} if the characters of the two strings
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342 match exactly.
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343 Case is always significant, regardless of @code{case-fold-search}.
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344
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345 @example
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346 (string= "abc" "abc")
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347 @result{} t
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348 (string= "abc" "ABC")
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349 @result{} nil
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350 (string= "ab" "ABC")
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351 @result{} nil
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352 @end example
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353
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354 The function @code{string=} ignores the text properties of the two
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355 strings. When @code{equal} (@pxref{Equality Predicates}) compares two
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356 strings, it uses @code{string=}.
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357
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358 If the strings contain non-@sc{ascii} characters, and one is unibyte
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359 while the other is multibyte, then they cannot be equal. @xref{Text
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360 Representations}.
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361 @end defun
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362
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363 @defun string-equal string1 string2
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364 @code{string-equal} is another name for @code{string=}.
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365 @end defun
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366
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367 @cindex lexical comparison
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368 @defun string< string1 string2
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369 @c (findex string< causes problems for permuted index!!)
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370 This function compares two strings a character at a time. It
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371 scans both the strings at the same time to find the first pair of corresponding
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372 characters that do not match. If the lesser character of these two is
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373 the character from @var{string1}, then @var{string1} is less, and this
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374 function returns @code{t}. If the lesser character is the one from
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375 @var{string2}, then @var{string1} is greater, and this function returns
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376 @code{nil}. If the two strings match entirely, the value is @code{nil}.
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377
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378 Pairs of characters are compared according to their character codes.
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379 Keep in mind that lower case letters have higher numeric values in the
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380 @sc{ascii} character set than their upper case counterparts; digits and
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381 many punctuation characters have a lower numeric value than upper case
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382 letters. An @sc{ascii} character is less than any non-@sc{ascii}
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383 character; a unibyte non-@sc{ascii} character is always less than any
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384 multibyte non-@sc{ascii} character (@pxref{Text Representations}).
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385
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386 @example
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387 @group
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388 (string< "abc" "abd")
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389 @result{} t
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390 (string< "abd" "abc")
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391 @result{} nil
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392 (string< "123" "abc")
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393 @result{} t
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394 @end group
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395 @end example
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396
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397 When the strings have different lengths, and they match up to the
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398 length of @var{string1}, then the result is @code{t}. If they match up
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399 to the length of @var{string2}, the result is @code{nil}. A string of
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400 no characters is less than any other string.
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401
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402 @example
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403 @group
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404 (string< "" "abc")
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405 @result{} t
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406 (string< "ab" "abc")
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407 @result{} t
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408 (string< "abc" "")
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409 @result{} nil
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410 (string< "abc" "ab")
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411 @result{} nil
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412 (string< "" "")
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413 @result{} nil
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414 @end group
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415 @end example
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416 @end defun
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417
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418 @defun string-lessp string1 string2
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419 @code{string-lessp} is another name for @code{string<}.
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420 @end defun
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421
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422 @defun compare-strings string1 start1 end1 string2 start2 end2 &optional ignore-case
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423 This function compares the specified part of @var{string1} with the
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424 specified part of @var{string2}. The specified part of @var{string1}
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425 runs from index @var{start1} up to index @var{end1} (@code{nil} means
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426 the end of the string). The specified part of @var{string2} runs from
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427 index @var{start2} up to index @var{end2} (@code{nil} means the end of
|
|
428 the string).
|
22138
|
429
|
|
430 The strings are both converted to multibyte for the comparison
|
22252
|
431 (@pxref{Text Representations}) so that a unibyte string can be equal to
|
|
432 a multibyte string. If @var{ignore-case} is non-@code{nil}, then case
|
|
433 is ignored, so that upper case letters can be equal to lower case letters.
|
22138
|
434
|
|
435 If the specified portions of the two strings match, the value is
|
|
436 @code{t}. Otherwise, the value is an integer which indicates how many
|
|
437 leading characters agree, and which string is less. Its absolute value
|
|
438 is one plus the number of characters that agree at the beginning of the
|
|
439 two strings. The sign is negative if @var{string1} (or its specified
|
|
440 portion) is less.
|
|
441 @end defun
|
|
442
|
|
443 @defun assoc-ignore-case key alist
|
|
444 This function works like @code{assoc}, except that @var{key} must be a
|
38790
|
445 string, and comparison is done using @code{compare-strings}, ignoring
|
|
446 case differences. @xref{Association Lists}.
|
22138
|
447 @end defun
|
|
448
|
|
449 @defun assoc-ignore-representation key alist
|
|
450 This function works like @code{assoc}, except that @var{key} must be a
|
|
451 string, and comparison is done using @code{compare-strings}.
|
|
452 Case differences are significant.
|
|
453 @end defun
|
|
454
|
6550
|
455 See also @code{compare-buffer-substrings} in @ref{Comparing Text}, for
|
|
456 a way to compare text in buffers. The function @code{string-match},
|
|
457 which matches a regular expression against a string, can be used
|
|
458 for a kind of string comparison; see @ref{Regexp Search}.
|
|
459
|
|
460 @node String Conversion
|
|
461 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
|
|
462 @section Conversion of Characters and Strings
|
|
463 @cindex conversion of strings
|
|
464
|
|
465 This section describes functions for conversions between characters,
|
|
466 strings and integers. @code{format} and @code{prin1-to-string}
|
|
467 (@pxref{Output Functions}) can also convert Lisp objects into strings.
|
|
468 @code{read-from-string} (@pxref{Input Functions}) can ``convert'' a
|
21007
|
469 string representation of a Lisp object into an object. The functions
|
|
470 @code{string-make-multibyte} and @code{string-make-unibyte} convert the
|
|
471 text representation of a string (@pxref{Converting Representations}).
|
6550
|
472
|
|
473 @xref{Documentation}, for functions that produce textual descriptions
|
|
474 of text characters and general input events
|
|
475 (@code{single-key-description} and @code{text-char-description}). These
|
|
476 functions are used primarily for making help messages.
|
|
477
|
|
478 @defun char-to-string character
|
|
479 @cindex character to string
|
21682
|
480 This function returns a new string containing one character,
|
|
481 @var{character}. This function is semi-obsolete because the function
|
|
482 @code{string} is more general. @xref{Creating Strings}.
|
6550
|
483 @end defun
|
|
484
|
|
485 @defun string-to-char string
|
|
486 @cindex string to character
|
|
487 This function returns the first character in @var{string}. If the
|
|
488 string is empty, the function returns 0. The value is also 0 when the
|
25751
|
489 first character of @var{string} is the null character, @sc{ascii} code
|
6550
|
490 0.
|
|
491
|
|
492 @example
|
|
493 (string-to-char "ABC")
|
|
494 @result{} 65
|
|
495 (string-to-char "xyz")
|
|
496 @result{} 120
|
|
497 (string-to-char "")
|
|
498 @result{} 0
|
25751
|
499 @group
|
6550
|
500 (string-to-char "\000")
|
|
501 @result{} 0
|
25751
|
502 @end group
|
6550
|
503 @end example
|
|
504
|
|
505 This function may be eliminated in the future if it does not seem useful
|
|
506 enough to retain.
|
|
507 @end defun
|
|
508
|
|
509 @defun number-to-string number
|
|
510 @cindex integer to string
|
|
511 @cindex integer to decimal
|
24862
|
512 This function returns a string consisting of the printed base-ten
|
6550
|
513 representation of @var{number}, which may be an integer or a floating
|
25751
|
514 point number. The returned value starts with a minus sign if the argument is
|
6550
|
515 negative.
|
|
516
|
|
517 @example
|
|
518 (number-to-string 256)
|
|
519 @result{} "256"
|
|
520 (number-to-string -23)
|
|
521 @result{} "-23"
|
|
522 (number-to-string -23.5)
|
|
523 @result{} "-23.5"
|
|
524 @end example
|
|
525
|
|
526 @cindex int-to-string
|
|
527 @code{int-to-string} is a semi-obsolete alias for this function.
|
|
528
|
|
529 See also the function @code{format} in @ref{Formatting Strings}.
|
|
530 @end defun
|
|
531
|
22138
|
532 @defun string-to-number string &optional base
|
6550
|
533 @cindex string to number
|
|
534 This function returns the numeric value of the characters in
|
21007
|
535 @var{string}. If @var{base} is non-@code{nil}, integers are converted
|
|
536 in that base. If @var{base} is @code{nil}, then base ten is used.
|
|
537 Floating point conversion always uses base ten; we have not implemented
|
|
538 other radices for floating point numbers, because that would be much
|
39196
|
539 more work and does not seem useful. If @var{string} looks like an
|
|
540 integer but its value is too large to fit into a Lisp integer,
|
|
541 @code{string-to-number} returns a floating point result.
|
21007
|
542
|
|
543 The parsing skips spaces and tabs at the beginning of @var{string}, then
|
|
544 reads as much of @var{string} as it can interpret as a number. (On some
|
|
545 systems it ignores other whitespace at the beginning, not just spaces
|
25751
|
546 and tabs.) If the first character after the ignored whitespace is
|
|
547 neither a digit, nor a plus or minus sign, nor the leading dot of a
|
|
548 floating point number, this function returns 0.
|
6550
|
549
|
|
550 @example
|
|
551 (string-to-number "256")
|
|
552 @result{} 256
|
|
553 (string-to-number "25 is a perfect square.")
|
|
554 @result{} 25
|
|
555 (string-to-number "X256")
|
|
556 @result{} 0
|
|
557 (string-to-number "-4.5")
|
|
558 @result{} -4.5
|
38790
|
559 (string-to-number "1e5")
|
|
560 @result{} 100000.0
|
6550
|
561 @end example
|
|
562
|
|
563 @findex string-to-int
|
|
564 @code{string-to-int} is an obsolete alias for this function.
|
|
565 @end defun
|
|
566
|
21007
|
567 Here are some other functions that can convert to or from a string:
|
|
568
|
|
569 @table @code
|
|
570 @item concat
|
|
571 @code{concat} can convert a vector or a list into a string.
|
|
572 @xref{Creating Strings}.
|
|
573
|
|
574 @item vconcat
|
|
575 @code{vconcat} can convert a string into a vector. @xref{Vector
|
|
576 Functions}.
|
|
577
|
|
578 @item append
|
|
579 @code{append} can convert a string into a list. @xref{Building Lists}.
|
|
580 @end table
|
|
581
|
6550
|
582 @node Formatting Strings
|
|
583 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
|
|
584 @section Formatting Strings
|
|
585 @cindex formatting strings
|
|
586 @cindex strings, formatting them
|
|
587
|
|
588 @dfn{Formatting} means constructing a string by substitution of
|
24862
|
589 computed values at various places in a constant string. This constant string
|
|
590 controls how the other values are printed, as well as where they appear;
|
6550
|
591 it is called a @dfn{format string}.
|
|
592
|
|
593 Formatting is often useful for computing messages to be displayed. In
|
|
594 fact, the functions @code{message} and @code{error} provide the same
|
|
595 formatting feature described here; they differ from @code{format} only
|
|
596 in how they use the result of formatting.
|
|
597
|
|
598 @defun format string &rest objects
|
21682
|
599 This function returns a new string that is made by copying
|
49600
|
600 @var{string} and then replacing any format specification
|
6550
|
601 in the copy with encodings of the corresponding @var{objects}. The
|
|
602 arguments @var{objects} are the computed values to be formatted.
|
25751
|
603
|
|
604 The characters in @var{string}, other than the format specifications,
|
|
605 are copied directly into the output; starting in Emacs 21, if they have
|
|
606 text properties, these are copied into the output also.
|
6550
|
607 @end defun
|
|
608
|
|
609 @cindex @samp{%} in format
|
|
610 @cindex format specification
|
|
611 A format specification is a sequence of characters beginning with a
|
|
612 @samp{%}. Thus, if there is a @samp{%d} in @var{string}, the
|
|
613 @code{format} function replaces it with the printed representation of
|
|
614 one of the values to be formatted (one of the arguments @var{objects}).
|
|
615 For example:
|
|
616
|
|
617 @example
|
|
618 @group
|
|
619 (format "The value of fill-column is %d." fill-column)
|
|
620 @result{} "The value of fill-column is 72."
|
|
621 @end group
|
|
622 @end example
|
|
623
|
|
624 If @var{string} contains more than one format specification, the
|
24862
|
625 format specifications correspond to successive values from
|
6550
|
626 @var{objects}. Thus, the first format specification in @var{string}
|
|
627 uses the first such value, the second format specification uses the
|
|
628 second such value, and so on. Any extra format specifications (those
|
|
629 for which there are no corresponding values) cause unpredictable
|
|
630 behavior. Any extra values to be formatted are ignored.
|
|
631
|
22138
|
632 Certain format specifications require values of particular types. If
|
|
633 you supply a value that doesn't fit the requirements, an error is
|
|
634 signaled.
|
6550
|
635
|
|
636 Here is a table of valid format specifications:
|
|
637
|
|
638 @table @samp
|
|
639 @item %s
|
|
640 Replace the specification with the printed representation of the object,
|
21007
|
641 made without quoting (that is, using @code{princ}, not
|
21682
|
642 @code{prin1}---@pxref{Output Functions}). Thus, strings are represented
|
21007
|
643 by their contents alone, with no @samp{"} characters, and symbols appear
|
|
644 without @samp{\} characters.
|
6550
|
645
|
25751
|
646 Starting in Emacs 21, if the object is a string, its text properties are
|
|
647 copied into the output. The text properties of the @samp{%s} itself
|
|
648 are also copied, but those of the object take priority.
|
|
649
|
6550
|
650 If there is no corresponding object, the empty string is used.
|
|
651
|
|
652 @item %S
|
|
653 Replace the specification with the printed representation of the object,
|
21007
|
654 made with quoting (that is, using @code{prin1}---@pxref{Output
|
|
655 Functions}). Thus, strings are enclosed in @samp{"} characters, and
|
|
656 @samp{\} characters appear where necessary before special characters.
|
6550
|
657
|
|
658 If there is no corresponding object, the empty string is used.
|
|
659
|
|
660 @item %o
|
|
661 @cindex integer to octal
|
|
662 Replace the specification with the base-eight representation of an
|
|
663 integer.
|
|
664
|
|
665 @item %d
|
|
666 Replace the specification with the base-ten representation of an
|
|
667 integer.
|
|
668
|
|
669 @item %x
|
35036
|
670 @itemx %X
|
6550
|
671 @cindex integer to hexadecimal
|
|
672 Replace the specification with the base-sixteen representation of an
|
35036
|
673 integer. @samp{%x} uses lower case and @samp{%X} uses upper case.
|
6550
|
674
|
|
675 @item %c
|
|
676 Replace the specification with the character which is the value given.
|
|
677
|
|
678 @item %e
|
|
679 Replace the specification with the exponential notation for a floating
|
35071
|
680 point number.
|
6550
|
681
|
|
682 @item %f
|
|
683 Replace the specification with the decimal-point notation for a floating
|
|
684 point number.
|
|
685
|
|
686 @item %g
|
|
687 Replace the specification with notation for a floating point number,
|
22138
|
688 using either exponential notation or decimal-point notation, whichever
|
35071
|
689 is shorter.
|
6550
|
690
|
|
691 @item %%
|
35036
|
692 Replace the specification with a single @samp{%}. This format
|
|
693 specification is unusual in that it does not use a value. For example,
|
|
694 @code{(format "%% %d" 30)} returns @code{"% 30"}.
|
6550
|
695 @end table
|
|
696
|
|
697 Any other format character results in an @samp{Invalid format
|
|
698 operation} error.
|
|
699
|
|
700 Here are several examples:
|
|
701
|
|
702 @example
|
|
703 @group
|
|
704 (format "The name of this buffer is %s." (buffer-name))
|
|
705 @result{} "The name of this buffer is strings.texi."
|
|
706
|
|
707 (format "The buffer object prints as %s." (current-buffer))
|
13228
|
708 @result{} "The buffer object prints as strings.texi."
|
6550
|
709
|
49600
|
710 (format "The octal value of %d is %o,
|
6550
|
711 and the hex value is %x." 18 18 18)
|
49600
|
712 @result{} "The octal value of 18 is 22,
|
6550
|
713 and the hex value is 12."
|
|
714 @end group
|
|
715 @end example
|
|
716
|
|
717 @cindex numeric prefix
|
|
718 @cindex field width
|
|
719 @cindex padding
|
|
720 All the specification characters allow an optional numeric prefix
|
|
721 between the @samp{%} and the character. The optional numeric prefix
|
|
722 defines the minimum width for the object. If the printed representation
|
|
723 of the object contains fewer characters than this, then it is padded.
|
|
724 The padding is on the left if the prefix is positive (or starts with
|
|
725 zero) and on the right if the prefix is negative. The padding character
|
|
726 is normally a space, but if the numeric prefix starts with a zero, zeros
|
21007
|
727 are used for padding. Here are some examples of padding:
|
6550
|
728
|
|
729 @example
|
|
730 (format "%06d is padded on the left with zeros" 123)
|
|
731 @result{} "000123 is padded on the left with zeros"
|
|
732
|
|
733 (format "%-6d is padded on the right" 123)
|
|
734 @result{} "123 is padded on the right"
|
|
735 @end example
|
|
736
|
|
737 @code{format} never truncates an object's printed representation, no
|
|
738 matter what width you specify. Thus, you can use a numeric prefix to
|
|
739 specify a minimum spacing between columns with no risk of losing
|
|
740 information.
|
|
741
|
|
742 In the following three examples, @samp{%7s} specifies a minimum width
|
|
743 of 7. In the first case, the string inserted in place of @samp{%7s} has
|
|
744 only 3 letters, so 4 blank spaces are inserted for padding. In the
|
|
745 second case, the string @code{"specification"} is 13 letters wide but is
|
|
746 not truncated. In the third case, the padding is on the right.
|
|
747
|
49600
|
748 @smallexample
|
6550
|
749 @group
|
|
750 (format "The word `%7s' actually has %d letters in it."
|
|
751 "foo" (length "foo"))
|
49600
|
752 @result{} "The word ` foo' actually has 3 letters in it."
|
6550
|
753 @end group
|
|
754
|
|
755 @group
|
|
756 (format "The word `%7s' actually has %d letters in it."
|
49600
|
757 "specification" (length "specification"))
|
|
758 @result{} "The word `specification' actually has 13 letters in it."
|
6550
|
759 @end group
|
|
760
|
|
761 @group
|
|
762 (format "The word `%-7s' actually has %d letters in it."
|
|
763 "foo" (length "foo"))
|
49600
|
764 @result{} "The word `foo ' actually has 3 letters in it."
|
6550
|
765 @end group
|
|
766 @end smallexample
|
|
767
|
21682
|
768 @node Case Conversion
|
49600
|
769 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
|
21682
|
770 @section Case Conversion in Lisp
|
49600
|
771 @cindex upper case
|
|
772 @cindex lower case
|
|
773 @cindex character case
|
21682
|
774 @cindex case conversion in Lisp
|
6550
|
775
|
|
776 The character case functions change the case of single characters or
|
22138
|
777 of the contents of strings. The functions normally convert only
|
|
778 alphabetic characters (the letters @samp{A} through @samp{Z} and
|
25751
|
779 @samp{a} through @samp{z}, as well as non-@sc{ascii} letters); other
|
|
780 characters are not altered. You can specify a different case
|
|
781 conversion mapping by specifying a case table (@pxref{Case Tables}).
|
22138
|
782
|
|
783 These functions do not modify the strings that are passed to them as
|
|
784 arguments.
|
6550
|
785
|
|
786 The examples below use the characters @samp{X} and @samp{x} which have
|
25751
|
787 @sc{ascii} codes 88 and 120 respectively.
|
6550
|
788
|
|
789 @defun downcase string-or-char
|
|
790 This function converts a character or a string to lower case.
|
|
791
|
|
792 When the argument to @code{downcase} is a string, the function creates
|
|
793 and returns a new string in which each letter in the argument that is
|
|
794 upper case is converted to lower case. When the argument to
|
|
795 @code{downcase} is a character, @code{downcase} returns the
|
|
796 corresponding lower case character. This value is an integer. If the
|
|
797 original character is lower case, or is not a letter, then the value
|
|
798 equals the original character.
|
|
799
|
|
800 @example
|
|
801 (downcase "The cat in the hat")
|
|
802 @result{} "the cat in the hat"
|
|
803
|
|
804 (downcase ?X)
|
|
805 @result{} 120
|
|
806 @end example
|
|
807 @end defun
|
|
808
|
|
809 @defun upcase string-or-char
|
|
810 This function converts a character or a string to upper case.
|
|
811
|
|
812 When the argument to @code{upcase} is a string, the function creates
|
|
813 and returns a new string in which each letter in the argument that is
|
|
814 lower case is converted to upper case.
|
|
815
|
|
816 When the argument to @code{upcase} is a character, @code{upcase}
|
|
817 returns the corresponding upper case character. This value is an integer.
|
|
818 If the original character is upper case, or is not a letter, then the
|
25751
|
819 value returned equals the original character.
|
6550
|
820
|
|
821 @example
|
|
822 (upcase "The cat in the hat")
|
|
823 @result{} "THE CAT IN THE HAT"
|
|
824
|
|
825 (upcase ?x)
|
|
826 @result{} 88
|
|
827 @end example
|
|
828 @end defun
|
|
829
|
|
830 @defun capitalize string-or-char
|
|
831 @cindex capitalization
|
|
832 This function capitalizes strings or characters. If
|
|
833 @var{string-or-char} is a string, the function creates and returns a new
|
|
834 string, whose contents are a copy of @var{string-or-char} in which each
|
|
835 word has been capitalized. This means that the first character of each
|
|
836 word is converted to upper case, and the rest are converted to lower
|
|
837 case.
|
|
838
|
|
839 The definition of a word is any sequence of consecutive characters that
|
|
840 are assigned to the word constituent syntax class in the current syntax
|
25454
|
841 table (@pxref{Syntax Class Table}).
|
6550
|
842
|
|
843 When the argument to @code{capitalize} is a character, @code{capitalize}
|
|
844 has the same result as @code{upcase}.
|
|
845
|
|
846 @example
|
|
847 (capitalize "The cat in the hat")
|
|
848 @result{} "The Cat In The Hat"
|
|
849
|
|
850 (capitalize "THE 77TH-HATTED CAT")
|
|
851 @result{} "The 77th-Hatted Cat"
|
|
852
|
|
853 @group
|
|
854 (capitalize ?x)
|
|
855 @result{} 88
|
|
856 @end group
|
|
857 @end example
|
|
858 @end defun
|
|
859
|
21682
|
860 @defun upcase-initials string
|
24862
|
861 This function capitalizes the initials of the words in @var{string},
|
21682
|
862 without altering any letters other than the initials. It returns a new
|
22138
|
863 string whose contents are a copy of @var{string}, in which each word has
|
24862
|
864 had its initial letter converted to upper case.
|
21682
|
865
|
|
866 The definition of a word is any sequence of consecutive characters that
|
|
867 are assigned to the word constituent syntax class in the current syntax
|
25454
|
868 table (@pxref{Syntax Class Table}).
|
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|
869
|
|
870 @example
|
|
871 @group
|
|
872 (upcase-initials "The CAT in the hAt")
|
|
873 @result{} "The CAT In The HAt"
|
|
874 @end group
|
|
875 @end example
|
|
876 @end defun
|
|
877
|
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|
878 @xref{Text Comparison}, for functions that compare strings; some of
|
|
879 them ignore case differences, or can optionally ignore case differences.
|
|
880
|
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|
881 @node Case Tables
|
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|
882 @section The Case Table
|
|
883
|
|
884 You can customize case conversion by installing a special @dfn{case
|
|
885 table}. A case table specifies the mapping between upper case and lower
|
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|
886 case letters. It affects both the case conversion functions for Lisp
|
|
887 objects (see the previous section) and those that apply to text in the
|
|
888 buffer (@pxref{Case Changes}). Each buffer has a case table; there is
|
|
889 also a standard case table which is used to initialize the case table
|
|
890 of new buffers.
|
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|
891
|
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|
892 A case table is a char-table (@pxref{Char-Tables}) whose subtype is
|
|
893 @code{case-table}. This char-table maps each character into the
|
|
894 corresponding lower case character. It has three extra slots, which
|
|
895 hold related tables:
|
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|
896
|
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|
897 @table @var
|
|
898 @item upcase
|
|
899 The upcase table maps each character into the corresponding upper
|
|
900 case character.
|
|
901 @item canonicalize
|
|
902 The canonicalize table maps all of a set of case-related characters
|
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|
903 into a particular member of that set.
|
21007
|
904 @item equivalences
|
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|
905 The equivalences table maps each one of a set of case-related characters
|
|
906 into the next character in that set.
|
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|
907 @end table
|
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|
908
|
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|
909 In simple cases, all you need to specify is the mapping to lower-case;
|
|
910 the three related tables will be calculated automatically from that one.
|
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|
911
|
|
912 For some languages, upper and lower case letters are not in one-to-one
|
|
913 correspondence. There may be two different lower case letters with the
|
|
914 same upper case equivalent. In these cases, you need to specify the
|
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|
915 maps for both lower case and upper case.
|
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|
916
|
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|
917 The extra table @var{canonicalize} maps each character to a canonical
|
|
918 equivalent; any two characters that are related by case-conversion have
|
|
919 the same canonical equivalent character. For example, since @samp{a}
|
|
920 and @samp{A} are related by case-conversion, they should have the same
|
|
921 canonical equivalent character (which should be either @samp{a} for both
|
|
922 of them, or @samp{A} for both of them).
|
|
923
|
|
924 The extra table @var{equivalences} is a map that cyclicly permutes
|
|
925 each equivalence class (of characters with the same canonical
|
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|
926 equivalent). (For ordinary @sc{ascii}, this would map @samp{a} into
|
21007
|
927 @samp{A} and @samp{A} into @samp{a}, and likewise for each set of
|
|
928 equivalent characters.)
|
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|
929
|
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|
930 When you construct a case table, you can provide @code{nil} for
|
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|
931 @var{canonicalize}; then Emacs fills in this slot from the lower case
|
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|
932 and upper case mappings. You can also provide @code{nil} for
|
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|
933 @var{equivalences}; then Emacs fills in this slot from
|
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|
934 @var{canonicalize}. In a case table that is actually in use, those
|
|
935 components are non-@code{nil}. Do not try to specify @var{equivalences}
|
|
936 without also specifying @var{canonicalize}.
|
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|
937
|
|
938 Here are the functions for working with case tables:
|
|
939
|
|
940 @defun case-table-p object
|
|
941 This predicate returns non-@code{nil} if @var{object} is a valid case
|
|
942 table.
|
|
943 @end defun
|
|
944
|
|
945 @defun set-standard-case-table table
|
|
946 This function makes @var{table} the standard case table, so that it will
|
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|
947 be used in any buffers created subsequently.
|
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|
948 @end defun
|
|
949
|
|
950 @defun standard-case-table
|
|
951 This returns the standard case table.
|
|
952 @end defun
|
|
953
|
|
954 @defun current-case-table
|
|
955 This function returns the current buffer's case table.
|
|
956 @end defun
|
|
957
|
|
958 @defun set-case-table table
|
|
959 This sets the current buffer's case table to @var{table}.
|
|
960 @end defun
|
|
961
|
|
962 The following three functions are convenient subroutines for packages
|
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|
963 that define non-@sc{ascii} character sets. They modify the specified
|
21007
|
964 case table @var{case-table}; they also modify the standard syntax table.
|
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|
965 @xref{Syntax Tables}. Normally you would use these functions to change
|
|
966 the standard case table.
|
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|
967
|
21007
|
968 @defun set-case-syntax-pair uc lc case-table
|
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|
969 This function specifies a pair of corresponding letters, one upper case
|
|
970 and one lower case.
|
|
971 @end defun
|
|
972
|
21007
|
973 @defun set-case-syntax-delims l r case-table
|
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|
974 This function makes characters @var{l} and @var{r} a matching pair of
|
|
975 case-invariant delimiters.
|
|
976 @end defun
|
|
977
|
21007
|
978 @defun set-case-syntax char syntax case-table
|
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|
979 This function makes @var{char} case-invariant, with syntax
|
|
980 @var{syntax}.
|
|
981 @end defun
|
|
982
|
|
983 @deffn Command describe-buffer-case-table
|
|
984 This command displays a description of the contents of the current
|
|
985 buffer's case table.
|
|
986 @end deffn
|