annotate man/commands.texi @ 51165:7a7fd3859264

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author André Spiegel <spiegel@gnu.org>
date Fri, 23 May 2003 17:58:46 +0000
parents 23a1cea22d13
children 695cf19ef79e d7ddb3e565de
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1 @c This is part of the Emacs manual.
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2 @c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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3 @c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
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4 @iftex
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5 @chapter Characters, Keys and Commands
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6
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7 This chapter explains the character sets used by Emacs for input
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8 commands and for the contents of files, and also explains the concepts
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9 of @dfn{keys} and @dfn{commands}, which are fundamental for understanding
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10 how Emacs interprets your keyboard and mouse input.
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11 @end iftex
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12
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13 @node User Input, Keys, Screen, Top
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14 @section Kinds of User Input
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15 @cindex input with the keyboard
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16 @cindex keyboard input
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17 @cindex character set (keyboard)
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18 @cindex ASCII
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19 @cindex C-
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20 @cindex Control
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21 @cindex control characters
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22
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23 GNU Emacs uses an extension of the ASCII character set for keyboard
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24 input; it also accepts non-character input events including function
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25 keys and mouse button actions.
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26
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27 ASCII consists of 128 character codes. Some of these codes are
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28 assigned graphic symbols such as @samp{a} and @samp{=}; the rest are
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29 control characters, such as @kbd{Control-a} (usually written @kbd{C-a}
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30 for short). @kbd{C-a} gets its name from the fact that you type it by
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31 holding down the @key{CTRL} key while pressing @kbd{a}.
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32
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33 Some ASCII control characters have special names, and most terminals
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34 have special keys you can type them with: for example, @key{RET},
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35 @key{TAB}, @key{DEL} and @key{ESC}. The space character is usually
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36 referred to below as @key{SPC}, even though strictly speaking it is a
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37 graphic character whose graphic happens to be blank. Some keyboards
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38 have a key labeled ``linefeed'' which is an alias for @kbd{C-j}.
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39
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40 Emacs extends the ASCII character set with thousands more printing
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41 characters (@pxref{International}), additional control characters, and a
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42 few more modifiers that can be combined with any character.
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43
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44 On ASCII terminals, there are only 32 possible control characters.
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45 These are the control variants of letters and @samp{@@[]\^_}. In
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46 addition, the shift key is meaningless with control characters:
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47 @kbd{C-a} and @kbd{C-A} are the same character, and Emacs cannot
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48 distinguish them.
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49
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50 But the Emacs character set has room for control variants of all
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51 printing characters, and for distinguishing between @kbd{C-a} and
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52 @kbd{C-A}. The X Window System makes it possible to enter all these
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53 characters. For example, @kbd{C--} (that's Control-Minus) and @kbd{C-5}
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54 are meaningful Emacs commands under X.
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55
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56 Another Emacs character-set extension is additional modifier bits.
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57 Only one modifier bit is commonly used; it is called Meta. Every
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58 character has a Meta variant; examples include @kbd{Meta-a} (normally
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59 written @kbd{M-a}, for short), @kbd{M-A} (not the same character as
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60 @kbd{M-a}, but those two characters normally have the same meaning in
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61 Emacs), @kbd{M-@key{RET}}, and @kbd{M-C-a}. For reasons of tradition,
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62 we usually write @kbd{C-M-a} rather than @kbd{M-C-a}; logically
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63 speaking, the order in which the modifier keys @key{CTRL} and @key{META}
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64 are mentioned does not matter.
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65
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66 @cindex Meta
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67 @cindex M-
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68 @cindex @key{ESC} replacing @key{META} key
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69 Some terminals have a @key{META} key, and allow you to type Meta
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70 characters by holding this key down. Thus, @kbd{Meta-a} is typed by
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71 holding down @key{META} and pressing @kbd{a}. The @key{META} key
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72 works much like the @key{SHIFT} key. Such a key is not always labeled
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73 @key{META}, however, as this function is often a special option for a
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74 key with some other primary purpose. Sometimes it is labeled
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75 @key{ALT} or @key{EDIT}; on a Sun keyboard, it may have a diamond on
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76 it.
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77
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78 If there is no @key{META} key, you can still type Meta characters
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79 using two-character sequences starting with @key{ESC}. Thus, you can
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80 enter @kbd{M-a} by typing @kbd{@key{ESC} a}. You can enter
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81 @kbd{C-M-a} by typing @kbd{@key{ESC} C-a}. Unlike @key{META}, which
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82 modifies other characters, @key{ESC} is a separate character. You
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83 don't hold down @key{ESC} while typing the next character; instead,
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84 you press it and release it, then you enter the next character.
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85 @key{ESC} is allowed on terminals with @key{META} keys, too, in case
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86 you have formed a habit of using it.
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87
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88 The X Window System provides several other modifier keys that can be
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89 applied to any input character. These are called @key{SUPER},
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90 @key{HYPER} and @key{ALT}. We write @samp{s-}, @samp{H-} and @samp{A-}
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91 to say that a character uses these modifiers. Thus, @kbd{s-H-C-x} is
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92 short for @kbd{Super-Hyper-Control-x}. Not all X terminals actually
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93 provide keys for these modifier flags---in fact, many terminals have a
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94 key labeled @key{ALT} which is really a @key{META} key. The standard
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95 key bindings of Emacs do not include any characters with these
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96 modifiers. But you can assign them meanings of your own by customizing
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97 Emacs.
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98
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99 If your keyboard lacks one of these modifier keys, you can enter it
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100 using @kbd{C-x @@}: @kbd{C-x @@ h} adds the ``hyper'' flag to the next
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101 character, @kbd{C-x @@ s} adds the ``super'' flag, and @kbd{C-x @@ a}
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102 adds the ``alt'' flag. For instance, @kbd{C-x @@ h C-a} is a way to
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103 enter @kbd{Hyper-Control-a}. (Unfortunately there is no way to add
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104 two modifiers by using @kbd{C-x @@} twice for the same character,
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105 because the first one goes to work on the @kbd{C-x}.)
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106
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107 Keyboard input includes keyboard keys that are not characters at all:
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108 for example function keys and arrow keys. Mouse buttons are also
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109 outside the gamut of characters. You can modify these events with the
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110 modifier keys @key{CTRL}, @key{META}, @key{SUPER}, @key{HYPER} and
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111 @key{ALT}, just like keyboard characters.
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112
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113 @cindex input event
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114 Input characters and non-character inputs are collectively called
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115 @dfn{input events}. @xref{Input Events,,, elisp, The Emacs Lisp
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116 Reference Manual}, for more information. If you are not doing Lisp
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117 programming, but simply want to redefine the meaning of some characters
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118 or non-character events, see @ref{Customization}.
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119
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120 ASCII terminals cannot really send anything to the computer except
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121 ASCII characters. These terminals use a sequence of characters to
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122 represent each function key. But that is invisible to the Emacs user,
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123 because the keyboard input routines recognize these special sequences
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124 and convert them to function key events before any other part of Emacs
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125 gets to see them.
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126
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127 @node Keys, Commands, User Input, Top
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128 @section Keys
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129
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130 @cindex key sequence
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131 @cindex key
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132 A @dfn{key sequence} (@dfn{key}, for short) is a sequence of input
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133 events that are meaningful as a unit---as ``a single command.'' Some
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134 Emacs command sequences are just one character or one event; for
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135 example, just @kbd{C-f} is enough to move forward one character in the
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136 buffer. But Emacs also has commands that take two or more events to
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137 invoke.
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138
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139 @cindex complete key
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140 @cindex prefix key
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141 If a sequence of events is enough to invoke a command, it is a
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142 @dfn{complete key}. Examples of complete keys include @kbd{C-a},
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143 @kbd{X}, @key{RET}, @key{NEXT} (a function key), @key{DOWN} (an arrow
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144 key), @kbd{C-x C-f}, and @kbd{C-x 4 C-f}. If it isn't long enough to be
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145 complete, we call it a @dfn{prefix key}. The above examples show that
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146 @kbd{C-x} and @kbd{C-x 4} are prefix keys. Every key sequence is either
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147 a complete key or a prefix key.
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148
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149 Most single characters constitute complete keys in the standard Emacs
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150 command bindings. A few of them are prefix keys. A prefix key combines
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151 with the following input event to make a longer key sequence, which may
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152 itself be complete or a prefix. For example, @kbd{C-x} is a prefix key,
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153 so @kbd{C-x} and the next input event combine to make a two-event
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154 key sequence. Most of these key sequences are complete keys, including
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155 @kbd{C-x C-f} and @kbd{C-x b}. A few, such as @kbd{C-x 4} and @kbd{C-x
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156 r}, are themselves prefix keys that lead to three-event key
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157 sequences. There's no limit to the length of a key sequence, but in
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158 practice people rarely use sequences longer than four events.
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159
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160 By contrast, you can't add more events onto a complete key. For
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161 example, the two-event sequence @kbd{C-f C-k} is not a key, because
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162 the @kbd{C-f} is a complete key in itself. It's impossible to give
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163 @kbd{C-f C-k} an independent meaning as a command. @kbd{C-f C-k} is two
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164 key sequences, not one.@refill
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165
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166 All told, the prefix keys in Emacs are @kbd{C-c}, @kbd{C-h},
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167 @kbd{C-x}, @kbd{C-x @key{RET}}, @kbd{C-x @@}, @kbd{C-x a}, @kbd{C-x n}, @w{@kbd{C-x
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168 r}}, @kbd{C-x v}, @kbd{C-x 4}, @kbd{C-x 5}, @kbd{C-x 6}, @key{ESC}, and
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169 @kbd{M-g}. But this list is not cast in concrete; it is
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170 just a matter of Emacs's standard key bindings. If you customize Emacs,
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171 you can make new prefix keys, or eliminate these. @xref{Key Bindings}.
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172
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173 If you do make or eliminate prefix keys, that changes the set of
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174 possible key sequences. For example, if you redefine @kbd{C-f} as a
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175 prefix, @kbd{C-f C-k} automatically becomes a key (complete, unless you
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176 define that too as a prefix). Conversely, if you remove the prefix
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177 definition of @kbd{C-x 4}, then @kbd{C-x 4 f} (or @kbd{C-x 4
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178 @var{anything}}) is no longer a key.
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179
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180 Typing the help character (@kbd{C-h} or @key{F1}) after a prefix
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181 key displays a list of the commands starting with that prefix.
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182 There are a few prefix keys for which @kbd{C-h} does not
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183 work---for historical reasons, they have other meanings for @kbd{C-h}
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184 which are not easy to change. But @key{F1} should work for all prefix
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185 keys.
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186
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187 @node Commands, Text Characters, Keys, Top
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188 @section Keys and Commands
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189
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190 @cindex binding
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191 @cindex command
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192 @cindex function definition
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193 This manual is full of passages that tell you what particular keys
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194 do. But Emacs does not assign meanings to keys directly. Instead,
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195 Emacs assigns meanings to named @dfn{commands}, and then gives keys
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196 their meanings by @dfn{binding} them to commands.
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197
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198 Every command has a name chosen by a programmer. The name is usually
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199 made of a few English words separated by dashes; for example,
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200 @code{next-line} or @code{forward-word}. A command also has a
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201 @dfn{function definition} which is a Lisp program; this is what makes
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202 the command do what it does. In Emacs Lisp, a command is actually a
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203 special kind of Lisp function; one which specifies how to read arguments
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204 for it and call it interactively. For more information on commands and
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205 functions, see @ref{What Is a Function,, What Is a Function, elisp, The
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206 Emacs Lisp Reference Manual}. (The definition we use in this manual is
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207 simplified slightly.)
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208
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209 The bindings between keys and commands are recorded in various tables
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210 called @dfn{keymaps}. @xref{Keymaps}.
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211
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212 When we say that ``@kbd{C-n} moves down vertically one line'' we are
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213 glossing over a distinction that is irrelevant in ordinary use but is vital
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214 in understanding how to customize Emacs. It is the command
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215 @code{next-line} that is programmed to move down vertically. @kbd{C-n} has
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216 this effect @emph{because} it is bound to that command. If you rebind
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217 @kbd{C-n} to the command @code{forward-word} then @kbd{C-n} will move
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218 forward by words instead. Rebinding keys is a common method of
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219 customization.@refill
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220
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221 In the rest of this manual, we usually ignore this subtlety to keep
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222 things simple. To give the information needed for customization, we
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223 state the name of the command which really does the work in parentheses
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224 after mentioning the key that runs it. For example, we will say that
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225 ``The command @kbd{C-n} (@code{next-line}) moves point vertically
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226 down,'' meaning that @code{next-line} is a command that moves vertically
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227 down, and @kbd{C-n} is a key that is normally bound to it.
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228
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229 While we are on the subject of information for customization only,
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230 it's a good time to tell you about @dfn{variables}. Often the
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231 description of a command will say, ``To change this, set the variable
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232 @code{mumble-foo}.'' A variable is a name used to remember a value.
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233 Most of the variables documented in this manual exist just to facilitate
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234 customization: some command or other part of Emacs examines the variable
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235 and behaves differently according to the value that you set. Until you
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236 are interested in customizing, you can ignore the information about
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237 variables. When you are ready to be interested, read the basic
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238 information on variables, and then the information on individual
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239 variables will make sense. @xref{Variables}.
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240
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241 @node Text Characters, Entering Emacs, Commands, Top
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242 @section Character Set for Text
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243 @cindex characters (in text)
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244
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245 Text in Emacs buffers is a sequence of 8-bit bytes. Each byte can
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246 hold a single ASCII character. Both ASCII control characters (octal
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247 codes 000 through 037, and 0177) and ASCII printing characters (codes
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248 040 through 0176) are allowed; however, non-ASCII control characters
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249 cannot appear in a buffer. The other modifier flags used in keyboard
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250 input, such as Meta, are not allowed in buffers either.
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251
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252 Some ASCII control characters serve special purposes in text, and have
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253 special names. For example, the newline character (octal code 012) is
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254 used in the buffer to end a line, and the tab character (octal code 011)
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255 is used for indenting to the next tab stop column (normally every 8
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256 columns). @xref{Text Display}.
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257
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258 Non-ASCII printing characters can also appear in buffers. When
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259 multibyte characters are enabled, you can use any of the non-ASCII
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260 printing characters that Emacs supports. They have character codes
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261 starting at 256, octal 0400, and each one is represented as a sequence
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262 of two or more bytes. @xref{International}. Single-byte characters
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263 with codes 128 through 255 can also appear in multibyte buffers.
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264
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265 If you disable multibyte characters, then you can use only one
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266 alphabet of non-ASCII characters, but they all fit in one byte. They
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267 use codes 0200 through 0377. @xref{Single-Byte Character Support}.