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84091
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2001,
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87649
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4 @c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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84091
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5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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84116
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6 @setfilename ../../info/numbers
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84091
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7 @node Numbers, Strings and Characters, Lisp Data Types, Top
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8 @chapter Numbers
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9 @cindex integers
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10 @cindex numbers
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11
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12 GNU Emacs supports two numeric data types: @dfn{integers} and
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13 @dfn{floating point numbers}. Integers are whole numbers such as
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14 @minus{}3, 0, 7, 13, and 511. Their values are exact. Floating point
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15 numbers are numbers with fractional parts, such as @minus{}4.5, 0.0, or
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16 2.71828. They can also be expressed in exponential notation: 1.5e2
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17 equals 150; in this example, @samp{e2} stands for ten to the second
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18 power, and that is multiplied by 1.5. Floating point values are not
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19 exact; they have a fixed, limited amount of precision.
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20
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21 @menu
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22 * Integer Basics:: Representation and range of integers.
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23 * Float Basics:: Representation and range of floating point.
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24 * Predicates on Numbers:: Testing for numbers.
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25 * Comparison of Numbers:: Equality and inequality predicates.
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26 * Numeric Conversions:: Converting float to integer and vice versa.
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27 * Arithmetic Operations:: How to add, subtract, multiply and divide.
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28 * Rounding Operations:: Explicitly rounding floating point numbers.
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29 * Bitwise Operations:: Logical and, or, not, shifting.
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30 * Math Functions:: Trig, exponential and logarithmic functions.
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31 * Random Numbers:: Obtaining random integers, predictable or not.
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32 @end menu
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33
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34 @node Integer Basics
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35 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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36 @section Integer Basics
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37
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38 The range of values for an integer depends on the machine. The
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39 minimum range is @minus{}268435456 to 268435455 (29 bits; i.e.,
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40 @ifnottex
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41 -2**28
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42 @end ifnottex
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43 @tex
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44 @math{-2^{28}}
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45 @end tex
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46 to
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47 @ifnottex
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48 2**28 - 1),
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49 @end ifnottex
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50 @tex
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51 @math{2^{28}-1}),
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52 @end tex
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53 but some machines may provide a wider range. Many examples in this
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54 chapter assume an integer has 29 bits.
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55 @cindex overflow
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56
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57 The Lisp reader reads an integer as a sequence of digits with optional
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58 initial sign and optional final period.
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59
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60 @example
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61 1 ; @r{The integer 1.}
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62 1. ; @r{The integer 1.}
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63 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.}
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64 -1 ; @r{The integer @minus{}1.}
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65 536870913 ; @r{Also the integer 1, due to overflow.}
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66 0 ; @r{The integer 0.}
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67 -0 ; @r{The integer 0.}
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68 @end example
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69
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70 @cindex integers in specific radix
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71 @cindex radix for reading an integer
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72 @cindex base for reading an integer
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73 @cindex hex numbers
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74 @cindex octal numbers
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75 @cindex reading numbers in hex, octal, and binary
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76 The syntax for integers in bases other than 10 uses @samp{#}
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77 followed by a letter that specifies the radix: @samp{b} for binary,
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78 @samp{o} for octal, @samp{x} for hex, or @samp{@var{radix}r} to
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79 specify radix @var{radix}. Case is not significant for the letter
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80 that specifies the radix. Thus, @samp{#b@var{integer}} reads
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81 @var{integer} in binary, and @samp{#@var{radix}r@var{integer}} reads
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82 @var{integer} in radix @var{radix}. Allowed values of @var{radix} run
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83 from 2 to 36. For example:
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84
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85 @example
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86 #b101100 @result{} 44
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87 #o54 @result{} 44
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88 #x2c @result{} 44
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89 #24r1k @result{} 44
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90 @end example
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91
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92 To understand how various functions work on integers, especially the
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93 bitwise operators (@pxref{Bitwise Operations}), it is often helpful to
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94 view the numbers in their binary form.
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95
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96 In 29-bit binary, the decimal integer 5 looks like this:
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97
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98 @example
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99 0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101
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100 @end example
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101
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102 @noindent
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103 (We have inserted spaces between groups of 4 bits, and two spaces
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104 between groups of 8 bits, to make the binary integer easier to read.)
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105
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106 The integer @minus{}1 looks like this:
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107
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108 @example
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109 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
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110 @end example
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111
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112 @noindent
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113 @cindex two's complement
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114 @minus{}1 is represented as 29 ones. (This is called @dfn{two's
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115 complement} notation.)
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116
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117 The negative integer, @minus{}5, is creating by subtracting 4 from
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118 @minus{}1. In binary, the decimal integer 4 is 100. Consequently,
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119 @minus{}5 looks like this:
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120
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121 @example
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122 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011
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123 @end example
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124
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125 In this implementation, the largest 29-bit binary integer value is
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126 268,435,455 in decimal. In binary, it looks like this:
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127
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128 @example
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129 0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
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130 @end example
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131
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132 Since the arithmetic functions do not check whether integers go
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133 outside their range, when you add 1 to 268,435,455, the value is the
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134 negative integer @minus{}268,435,456:
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135
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136 @example
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137 (+ 1 268435455)
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138 @result{} -268435456
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139 @result{} 1 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000
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140 @end example
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141
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142 Many of the functions described in this chapter accept markers for
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143 arguments in place of numbers. (@xref{Markers}.) Since the actual
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144 arguments to such functions may be either numbers or markers, we often
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145 give these arguments the name @var{number-or-marker}. When the argument
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146 value is a marker, its position value is used and its buffer is ignored.
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147
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148 @defvar most-positive-fixnum
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149 The value of this variable is the largest integer that Emacs Lisp
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150 can handle.
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151 @end defvar
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152
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153 @defvar most-negative-fixnum
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154 The value of this variable is the smallest integer that Emacs Lisp can
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155 handle. It is negative.
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156 @end defvar
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157
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158 @node Float Basics
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159 @section Floating Point Basics
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160
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161 Floating point numbers are useful for representing numbers that are
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162 not integral. The precise range of floating point numbers is
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163 machine-specific; it is the same as the range of the C data type
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164 @code{double} on the machine you are using.
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165
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166 The read-syntax for floating point numbers requires either a decimal
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167 point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or both. For
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168 example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, @samp{1.5e3}, and
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169 @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point number whose
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170 value is 1500. They are all equivalent. You can also use a minus sign
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171 to write negative floating point numbers, as in @samp{-1.0}.
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172
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173 @cindex @acronym{IEEE} floating point
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174 @cindex positive infinity
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175 @cindex negative infinity
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176 @cindex infinity
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177 @cindex NaN
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178 Most modern computers support the @acronym{IEEE} floating point standard,
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179 which provides for positive infinity and negative infinity as floating point
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180 values. It also provides for a class of values called NaN or
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181 ``not-a-number''; numerical functions return such values in cases where
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182 there is no correct answer. For example, @code{(/ 0.0 0.0)} returns a
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183 NaN. For practical purposes, there's no significant difference between
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184 different NaN values in Emacs Lisp, and there's no rule for precisely
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185 which NaN value should be used in a particular case, so Emacs Lisp
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186 doesn't try to distinguish them (but it does report the sign, if you
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187 print it). Here are the read syntaxes for these special floating
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188 point values:
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189
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190 @table @asis
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191 @item positive infinity
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192 @samp{1.0e+INF}
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193 @item negative infinity
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194 @samp{-1.0e+INF}
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195 @item Not-a-number
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196 @samp{0.0e+NaN} or @samp{-0.0e+NaN}.
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197 @end table
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198
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199 To test whether a floating point value is a NaN, compare it with
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200 itself using @code{=}. That returns @code{nil} for a NaN, and
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201 @code{t} for any other floating point value.
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202
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203 The value @code{-0.0} is distinguishable from ordinary zero in
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204 @acronym{IEEE} floating point, but Emacs Lisp @code{equal} and
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205 @code{=} consider them equal values.
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206
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207 You can use @code{logb} to extract the binary exponent of a floating
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208 point number (or estimate the logarithm of an integer):
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209
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210 @defun logb number
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211 This function returns the binary exponent of @var{number}. More
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212 precisely, the value is the logarithm of @var{number} base 2, rounded
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213 down to an integer.
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214
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215 @example
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216 (logb 10)
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217 @result{} 3
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218 (logb 10.0e20)
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219 @result{} 69
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220 @end example
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221 @end defun
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222
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223 @node Predicates on Numbers
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224 @section Type Predicates for Numbers
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225 @cindex predicates for numbers
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226
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227 The functions in this section test for numbers, or for a specific
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228 type of number. The functions @code{integerp} and @code{floatp} can
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229 take any type of Lisp object as argument (they would not be of much
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230 use otherwise), but the @code{zerop} predicate requires a number as
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231 its argument. See also @code{integer-or-marker-p} and
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232 @code{number-or-marker-p}, in @ref{Predicates on Markers}.
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233
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234 @defun floatp object
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235 This predicate tests whether its argument is a floating point
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236 number and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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237
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238 @code{floatp} does not exist in Emacs versions 18 and earlier.
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239 @end defun
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240
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241 @defun integerp object
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242 This predicate tests whether its argument is an integer, and returns
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243 @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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244 @end defun
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245
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246 @defun numberp object
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247 This predicate tests whether its argument is a number (either integer or
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248 floating point), and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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249 @end defun
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250
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251 @defun wholenump object
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252 @cindex natural numbers
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253 The @code{wholenump} predicate (whose name comes from the phrase
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254 ``whole-number-p'') tests to see whether its argument is a nonnegative
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255 integer, and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. 0 is
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256 considered non-negative.
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257
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258 @findex natnump
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259 @code{natnump} is an obsolete synonym for @code{wholenump}.
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260 @end defun
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261
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262 @defun zerop number
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263 This predicate tests whether its argument is zero, and returns @code{t}
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264 if so, @code{nil} otherwise. The argument must be a number.
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265
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266 @code{(zerop x)} is equivalent to @code{(= x 0)}.
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267 @end defun
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268
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269 @node Comparison of Numbers
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270 @section Comparison of Numbers
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271 @cindex number comparison
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272 @cindex comparing numbers
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273
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274 To test numbers for numerical equality, you should normally use
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275 @code{=}, not @code{eq}. There can be many distinct floating point
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276 number objects with the same numeric value. If you use @code{eq} to
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277 compare them, then you test whether two values are the same
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278 @emph{object}. By contrast, @code{=} compares only the numeric values
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279 of the objects.
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280
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281 At present, each integer value has a unique Lisp object in Emacs Lisp.
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282 Therefore, @code{eq} is equivalent to @code{=} where integers are
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283 concerned. It is sometimes convenient to use @code{eq} for comparing an
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284 unknown value with an integer, because @code{eq} does not report an
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285 error if the unknown value is not a number---it accepts arguments of any
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286 type. By contrast, @code{=} signals an error if the arguments are not
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287 numbers or markers. However, it is a good idea to use @code{=} if you
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288 can, even for comparing integers, just in case we change the
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289 representation of integers in a future Emacs version.
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290
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291 Sometimes it is useful to compare numbers with @code{equal}; it
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292 treats two numbers as equal if they have the same data type (both
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293 integers, or both floating point) and the same value. By contrast,
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294 @code{=} can treat an integer and a floating point number as equal.
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295 @xref{Equality Predicates}.
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296
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297 There is another wrinkle: because floating point arithmetic is not
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298 exact, it is often a bad idea to check for equality of two floating
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299 point values. Usually it is better to test for approximate equality.
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300 Here's a function to do this:
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301
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302 @example
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303 (defvar fuzz-factor 1.0e-6)
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304 (defun approx-equal (x y)
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305 (or (and (= x 0) (= y 0))
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306 (< (/ (abs (- x y))
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307 (max (abs x) (abs y)))
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308 fuzz-factor)))
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309 @end example
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310
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311 @cindex CL note---integers vrs @code{eq}
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312 @quotation
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313 @b{Common Lisp note:} Comparing numbers in Common Lisp always requires
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314 @code{=} because Common Lisp implements multi-word integers, and two
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315 distinct integer objects can have the same numeric value. Emacs Lisp
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316 can have just one integer object for any given value because it has a
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317 limited range of integer values.
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318 @end quotation
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319
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320 @defun = number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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321 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and
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322 returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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323 @end defun
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324
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325 @defun eql value1 value2
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326 This function acts like @code{eq} except when both arguments are
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327 numbers. It compares numbers by type and numeric value, so that
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328 @code{(eql 1.0 1)} returns @code{nil}, but @code{(eql 1.0 1.0)} and
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329 @code{(eql 1 1)} both return @code{t}.
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330 @end defun
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331
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332 @defun /= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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333 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and
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334 returns @code{t} if they are not, and @code{nil} if they are.
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335 @end defun
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336
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337 @defun < number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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338 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly less than
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339 its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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340 @end defun
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341
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342 @defun <= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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343 This function tests whether its first argument is less than or equal
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344 to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil}
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345 otherwise.
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346 @end defun
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347
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348 @defun > number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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349 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly greater
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350 than its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil}
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351 otherwise.
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352 @end defun
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353
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354 @defun >= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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355 This function tests whether its first argument is greater than or
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356 equal to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil}
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357 otherwise.
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358 @end defun
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359
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360 @defun max number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers
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361 This function returns the largest of its arguments.
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362 If any of the arguments is floating-point, the value is returned
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363 as floating point, even if it was given as an integer.
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364
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365 @example
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366 (max 20)
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367 @result{} 20
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368 (max 1 2.5)
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369 @result{} 2.5
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370 (max 1 3 2.5)
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371 @result{} 3.0
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372 @end example
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373 @end defun
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374
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375 @defun min number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers
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376 This function returns the smallest of its arguments.
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377 If any of the arguments is floating-point, the value is returned
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378 as floating point, even if it was given as an integer.
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379
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380 @example
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381 (min -4 1)
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382 @result{} -4
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383 @end example
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384 @end defun
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385
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386 @defun abs number
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387 This function returns the absolute value of @var{number}.
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388 @end defun
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|
389
|
|
|
390 @node Numeric Conversions
|
|
|
391 @section Numeric Conversions
|
|
|
392 @cindex rounding in conversions
|
|
|
393 @cindex number conversions
|
|
|
394 @cindex converting numbers
|
|
|
395
|
|
|
396 To convert an integer to floating point, use the function @code{float}.
|
|
|
397
|
|
|
398 @defun float number
|
|
|
399 This returns @var{number} converted to floating point.
|
|
|
400 If @var{number} is already a floating point number, @code{float} returns
|
|
|
401 it unchanged.
|
|
|
402 @end defun
|
|
|
403
|
|
|
404 There are four functions to convert floating point numbers to integers;
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|
|
405 they differ in how they round. All accept an argument @var{number}
|
|
|
406 and an optional argument @var{divisor}. Both arguments may be
|
|
|
407 integers or floating point numbers. @var{divisor} may also be
|
|
|
408 @code{nil}. If @var{divisor} is @code{nil} or omitted, these
|
|
|
409 functions convert @var{number} to an integer, or return it unchanged
|
|
|
410 if it already is an integer. If @var{divisor} is non-@code{nil}, they
|
|
|
411 divide @var{number} by @var{divisor} and convert the result to an
|
|
|
412 integer. An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0.
|
|
|
413
|
|
|
414 @defun truncate number &optional divisor
|
|
|
415 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards
|
|
|
416 zero.
|
|
|
417
|
|
|
418 @example
|
|
|
419 (truncate 1.2)
|
|
|
420 @result{} 1
|
|
|
421 (truncate 1.7)
|
|
|
422 @result{} 1
|
|
|
423 (truncate -1.2)
|
|
|
424 @result{} -1
|
|
|
425 (truncate -1.7)
|
|
|
426 @result{} -1
|
|
|
427 @end example
|
|
|
428 @end defun
|
|
|
429
|
|
|
430 @defun floor number &optional divisor
|
|
|
431 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding downward
|
|
|
432 (towards negative infinity).
|
|
|
433
|
|
|
434 If @var{divisor} is specified, this uses the kind of division
|
|
|
435 operation that corresponds to @code{mod}, rounding downward.
|
|
|
436
|
|
|
437 @example
|
|
|
438 (floor 1.2)
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|
|
439 @result{} 1
|
|
|
440 (floor 1.7)
|
|
|
441 @result{} 1
|
|
|
442 (floor -1.2)
|
|
|
443 @result{} -2
|
|
|
444 (floor -1.7)
|
|
|
445 @result{} -2
|
|
|
446 (floor 5.99 3)
|
|
|
447 @result{} 1
|
|
|
448 @end example
|
|
|
449 @end defun
|
|
|
450
|
|
|
451 @defun ceiling number &optional divisor
|
|
|
452 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding upward
|
|
|
453 (towards positive infinity).
|
|
|
454
|
|
|
455 @example
|
|
|
456 (ceiling 1.2)
|
|
|
457 @result{} 2
|
|
|
458 (ceiling 1.7)
|
|
|
459 @result{} 2
|
|
|
460 (ceiling -1.2)
|
|
|
461 @result{} -1
|
|
|
462 (ceiling -1.7)
|
|
|
463 @result{} -1
|
|
|
464 @end example
|
|
|
465 @end defun
|
|
|
466
|
|
|
467 @defun round number &optional divisor
|
|
|
468 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards the
|
|
|
469 nearest integer. Rounding a value equidistant between two integers
|
|
|
470 may choose the integer closer to zero, or it may prefer an even integer,
|
|
|
471 depending on your machine.
|
|
|
472
|
|
|
473 @example
|
|
|
474 (round 1.2)
|
|
|
475 @result{} 1
|
|
|
476 (round 1.7)
|
|
|
477 @result{} 2
|
|
|
478 (round -1.2)
|
|
|
479 @result{} -1
|
|
|
480 (round -1.7)
|
|
|
481 @result{} -2
|
|
|
482 @end example
|
|
|
483 @end defun
|
|
|
484
|
|
|
485 @node Arithmetic Operations
|
|
|
486 @section Arithmetic Operations
|
|
|
487 @cindex arithmetic operations
|
|
|
488
|
|
|
489 Emacs Lisp provides the traditional four arithmetic operations:
|
|
|
490 addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Remainder and modulus
|
|
|
491 functions supplement the division functions. The functions to
|
|
|
492 add or subtract 1 are provided because they are traditional in Lisp and
|
|
|
493 commonly used.
|
|
|
494
|
|
|
495 All of these functions except @code{%} return a floating point value
|
|
|
496 if any argument is floating.
|
|
|
497
|
|
|
498 It is important to note that in Emacs Lisp, arithmetic functions
|
|
|
499 do not check for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 268435455)} may evaluate to
|
|
|
500 @minus{}268435456, depending on your hardware.
|
|
|
501
|
|
|
502 @defun 1+ number-or-marker
|
|
|
503 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} plus 1.
|
|
|
504 For example,
|
|
|
505
|
|
|
506 @example
|
|
|
507 (setq foo 4)
|
|
|
508 @result{} 4
|
|
|
509 (1+ foo)
|
|
|
510 @result{} 5
|
|
|
511 @end example
|
|
|
512
|
|
|
513 This function is not analogous to the C operator @code{++}---it does not
|
|
|
514 increment a variable. It just computes a sum. Thus, if we continue,
|
|
|
515
|
|
|
516 @example
|
|
|
517 foo
|
|
|
518 @result{} 4
|
|
|
519 @end example
|
|
|
520
|
|
|
521 If you want to increment the variable, you must use @code{setq},
|
|
|
522 like this:
|
|
|
523
|
|
|
524 @example
|
|
|
525 (setq foo (1+ foo))
|
|
|
526 @result{} 5
|
|
|
527 @end example
|
|
|
528 @end defun
|
|
|
529
|
|
|
530 @defun 1- number-or-marker
|
|
|
531 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} minus 1.
|
|
|
532 @end defun
|
|
|
533
|
|
|
534 @defun + &rest numbers-or-markers
|
|
|
535 This function adds its arguments together. When given no arguments,
|
|
|
536 @code{+} returns 0.
|
|
|
537
|
|
|
538 @example
|
|
|
539 (+)
|
|
|
540 @result{} 0
|
|
|
541 (+ 1)
|
|
|
542 @result{} 1
|
|
|
543 (+ 1 2 3 4)
|
|
|
544 @result{} 10
|
|
|
545 @end example
|
|
|
546 @end defun
|
|
|
547
|
|
|
548 @defun - &optional number-or-marker &rest more-numbers-or-markers
|
|
|
549 The @code{-} function serves two purposes: negation and subtraction.
|
|
|
550 When @code{-} has a single argument, the value is the negative of the
|
|
|
551 argument. When there are multiple arguments, @code{-} subtracts each of
|
|
|
552 the @var{more-numbers-or-markers} from @var{number-or-marker},
|
|
|
553 cumulatively. If there are no arguments, the result is 0.
|
|
|
554
|
|
|
555 @example
|
|
|
556 (- 10 1 2 3 4)
|
|
|
557 @result{} 0
|
|
|
558 (- 10)
|
|
|
559 @result{} -10
|
|
|
560 (-)
|
|
|
561 @result{} 0
|
|
|
562 @end example
|
|
|
563 @end defun
|
|
|
564
|
|
|
565 @defun * &rest numbers-or-markers
|
|
|
566 This function multiplies its arguments together, and returns the
|
|
|
567 product. When given no arguments, @code{*} returns 1.
|
|
|
568
|
|
|
569 @example
|
|
|
570 (*)
|
|
|
571 @result{} 1
|
|
|
572 (* 1)
|
|
|
573 @result{} 1
|
|
|
574 (* 1 2 3 4)
|
|
|
575 @result{} 24
|
|
|
576 @end example
|
|
|
577 @end defun
|
|
|
578
|
|
|
579 @defun / dividend divisor &rest divisors
|
|
|
580 This function divides @var{dividend} by @var{divisor} and returns the
|
|
|
581 quotient. If there are additional arguments @var{divisors}, then it
|
|
|
582 divides @var{dividend} by each divisor in turn. Each argument may be a
|
|
|
583 number or a marker.
|
|
|
584
|
|
|
585 If all the arguments are integers, then the result is an integer too.
|
|
|
586 This means the result has to be rounded. On most machines, the result
|
|
|
587 is rounded towards zero after each division, but some machines may round
|
|
|
588 differently with negative arguments. This is because the Lisp function
|
|
|
589 @code{/} is implemented using the C division operator, which also
|
|
|
590 permits machine-dependent rounding. As a practical matter, all known
|
|
|
591 machines round in the standard fashion.
|
|
|
592
|
|
|
593 @cindex @code{arith-error} in division
|
|
|
594 If you divide an integer by 0, an @code{arith-error} error is signaled.
|
|
|
595 (@xref{Errors}.) Floating point division by zero returns either
|
|
|
596 infinity or a NaN if your machine supports @acronym{IEEE} floating point;
|
|
|
597 otherwise, it signals an @code{arith-error} error.
|
|
|
598
|
|
|
599 @example
|
|
|
600 @group
|
|
|
601 (/ 6 2)
|
|
|
602 @result{} 3
|
|
|
603 @end group
|
|
|
604 (/ 5 2)
|
|
|
605 @result{} 2
|
|
|
606 (/ 5.0 2)
|
|
|
607 @result{} 2.5
|
|
|
608 (/ 5 2.0)
|
|
|
609 @result{} 2.5
|
|
|
610 (/ 5.0 2.0)
|
|
|
611 @result{} 2.5
|
|
|
612 (/ 25 3 2)
|
|
|
613 @result{} 4
|
|
|
614 @group
|
|
|
615 (/ -17 6)
|
|
|
616 @result{} -2 @r{(could in theory be @minus{}3 on some machines)}
|
|
|
617 @end group
|
|
|
618 @end example
|
|
|
619 @end defun
|
|
|
620
|
|
|
621 @defun % dividend divisor
|
|
|
622 @cindex remainder
|
|
|
623 This function returns the integer remainder after division of @var{dividend}
|
|
|
624 by @var{divisor}. The arguments must be integers or markers.
|
|
|
625
|
|
|
626 For negative arguments, the remainder is in principle machine-dependent
|
|
|
627 since the quotient is; but in practice, all known machines behave alike.
|
|
|
628
|
|
|
629 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0.
|
|
|
630
|
|
|
631 @example
|
|
|
632 (% 9 4)
|
|
|
633 @result{} 1
|
|
|
634 (% -9 4)
|
|
|
635 @result{} -1
|
|
|
636 (% 9 -4)
|
|
|
637 @result{} 1
|
|
|
638 (% -9 -4)
|
|
|
639 @result{} -1
|
|
|
640 @end example
|
|
|
641
|
|
|
642 For any two integers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor},
|
|
|
643
|
|
|
644 @example
|
|
|
645 @group
|
|
|
646 (+ (% @var{dividend} @var{divisor})
|
|
|
647 (* (/ @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor}))
|
|
|
648 @end group
|
|
|
649 @end example
|
|
|
650
|
|
|
651 @noindent
|
|
|
652 always equals @var{dividend}.
|
|
|
653 @end defun
|
|
|
654
|
|
|
655 @defun mod dividend divisor
|
|
|
656 @cindex modulus
|
|
|
657 This function returns the value of @var{dividend} modulo @var{divisor};
|
|
|
658 in other words, the remainder after division of @var{dividend}
|
|
|
659 by @var{divisor}, but with the same sign as @var{divisor}.
|
|
|
660 The arguments must be numbers or markers.
|
|
|
661
|
|
|
662 Unlike @code{%}, @code{mod} returns a well-defined result for negative
|
|
|
663 arguments. It also permits floating point arguments; it rounds the
|
|
|
664 quotient downward (towards minus infinity) to an integer, and uses that
|
|
|
665 quotient to compute the remainder.
|
|
|
666
|
|
|
667 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0.
|
|
|
668
|
|
|
669 @example
|
|
|
670 @group
|
|
|
671 (mod 9 4)
|
|
|
672 @result{} 1
|
|
|
673 @end group
|
|
|
674 @group
|
|
|
675 (mod -9 4)
|
|
|
676 @result{} 3
|
|
|
677 @end group
|
|
|
678 @group
|
|
|
679 (mod 9 -4)
|
|
|
680 @result{} -3
|
|
|
681 @end group
|
|
|
682 @group
|
|
|
683 (mod -9 -4)
|
|
|
684 @result{} -1
|
|
|
685 @end group
|
|
|
686 @group
|
|
|
687 (mod 5.5 2.5)
|
|
|
688 @result{} .5
|
|
|
689 @end group
|
|
|
690 @end example
|
|
|
691
|
|
|
692 For any two numbers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor},
|
|
|
693
|
|
|
694 @example
|
|
|
695 @group
|
|
|
696 (+ (mod @var{dividend} @var{divisor})
|
|
|
697 (* (floor @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor}))
|
|
|
698 @end group
|
|
|
699 @end example
|
|
|
700
|
|
|
701 @noindent
|
|
|
702 always equals @var{dividend}, subject to rounding error if either
|
|
|
703 argument is floating point. For @code{floor}, see @ref{Numeric
|
|
|
704 Conversions}.
|
|
|
705 @end defun
|
|
|
706
|
|
|
707 @node Rounding Operations
|
|
|
708 @section Rounding Operations
|
|
|
709 @cindex rounding without conversion
|
|
|
710
|
|
|
711 The functions @code{ffloor}, @code{fceiling}, @code{fround}, and
|
|
|
712 @code{ftruncate} take a floating point argument and return a floating
|
|
|
713 point result whose value is a nearby integer. @code{ffloor} returns the
|
|
|
714 nearest integer below; @code{fceiling}, the nearest integer above;
|
|
|
715 @code{ftruncate}, the nearest integer in the direction towards zero;
|
|
|
716 @code{fround}, the nearest integer.
|
|
|
717
|
|
|
718 @defun ffloor float
|
|
|
719 This function rounds @var{float} to the next lower integral value, and
|
|
|
720 returns that value as a floating point number.
|
|
|
721 @end defun
|
|
|
722
|
|
|
723 @defun fceiling float
|
|
|
724 This function rounds @var{float} to the next higher integral value, and
|
|
|
725 returns that value as a floating point number.
|
|
|
726 @end defun
|
|
|
727
|
|
|
728 @defun ftruncate float
|
|
|
729 This function rounds @var{float} towards zero to an integral value, and
|
|
|
730 returns that value as a floating point number.
|
|
|
731 @end defun
|
|
|
732
|
|
|
733 @defun fround float
|
|
|
734 This function rounds @var{float} to the nearest integral value,
|
|
|
735 and returns that value as a floating point number.
|
|
|
736 @end defun
|
|
|
737
|
|
|
738 @node Bitwise Operations
|
|
|
739 @section Bitwise Operations on Integers
|
|
|
740 @cindex bitwise arithmetic
|
|
|
741 @cindex logical arithmetic
|
|
|
742
|
|
|
743 In a computer, an integer is represented as a binary number, a
|
|
|
744 sequence of @dfn{bits} (digits which are either zero or one). A bitwise
|
|
|
745 operation acts on the individual bits of such a sequence. For example,
|
|
|
746 @dfn{shifting} moves the whole sequence left or right one or more places,
|
|
|
747 reproducing the same pattern ``moved over.''
|
|
|
748
|
|
|
749 The bitwise operations in Emacs Lisp apply only to integers.
|
|
|
750
|
|
|
751 @defun lsh integer1 count
|
|
|
752 @cindex logical shift
|
|
|
753 @code{lsh}, which is an abbreviation for @dfn{logical shift}, shifts the
|
|
|
754 bits in @var{integer1} to the left @var{count} places, or to the right
|
|
|
755 if @var{count} is negative, bringing zeros into the vacated bits. If
|
|
|
756 @var{count} is negative, @code{lsh} shifts zeros into the leftmost
|
|
|
757 (most-significant) bit, producing a positive result even if
|
|
|
758 @var{integer1} is negative. Contrast this with @code{ash}, below.
|
|
|
759
|
|
|
760 Here are two examples of @code{lsh}, shifting a pattern of bits one
|
|
|
761 place to the left. We show only the low-order eight bits of the binary
|
|
|
762 pattern; the rest are all zero.
|
|
|
763
|
|
|
764 @example
|
|
|
765 @group
|
|
|
766 (lsh 5 1)
|
|
|
767 @result{} 10
|
|
|
768 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 10.}
|
|
|
769 00000101 @result{} 00001010
|
|
|
770
|
|
|
771 (lsh 7 1)
|
|
|
772 @result{} 14
|
|
|
773 ;; @r{Decimal 7 becomes decimal 14.}
|
|
|
774 00000111 @result{} 00001110
|
|
|
775 @end group
|
|
|
776 @end example
|
|
|
777
|
|
|
778 @noindent
|
|
|
779 As the examples illustrate, shifting the pattern of bits one place to
|
|
|
780 the left produces a number that is twice the value of the previous
|
|
|
781 number.
|
|
|
782
|
|
|
783 Shifting a pattern of bits two places to the left produces results
|
|
|
784 like this (with 8-bit binary numbers):
|
|
|
785
|
|
|
786 @example
|
|
|
787 @group
|
|
|
788 (lsh 3 2)
|
|
|
789 @result{} 12
|
|
|
790 ;; @r{Decimal 3 becomes decimal 12.}
|
|
|
791 00000011 @result{} 00001100
|
|
|
792 @end group
|
|
|
793 @end example
|
|
|
794
|
|
|
795 On the other hand, shifting one place to the right looks like this:
|
|
|
796
|
|
|
797 @example
|
|
|
798 @group
|
|
|
799 (lsh 6 -1)
|
|
|
800 @result{} 3
|
|
|
801 ;; @r{Decimal 6 becomes decimal 3.}
|
|
|
802 00000110 @result{} 00000011
|
|
|
803 @end group
|
|
|
804
|
|
|
805 @group
|
|
|
806 (lsh 5 -1)
|
|
|
807 @result{} 2
|
|
|
808 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 2.}
|
|
|
809 00000101 @result{} 00000010
|
|
|
810 @end group
|
|
|
811 @end example
|
|
|
812
|
|
|
813 @noindent
|
|
|
814 As the example illustrates, shifting one place to the right divides the
|
|
|
815 value of a positive integer by two, rounding downward.
|
|
|
816
|
|
|
817 The function @code{lsh}, like all Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions, does
|
|
|
818 not check for overflow, so shifting left can discard significant bits
|
|
|
819 and change the sign of the number. For example, left shifting
|
|
|
820 268,435,455 produces @minus{}2 on a 29-bit machine:
|
|
|
821
|
|
|
822 @example
|
|
|
823 (lsh 268435455 1) ; @r{left shift}
|
|
|
824 @result{} -2
|
|
|
825 @end example
|
|
|
826
|
|
|
827 In binary, in the 29-bit implementation, the argument looks like this:
|
|
|
828
|
|
|
829 @example
|
|
|
830 @group
|
|
|
831 ;; @r{Decimal 268,435,455}
|
|
|
832 0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
|
|
|
833 @end group
|
|
|
834 @end example
|
|
|
835
|
|
|
836 @noindent
|
|
|
837 which becomes the following when left shifted:
|
|
|
838
|
|
|
839 @example
|
|
|
840 @group
|
|
|
841 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}2}
|
|
|
842 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110
|
|
|
843 @end group
|
|
|
844 @end example
|
|
|
845 @end defun
|
|
|
846
|
|
|
847 @defun ash integer1 count
|
|
|
848 @cindex arithmetic shift
|
|
|
849 @code{ash} (@dfn{arithmetic shift}) shifts the bits in @var{integer1}
|
|
|
850 to the left @var{count} places, or to the right if @var{count}
|
|
|
851 is negative.
|
|
|
852
|
|
|
853 @code{ash} gives the same results as @code{lsh} except when
|
|
|
854 @var{integer1} and @var{count} are both negative. In that case,
|
|
|
855 @code{ash} puts ones in the empty bit positions on the left, while
|
|
|
856 @code{lsh} puts zeros in those bit positions.
|
|
|
857
|
|
|
858 Thus, with @code{ash}, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right
|
|
|
859 looks like this:
|
|
|
860
|
|
|
861 @example
|
|
|
862 @group
|
|
|
863 (ash -6 -1) @result{} -3
|
|
|
864 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal @minus{}3.}
|
|
|
865 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010
|
|
|
866 @result{}
|
|
|
867 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101
|
|
|
868 @end group
|
|
|
869 @end example
|
|
|
870
|
|
|
871 In contrast, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right with
|
|
|
872 @code{lsh} looks like this:
|
|
|
873
|
|
|
874 @example
|
|
|
875 @group
|
|
|
876 (lsh -6 -1) @result{} 268435453
|
|
|
877 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal 268,435,453.}
|
|
|
878 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010
|
|
|
879 @result{}
|
|
|
880 0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101
|
|
|
881 @end group
|
|
|
882 @end example
|
|
|
883
|
|
|
884 Here are other examples:
|
|
|
885
|
|
|
886 @c !!! Check if lined up in smallbook format! XDVI shows problem
|
|
|
887 @c with smallbook but not with regular book! --rjc 16mar92
|
|
|
888 @smallexample
|
|
|
889 @group
|
|
|
890 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values}
|
|
|
891
|
|
|
892 (lsh 5 2) ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
|
|
|
893 @result{} 20 ; = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001 0100}
|
|
|
894 @end group
|
|
|
895 @group
|
|
|
896 (ash 5 2)
|
|
|
897 @result{} 20
|
|
|
898 (lsh -5 2) ; -5 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011}
|
|
|
899 @result{} -20 ; = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 1100}
|
|
|
900 (ash -5 2)
|
|
|
901 @result{} -20
|
|
|
902 @end group
|
|
|
903 @group
|
|
|
904 (lsh 5 -2) ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
|
|
|
905 @result{} 1 ; = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001}
|
|
|
906 @end group
|
|
|
907 @group
|
|
|
908 (ash 5 -2)
|
|
|
909 @result{} 1
|
|
|
910 @end group
|
|
|
911 @group
|
|
|
912 (lsh -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011}
|
|
|
913 @result{} 134217726 ; = @r{0 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110}
|
|
|
914 @end group
|
|
|
915 @group
|
|
|
916 (ash -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011}
|
|
|
917 @result{} -2 ; = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110}
|
|
|
918 @end group
|
|
|
919 @end smallexample
|
|
|
920 @end defun
|
|
|
921
|
|
|
922 @defun logand &rest ints-or-markers
|
|
|
923 This function returns the ``logical and'' of the arguments: the
|
|
|
924 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is
|
|
|
925 set in all the arguments. (``Set'' means that the value of the bit is 1
|
|
|
926 rather than 0.)
|
|
|
927
|
|
|
928 For example, using 4-bit binary numbers, the ``logical and'' of 13 and
|
|
|
929 12 is 12: 1101 combined with 1100 produces 1100.
|
|
|
930 In both the binary numbers, the leftmost two bits are set (i.e., they
|
|
|
931 are 1's), so the leftmost two bits of the returned value are set.
|
|
|
932 However, for the rightmost two bits, each is zero in at least one of
|
|
|
933 the arguments, so the rightmost two bits of the returned value are 0's.
|
|
|
934
|
|
|
935 @noindent
|
|
|
936 Therefore,
|
|
|
937
|
|
|
938 @example
|
|
|
939 @group
|
|
|
940 (logand 13 12)
|
|
|
941 @result{} 12
|
|
|
942 @end group
|
|
|
943 @end example
|
|
|
944
|
|
|
945 If @code{logand} is not passed any argument, it returns a value of
|
|
|
946 @minus{}1. This number is an identity element for @code{logand}
|
|
|
947 because its binary representation consists entirely of ones. If
|
|
|
948 @code{logand} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument.
|
|
|
949
|
|
|
950 @smallexample
|
|
|
951 @group
|
|
|
952 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values}
|
|
|
953
|
|
|
954 (logand 14 13) ; 14 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110}
|
|
|
955 ; 13 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101}
|
|
|
956 @result{} 12 ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
|
|
|
957 @end group
|
|
|
958
|
|
|
959 @group
|
|
|
960 (logand 14 13 4) ; 14 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110}
|
|
|
961 ; 13 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101}
|
|
|
962 ; 4 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100}
|
|
|
963 @result{} 4 ; 4 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100}
|
|
|
964 @end group
|
|
|
965
|
|
|
966 @group
|
|
|
967 (logand)
|
|
|
968 @result{} -1 ; -1 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111}
|
|
|
969 @end group
|
|
|
970 @end smallexample
|
|
|
971 @end defun
|
|
|
972
|
|
|
973 @defun logior &rest ints-or-markers
|
|
|
974 This function returns the ``inclusive or'' of its arguments: the @var{n}th bit
|
|
|
975 is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is set in at least
|
|
|
976 one of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the result is zero,
|
|
|
977 which is an identity element for this operation. If @code{logior} is
|
|
|
978 passed just one argument, it returns that argument.
|
|
|
979
|
|
|
980 @smallexample
|
|
|
981 @group
|
|
|
982 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values}
|
|
|
983
|
|
|
984 (logior 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
|
|
|
985 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
|
|
|
986 @result{} 13 ; 13 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101}
|
|
|
987 @end group
|
|
|
988
|
|
|
989 @group
|
|
|
990 (logior 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
|
|
|
991 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
|
|
|
992 ; 7 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111}
|
|
|
993 @result{} 15 ; 15 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111}
|
|
|
994 @end group
|
|
|
995 @end smallexample
|
|
|
996 @end defun
|
|
|
997
|
|
|
998 @defun logxor &rest ints-or-markers
|
|
|
999 This function returns the ``exclusive or'' of its arguments: the
|
|
|
1000 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is
|
|
|
1001 set in an odd number of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the
|
|
|
1002 result is 0, which is an identity element for this operation. If
|
|
|
1003 @code{logxor} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument.
|
|
|
1004
|
|
|
1005 @smallexample
|
|
|
1006 @group
|
|
|
1007 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values}
|
|
|
1008
|
|
|
1009 (logxor 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
|
|
|
1010 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
|
|
|
1011 @result{} 9 ; 9 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1001}
|
|
|
1012 @end group
|
|
|
1013
|
|
|
1014 @group
|
|
|
1015 (logxor 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
|
|
|
1016 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
|
|
|
1017 ; 7 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111}
|
|
|
1018 @result{} 14 ; 14 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110}
|
|
|
1019 @end group
|
|
|
1020 @end smallexample
|
|
|
1021 @end defun
|
|
|
1022
|
|
|
1023 @defun lognot integer
|
|
|
1024 This function returns the logical complement of its argument: the @var{n}th
|
|
|
1025 bit is one in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is zero in
|
|
|
1026 @var{integer}, and vice-versa.
|
|
|
1027
|
|
|
1028 @example
|
|
|
1029 (lognot 5)
|
|
|
1030 @result{} -6
|
|
|
1031 ;; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
|
|
|
1032 ;; @r{becomes}
|
|
|
1033 ;; -6 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010}
|
|
|
1034 @end example
|
|
|
1035 @end defun
|
|
|
1036
|
|
|
1037 @node Math Functions
|
|
|
1038 @section Standard Mathematical Functions
|
|
|
1039 @cindex transcendental functions
|
|
|
1040 @cindex mathematical functions
|
|
|
1041 @cindex floating-point functions
|
|
|
1042
|
|
|
1043 These mathematical functions allow integers as well as floating point
|
|
|
1044 numbers as arguments.
|
|
|
1045
|
|
|
1046 @defun sin arg
|
|
|
1047 @defunx cos arg
|
|
|
1048 @defunx tan arg
|
|
|
1049 These are the ordinary trigonometric functions, with argument measured
|
|
|
1050 in radians.
|
|
|
1051 @end defun
|
|
|
1052
|
|
|
1053 @defun asin arg
|
|
|
1054 The value of @code{(asin @var{arg})} is a number between
|
|
|
1055 @ifnottex
|
|
|
1056 @minus{}pi/2
|
|
|
1057 @end ifnottex
|
|
|
1058 @tex
|
|
|
1059 @math{-\pi/2}
|
|
|
1060 @end tex
|
|
|
1061 and
|
|
|
1062 @ifnottex
|
|
|
1063 pi/2
|
|
|
1064 @end ifnottex
|
|
|
1065 @tex
|
|
|
1066 @math{\pi/2}
|
|
|
1067 @end tex
|
|
|
1068 (inclusive) whose sine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} is out of
|
|
|
1069 range (outside [@minus{}1, 1]), it signals a @code{domain-error} error.
|
|
|
1070 @end defun
|
|
|
1071
|
|
|
1072 @defun acos arg
|
|
|
1073 The value of @code{(acos @var{arg})} is a number between 0 and
|
|
|
1074 @ifnottex
|
|
|
1075 pi
|
|
|
1076 @end ifnottex
|
|
|
1077 @tex
|
|
|
1078 @math{\pi}
|
|
|
1079 @end tex
|
|
|
1080 (inclusive) whose cosine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} is out
|
|
|
1081 of range (outside [@minus{}1, 1]), it signals a @code{domain-error} error.
|
|
|
1082 @end defun
|
|
|
1083
|
|
|
1084 @defun atan y &optional x
|
|
|
1085 The value of @code{(atan @var{y})} is a number between
|
|
|
1086 @ifnottex
|
|
|
1087 @minus{}pi/2
|
|
|
1088 @end ifnottex
|
|
|
1089 @tex
|
|
|
1090 @math{-\pi/2}
|
|
|
1091 @end tex
|
|
|
1092 and
|
|
|
1093 @ifnottex
|
|
|
1094 pi/2
|
|
|
1095 @end ifnottex
|
|
|
1096 @tex
|
|
|
1097 @math{\pi/2}
|
|
|
1098 @end tex
|
|
|
1099 (exclusive) whose tangent is @var{y}. If the optional second
|
|
|
1100 argument @var{x} is given, the value of @code{(atan y x)} is the
|
|
|
1101 angle in radians between the vector @code{[@var{x}, @var{y}]} and the
|
|
|
1102 @code{X} axis.
|
|
|
1103 @end defun
|
|
|
1104
|
|
|
1105 @defun exp arg
|
|
|
1106 This is the exponential function; it returns
|
|
|
1107 @tex
|
|
|
1108 @math{e}
|
|
|
1109 @end tex
|
|
|
1110 @ifnottex
|
|
|
1111 @i{e}
|
|
|
1112 @end ifnottex
|
|
|
1113 to the power @var{arg}.
|
|
|
1114 @tex
|
|
|
1115 @math{e}
|
|
|
1116 @end tex
|
|
|
1117 @ifnottex
|
|
|
1118 @i{e}
|
|
|
1119 @end ifnottex
|
|
|
1120 is a fundamental mathematical constant also called the base of natural
|
|
|
1121 logarithms.
|
|
|
1122 @end defun
|
|
|
1123
|
|
|
1124 @defun log arg &optional base
|
|
|
1125 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base @var{base}.
|
|
|
1126 If you don't specify @var{base}, the base
|
|
|
1127 @tex
|
|
|
1128 @math{e}
|
|
|
1129 @end tex
|
|
|
1130 @ifnottex
|
|
|
1131 @i{e}
|
|
|
1132 @end ifnottex
|
|
|
1133 is used. If @var{arg} is negative, it signals a @code{domain-error}
|
|
|
1134 error.
|
|
|
1135 @end defun
|
|
|
1136
|
|
|
1137 @ignore
|
|
|
1138 @defun expm1 arg
|
|
|
1139 This function returns @code{(1- (exp @var{arg}))}, but it is more
|
|
|
1140 accurate than that when @var{arg} is negative and @code{(exp @var{arg})}
|
|
|
1141 is close to 1.
|
|
|
1142 @end defun
|
|
|
1143
|
|
|
1144 @defun log1p arg
|
|
|
1145 This function returns @code{(log (1+ @var{arg}))}, but it is more
|
|
|
1146 accurate than that when @var{arg} is so small that adding 1 to it would
|
|
|
1147 lose accuracy.
|
|
|
1148 @end defun
|
|
|
1149 @end ignore
|
|
|
1150
|
|
|
1151 @defun log10 arg
|
|
|
1152 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base 10. If
|
|
|
1153 @var{arg} is negative, it signals a @code{domain-error} error.
|
|
|
1154 @code{(log10 @var{x})} @equiv{} @code{(log @var{x} 10)}, at least
|
|
|
1155 approximately.
|
|
|
1156 @end defun
|
|
|
1157
|
|
|
1158 @defun expt x y
|
|
|
1159 This function returns @var{x} raised to power @var{y}. If both
|
|
|
1160 arguments are integers and @var{y} is positive, the result is an
|
|
|
1161 integer; in this case, overflow causes truncation, so watch out.
|
|
|
1162 @end defun
|
|
|
1163
|
|
|
1164 @defun sqrt arg
|
|
|
1165 This returns the square root of @var{arg}. If @var{arg} is negative,
|
|
|
1166 it signals a @code{domain-error} error.
|
|
|
1167 @end defun
|
|
|
1168
|
|
|
1169 @node Random Numbers
|
|
|
1170 @section Random Numbers
|
|
|
1171 @cindex random numbers
|
|
|
1172
|
|
|
1173 A deterministic computer program cannot generate true random numbers.
|
|
|
1174 For most purposes, @dfn{pseudo-random numbers} suffice. A series of
|
|
|
1175 pseudo-random numbers is generated in a deterministic fashion. The
|
|
|
1176 numbers are not truly random, but they have certain properties that
|
|
|
1177 mimic a random series. For example, all possible values occur equally
|
|
|
1178 often in a pseudo-random series.
|
|
|
1179
|
|
|
1180 In Emacs, pseudo-random numbers are generated from a ``seed'' number.
|
|
|
1181 Starting from any given seed, the @code{random} function always
|
|
|
1182 generates the same sequence of numbers. Emacs always starts with the
|
|
|
1183 same seed value, so the sequence of values of @code{random} is actually
|
|
|
1184 the same in each Emacs run! For example, in one operating system, the
|
|
|
1185 first call to @code{(random)} after you start Emacs always returns
|
|
|
1186 @minus{}1457731, and the second one always returns @minus{}7692030. This
|
|
|
1187 repeatability is helpful for debugging.
|
|
|
1188
|
|
|
1189 If you want random numbers that don't always come out the same, execute
|
|
|
1190 @code{(random t)}. This chooses a new seed based on the current time of
|
|
|
1191 day and on Emacs's process @acronym{ID} number.
|
|
|
1192
|
|
|
1193 @defun random &optional limit
|
|
|
1194 This function returns a pseudo-random integer. Repeated calls return a
|
|
|
1195 series of pseudo-random integers.
|
|
|
1196
|
|
|
1197 If @var{limit} is a positive integer, the value is chosen to be
|
|
|
1198 nonnegative and less than @var{limit}.
|
|
|
1199
|
|
|
1200 If @var{limit} is @code{t}, it means to choose a new seed based on the
|
|
|
1201 current time of day and on Emacs's process @acronym{ID} number.
|
|
|
1202 @c "Emacs'" is incorrect usage!
|
|
|
1203
|
|
|
1204 On some machines, any integer representable in Lisp may be the result
|
|
|
1205 of @code{random}. On other machines, the result can never be larger
|
|
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1206 than a certain maximum or less than a certain (negative) minimum.
|
|
|
1207 @end defun
|
|
|
1208
|
|
|
1209 @ignore
|
|
|
1210 arch-tag: 574e8dd2-d513-4616-9844-c9a27869782e
|
|
|
1211 @end ignore
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