Mercurial > emacs
annotate lispref/lists.texi @ 55879:7fd80a9c338d
(Fcondition_case): Fix usage. Simplify.
author | Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca> |
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date | Tue, 01 Jun 2004 23:21:55 +0000 |
parents | 1874eee23678 |
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rev | line source |
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6558 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
27189 | 3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999 |
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4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6558 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/lists | |
7 @node Lists, Sequences Arrays Vectors, Strings and Characters, Top | |
8 @chapter Lists | |
9 @cindex list | |
10 @cindex element (of list) | |
11 | |
12 A @dfn{list} represents a sequence of zero or more elements (which may | |
13 be any Lisp objects). The important difference between lists and | |
14 vectors is that two or more lists can share part of their structure; in | |
15 addition, you can insert or delete elements in a list without copying | |
16 the whole list. | |
17 | |
18 @menu | |
19 * Cons Cells:: How lists are made out of cons cells. | |
20 * Lists as Boxes:: Graphical notation to explain lists. | |
21 * List-related Predicates:: Is this object a list? Comparing two lists. | |
22 * List Elements:: Extracting the pieces of a list. | |
23 * Building Lists:: Creating list structure. | |
24 * Modifying Lists:: Storing new pieces into an existing list. | |
25 * Sets And Lists:: A list can represent a finite mathematical set. | |
26 * Association Lists:: A list can represent a finite relation or mapping. | |
27 @end menu | |
28 | |
29 @node Cons Cells | |
30 @section Lists and Cons Cells | |
31 @cindex lists and cons cells | |
32 @cindex @code{nil} and lists | |
33 | |
34 Lists in Lisp are not a primitive data type; they are built up from | |
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35 @dfn{cons cells}. A cons cell is a data object that represents an |
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36 ordered pair. That is, it has two slots, and each slot @dfn{holds}, or |
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37 @dfn{refers to}, some Lisp object. One slot is known as the @sc{car}, |
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38 and the other is known as the @sc{cdr}. (These names are traditional; |
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39 see @ref{Cons Cell Type}.) @sc{cdr} is pronounced ``could-er.'' |
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40 |
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41 We say that ``the @sc{car} of this cons cell is'' whatever object |
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42 its @sc{car} slot currently holds, and likewise for the @sc{cdr}. |
6558 | 43 |
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44 A list is a series of cons cells ``chained together,'' so that each |
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45 cell refers to the next one. There is one cons cell for each element of |
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46 the list. By convention, the @sc{car}s of the cons cells hold the |
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47 elements of the list, and the @sc{cdr}s are used to chain the list: the |
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48 @sc{cdr} slot of each cons cell refers to the following cons cell. The |
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49 @sc{cdr} of the last cons cell is @code{nil}. This asymmetry between |
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50 the @sc{car} and the @sc{cdr} is entirely a matter of convention; at the |
6558 | 51 level of cons cells, the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} slots have the same |
52 characteristics. | |
53 | |
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54 @cindex true list |
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55 Since @code{nil} is the conventional value to put in the @sc{cdr} of |
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56 the last cons cell in the list, we call that case a @dfn{true list}. |
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57 |
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58 In Lisp, we consider the symbol @code{nil} a list as well as a |
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59 symbol; it is the list with no elements. For convenience, the symbol |
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60 @code{nil} is considered to have @code{nil} as its @sc{cdr} (and also |
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61 as its @sc{car}). Therefore, the @sc{cdr} of a true list is always a |
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62 true list. |
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63 |
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64 @cindex dotted list |
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65 @cindex circular list |
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66 If the @sc{cdr} of a list's last cons cell is some other value, |
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67 neither @code{nil} nor another cons cell, we call the structure a |
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68 @dfn{dotted list}, since its printed representation would use |
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69 @samp{.}. There is one other possibility: some cons cell's @sc{cdr} |
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70 could point to one of the previous cons cells in the list. We call |
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71 that structure a @dfn{circular list}. |
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72 |
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73 For some purposes, it does not matter whether a list is true, |
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74 circular or dotted. If the program doesn't look far enough down the |
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75 list to see the @sc{cdr} of the final cons cell, it won't care. |
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76 However, some functions that operate on lists demand true lists and |
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77 signal errors if given a dotted list. Most functions that try to find |
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78 the end of a list enter infinite loops if given a circular list. |
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79 |
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80 @cindex list structure |
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81 Because most cons cells are used as part of lists, the phrase |
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82 @dfn{list structure} has come to mean any structure made out of cons |
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83 cells. |
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84 |
6558 | 85 The @sc{cdr} of any nonempty list @var{l} is a list containing all the |
86 elements of @var{l} except the first. | |
87 | |
88 @node Lists as Boxes | |
89 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
90 @section Lists as Linked Pairs of Boxes | |
91 @cindex box representation for lists | |
92 @cindex lists represented as boxes | |
93 @cindex cons cell as box | |
94 | |
95 A cons cell can be illustrated as a pair of boxes. The first box | |
96 represents the @sc{car} and the second box represents the @sc{cdr}. | |
97 Here is an illustration of the two-element list, @code{(tulip lily)}, | |
98 made from two cons cells: | |
99 | |
100 @example | |
101 @group | |
102 --------------- --------------- | |
103 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
104 | tulip | o---------->| lily | nil | | |
105 | | | | | | | |
106 --------------- --------------- | |
107 @end group | |
108 @end example | |
109 | |
110 Each pair of boxes represents a cons cell. Each box ``refers to'', | |
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111 ``points to'' or ``holds'' a Lisp object. (These terms are |
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112 synonymous.) The first box, which describes the @sc{car} of the first |
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113 cons cell, contains the symbol @code{tulip}. The arrow from the |
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114 @sc{cdr} box of the first cons cell to the second cons cell indicates |
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115 that the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell is the second cons cell. |
6558 | 116 |
117 The same list can be illustrated in a different sort of box notation | |
118 like this: | |
119 | |
120 @example | |
121 @group | |
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122 --- --- --- --- |
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123 | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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124 --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 125 | | |
126 | | | |
127 --> tulip --> lily | |
128 @end group | |
129 @end example | |
130 | |
131 Here is a more complex illustration, showing the three-element list, | |
132 @code{((pine needles) oak maple)}, the first element of which is a | |
133 two-element list: | |
134 | |
135 @example | |
136 @group | |
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137 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
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138 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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139 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 140 | | | |
141 | | | | |
142 | --> oak --> maple | |
143 | | |
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144 | --- --- --- --- |
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145 --> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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146 --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 147 | | |
148 | | | |
149 --> pine --> needles | |
150 @end group | |
151 @end example | |
152 | |
153 The same list represented in the first box notation looks like this: | |
154 | |
155 @example | |
156 @group | |
157 -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
158 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
159 | o | o------->| oak | o------->| maple | nil | | |
160 | | | | | | | | | | | |
161 -- | --------- -------------- -------------- | |
162 | | |
163 | | |
164 | -------------- ---------------- | |
165 | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
166 ------>| pine | o------->| needles | nil | | |
167 | | | | | | | |
168 -------------- ---------------- | |
169 @end group | |
170 @end example | |
171 | |
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172 @xref{Cons Cell Type}, for the read and print syntax of cons cells and |
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173 lists, and for more ``box and arrow'' illustrations of lists. |
6558 | 174 |
175 @node List-related Predicates | |
176 @section Predicates on Lists | |
177 | |
178 The following predicates test whether a Lisp object is an atom, is a | |
179 cons cell or is a list, or whether it is the distinguished object | |
180 @code{nil}. (Many of these predicates can be defined in terms of the | |
181 others, but they are used so often that it is worth having all of them.) | |
182 | |
183 @defun consp object | |
184 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} | |
185 otherwise. @code{nil} is not a cons cell, although it @emph{is} a list. | |
186 @end defun | |
187 | |
188 @defun atom object | |
189 @cindex atoms | |
190 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is an atom, @code{nil} | |
191 otherwise. All objects except cons cells are atoms. The symbol | |
192 @code{nil} is an atom and is also a list; it is the only Lisp object | |
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193 that is both. |
6558 | 194 |
195 @example | |
196 (atom @var{object}) @equiv{} (not (consp @var{object})) | |
197 @end example | |
198 @end defun | |
199 | |
200 @defun listp object | |
201 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a cons cell or | |
202 @code{nil}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
203 | |
204 @example | |
205 @group | |
206 (listp '(1)) | |
207 @result{} t | |
208 @end group | |
209 @group | |
210 (listp '()) | |
211 @result{} t | |
212 @end group | |
213 @end example | |
214 @end defun | |
215 | |
216 @defun nlistp object | |
217 This function is the opposite of @code{listp}: it returns @code{t} if | |
218 @var{object} is not a list. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
219 | |
220 @example | |
221 (listp @var{object}) @equiv{} (not (nlistp @var{object})) | |
222 @end example | |
223 @end defun | |
224 | |
225 @defun null object | |
226 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is @code{nil}, and | |
227 returns @code{nil} otherwise. This function is identical to @code{not}, | |
228 but as a matter of clarity we use @code{null} when @var{object} is | |
229 considered a list and @code{not} when it is considered a truth value | |
230 (see @code{not} in @ref{Combining Conditions}). | |
231 | |
232 @example | |
233 @group | |
234 (null '(1)) | |
235 @result{} nil | |
236 @end group | |
237 @group | |
238 (null '()) | |
239 @result{} t | |
240 @end group | |
241 @end example | |
242 @end defun | |
243 | |
7734 | 244 @need 2000 |
6558 | 245 |
246 @node List Elements | |
247 @section Accessing Elements of Lists | |
248 @cindex list elements | |
249 | |
250 @defun car cons-cell | |
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251 This function returns the value referred to by the first slot of the |
6558 | 252 cons cell @var{cons-cell}. Expressed another way, this function |
253 returns the @sc{car} of @var{cons-cell}. | |
254 | |
255 As a special case, if @var{cons-cell} is @code{nil}, then @code{car} | |
256 is defined to return @code{nil}; therefore, any list is a valid argument | |
257 for @code{car}. An error is signaled if the argument is not a cons cell | |
258 or @code{nil}. | |
259 | |
260 @example | |
261 @group | |
262 (car '(a b c)) | |
263 @result{} a | |
264 @end group | |
265 @group | |
266 (car '()) | |
267 @result{} nil | |
268 @end group | |
269 @end example | |
270 @end defun | |
271 | |
272 @defun cdr cons-cell | |
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273 This function returns the value referred to by the second slot of |
6558 | 274 the cons cell @var{cons-cell}. Expressed another way, this function |
275 returns the @sc{cdr} of @var{cons-cell}. | |
276 | |
277 As a special case, if @var{cons-cell} is @code{nil}, then @code{cdr} | |
278 is defined to return @code{nil}; therefore, any list is a valid argument | |
279 for @code{cdr}. An error is signaled if the argument is not a cons cell | |
280 or @code{nil}. | |
281 | |
282 @example | |
283 @group | |
284 (cdr '(a b c)) | |
285 @result{} (b c) | |
286 @end group | |
287 @group | |
288 (cdr '()) | |
289 @result{} nil | |
290 @end group | |
291 @end example | |
292 @end defun | |
293 | |
294 @defun car-safe object | |
295 This function lets you take the @sc{car} of a cons cell while avoiding | |
296 errors for other data types. It returns the @sc{car} of @var{object} if | |
297 @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} otherwise. This is in contrast | |
298 to @code{car}, which signals an error if @var{object} is not a list. | |
299 | |
300 @example | |
301 @group | |
302 (car-safe @var{object}) | |
303 @equiv{} | |
304 (let ((x @var{object})) | |
305 (if (consp x) | |
306 (car x) | |
307 nil)) | |
308 @end group | |
309 @end example | |
310 @end defun | |
311 | |
312 @defun cdr-safe object | |
313 This function lets you take the @sc{cdr} of a cons cell while | |
314 avoiding errors for other data types. It returns the @sc{cdr} of | |
315 @var{object} if @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
316 This is in contrast to @code{cdr}, which signals an error if | |
317 @var{object} is not a list. | |
318 | |
319 @example | |
320 @group | |
321 (cdr-safe @var{object}) | |
322 @equiv{} | |
323 (let ((x @var{object})) | |
324 (if (consp x) | |
325 (cdr x) | |
326 nil)) | |
327 @end group | |
328 @end example | |
329 @end defun | |
330 | |
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331 @tindex pop |
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332 @defmac pop listname |
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333 This macro is a way of examining the @sc{car} of a list, |
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334 and taking it off the list, all at once. It is new in Emacs 21. |
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335 |
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336 It operates on the list which is stored in the symbol @var{listname}. |
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337 It removes this element from the list by setting @var{listname} |
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338 to the @sc{cdr} of its old value---but it also returns the @sc{car} |
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339 of that list, which is the element being removed. |
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340 |
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341 @example |
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342 x |
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343 @result{} (a b c) |
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344 (pop x) |
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345 @result{} a |
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346 x |
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347 @result{} (b c) |
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348 @end example |
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349 @end defmac |
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350 |
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351 @anchor{Definition of nth} |
6558 | 352 @defun nth n list |
353 This function returns the @var{n}th element of @var{list}. Elements | |
354 are numbered starting with zero, so the @sc{car} of @var{list} is | |
355 element number zero. If the length of @var{list} is @var{n} or less, | |
356 the value is @code{nil}. | |
357 | |
358 If @var{n} is negative, @code{nth} returns the first element of | |
359 @var{list}. | |
360 | |
361 @example | |
362 @group | |
363 (nth 2 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
364 @result{} 3 | |
365 @end group | |
366 @group | |
367 (nth 10 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
368 @result{} nil | |
369 @end group | |
370 @group | |
371 (nth -3 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
372 @result{} 1 | |
373 | |
374 (nth n x) @equiv{} (car (nthcdr n x)) | |
375 @end group | |
376 @end example | |
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377 |
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378 The function @code{elt} is similar, but applies to any kind of sequence. |
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379 For historical reasons, it takes its arguments in the opposite order. |
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380 @xref{Sequence Functions}. |
6558 | 381 @end defun |
382 | |
383 @defun nthcdr n list | |
384 This function returns the @var{n}th @sc{cdr} of @var{list}. In other | |
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385 words, it skips past the first @var{n} links of @var{list} and returns |
6558 | 386 what follows. |
387 | |
388 If @var{n} is zero or negative, @code{nthcdr} returns all of | |
389 @var{list}. If the length of @var{list} is @var{n} or less, | |
390 @code{nthcdr} returns @code{nil}. | |
391 | |
392 @example | |
393 @group | |
394 (nthcdr 1 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
395 @result{} (2 3 4) | |
396 @end group | |
397 @group | |
398 (nthcdr 10 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
399 @result{} nil | |
400 @end group | |
401 @group | |
402 (nthcdr -3 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
403 @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
404 @end group | |
405 @end example | |
406 @end defun | |
407 | |
31131 | 408 @defun last list &optional n |
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409 This function returns the last link of @var{list}. The @code{car} of |
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410 this link is the list's last element. If @var{list} is null, |
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411 @code{nil} is returned. If @var{n} is non-@code{nil}, the |
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412 @var{n}th-to-last link is returned instead, or the whole of @var{list} |
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413 if @var{n} is bigger than @var{list}'s length. |
31131 | 414 @end defun |
415 | |
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416 @anchor{Definition of safe-length} |
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417 @defun safe-length list |
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418 This function returns the length of @var{list}, with no risk of either |
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419 an error or an infinite loop. It generally returns the number of |
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420 distinct cons cells in the list. However, for circular lists, |
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421 the value is just an upper bound; it is often too large. |
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422 |
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423 If @var{list} is not @code{nil} or a cons cell, @code{safe-length} |
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424 returns 0. |
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425 @end defun |
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426 |
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427 The most common way to compute the length of a list, when you are not |
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428 worried that it may be circular, is with @code{length}. @xref{Sequence |
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429 Functions}. |
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430 |
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431 @defun caar cons-cell |
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432 This is the same as @code{(car (car @var{cons-cell}))}. |
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433 @end defun |
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434 |
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435 @defun cadr cons-cell |
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436 This is the same as @code{(car (cdr @var{cons-cell}))} |
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437 or @code{(nth 1 @var{cons-cell})}. |
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438 @end defun |
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439 |
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440 @defun cdar cons-cell |
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441 This is the same as @code{(cdr (car @var{cons-cell}))}. |
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442 @end defun |
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443 |
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444 @defun cddr cons-cell |
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445 This is the same as @code{(cdr (cdr @var{cons-cell}))} |
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446 or @code{(nthcdr 2 @var{cons-cell})}. |
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447 @end defun |
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448 |
35090 | 449 @defun butlast x &optional n |
450 This function returns the list @var{x} with the last element, | |
451 or the last @var{n} elements, removed. If @var{n} is greater | |
452 than zero it makes a copy of the list so as not to damage the | |
453 original list. In general, @code{(append (butlast @var{x} @var{n}) | |
454 (last @var{x} @var{n}))} will return a list equal to @var{x}. | |
455 @end defun | |
456 | |
457 @defun nbutlast x &optional n | |
458 This is a version of @code{butlast} that works by destructively | |
459 modifying the @code{cdr} of the appropriate element, rather than | |
460 making a copy of the list. | |
461 @end defun | |
462 | |
6558 | 463 @node Building Lists |
464 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
465 @section Building Cons Cells and Lists | |
466 @cindex cons cells | |
467 @cindex building lists | |
468 | |
469 Many functions build lists, as lists reside at the very heart of Lisp. | |
470 @code{cons} is the fundamental list-building function; however, it is | |
471 interesting to note that @code{list} is used more times in the source | |
472 code for Emacs than @code{cons}. | |
473 | |
474 @defun cons object1 object2 | |
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475 This function is the most basic function for building new list |
6558 | 476 structure. It creates a new cons cell, making @var{object1} the |
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477 @sc{car}, and @var{object2} the @sc{cdr}. It then returns the new |
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478 cons cell. The arguments @var{object1} and @var{object2} may be any |
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479 Lisp objects, but most often @var{object2} is a list. |
6558 | 480 |
481 @example | |
482 @group | |
483 (cons 1 '(2)) | |
484 @result{} (1 2) | |
485 @end group | |
486 @group | |
487 (cons 1 '()) | |
488 @result{} (1) | |
489 @end group | |
490 @group | |
491 (cons 1 2) | |
492 @result{} (1 . 2) | |
493 @end group | |
494 @end example | |
495 | |
496 @cindex consing | |
497 @code{cons} is often used to add a single element to the front of a | |
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498 list. This is called @dfn{consing the element onto the list}. |
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499 @footnote{There is no strictly equivalent way to add an element to |
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500 the end of a list. You can use @code{(append @var{listname} (list |
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501 @var{newelt}))}, which creates a whole new list by copying @var{listname} |
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502 and adding @var{newelt} to its end. Or you can use @code{(nconc |
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503 @var{listname} (list @var{newelt}))}, which modifies @var{listname} |
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504 by following all the @sc{cdr}s and then replacing the terminating |
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505 @code{nil}. Compare this to adding an element to the beginning of a |
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506 list with @code{cons}, which neither copies nor modifies the list.} |
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507 For example: |
6558 | 508 |
509 @example | |
510 (setq list (cons newelt list)) | |
511 @end example | |
512 | |
513 Note that there is no conflict between the variable named @code{list} | |
514 used in this example and the function named @code{list} described below; | |
515 any symbol can serve both purposes. | |
516 @end defun | |
517 | |
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518 @tindex push |
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519 @defmac push newelt listname |
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520 This macro provides an alternative way to write |
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521 @code{(setq @var{listname} (cons @var{newelt} @var{listname}))}. |
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522 It is new in Emacs 21. |
38786 | 523 |
524 @example | |
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525 (setq l '(a b)) |
38786 | 526 @result{} (a b) |
527 (push 'c l) | |
528 @result{} (c a b) | |
529 l | |
530 @result{} (c a b) | |
531 @end example | |
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532 @end defmac |
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533 |
6558 | 534 @defun list &rest objects |
535 This function creates a list with @var{objects} as its elements. The | |
536 resulting list is always @code{nil}-terminated. If no @var{objects} | |
537 are given, the empty list is returned. | |
538 | |
539 @example | |
540 @group | |
541 (list 1 2 3 4 5) | |
542 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
543 @end group | |
544 @group | |
545 (list 1 2 '(3 4 5) 'foo) | |
546 @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5) foo) | |
547 @end group | |
548 @group | |
549 (list) | |
550 @result{} nil | |
551 @end group | |
552 @end example | |
553 @end defun | |
554 | |
555 @defun make-list length object | |
38786 | 556 This function creates a list of @var{length} elements, in which each |
557 element is @var{object}. Compare @code{make-list} with | |
558 @code{make-string} (@pxref{Creating Strings}). | |
6558 | 559 |
560 @example | |
561 @group | |
562 (make-list 3 'pigs) | |
563 @result{} (pigs pigs pigs) | |
564 @end group | |
565 @group | |
566 (make-list 0 'pigs) | |
567 @result{} nil | |
568 @end group | |
38786 | 569 @group |
570 (setq l (make-list 3 '(a b)) | |
571 @result{} ((a b) (a b) (a b)) | |
572 (eq (car l) (cadr l)) | |
573 @result{} t | |
574 @end group | |
6558 | 575 @end example |
576 @end defun | |
577 | |
578 @defun append &rest sequences | |
579 @cindex copying lists | |
580 This function returns a list containing all the elements of | |
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581 @var{sequences}. The @var{sequences} may be lists, vectors, |
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582 bool-vectors, or strings, but the last one should usually be a list. |
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583 All arguments except the last one are copied, so none of the arguments |
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584 is altered. (See @code{nconc} in @ref{Rearrangement}, for a way to join |
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585 lists with no copying.) |
6558 | 586 |
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587 More generally, the final argument to @code{append} may be any Lisp |
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588 object. The final argument is not copied or converted; it becomes the |
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589 @sc{cdr} of the last cons cell in the new list. If the final argument |
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590 is itself a list, then its elements become in effect elements of the |
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591 result list. If the final element is not a list, the result is a |
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592 dotted list since its final @sc{cdr} is not @code{nil} as required |
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593 in a true list. |
6558 | 594 |
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595 In Emacs 20 and before, the @code{append} function also allowed |
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596 integers as (non last) arguments. It converted them to strings of |
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597 digits, making up the decimal print representation of the integer, and |
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598 then used the strings instead of the original integers. This obsolete |
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599 usage no longer works. The proper way to convert an integer to a |
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600 decimal number in this way is with @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting |
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601 Strings}) or @code{number-to-string} (@pxref{String Conversion}). |
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602 @end defun |
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603 |
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604 Here is an example of using @code{append}: |
6558 | 605 |
606 @example | |
607 @group | |
608 (setq trees '(pine oak)) | |
609 @result{} (pine oak) | |
610 (setq more-trees (append '(maple birch) trees)) | |
611 @result{} (maple birch pine oak) | |
612 @end group | |
613 | |
614 @group | |
615 trees | |
616 @result{} (pine oak) | |
617 more-trees | |
618 @result{} (maple birch pine oak) | |
619 @end group | |
620 @group | |
621 (eq trees (cdr (cdr more-trees))) | |
622 @result{} t | |
623 @end group | |
624 @end example | |
625 | |
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626 You can see how @code{append} works by looking at a box diagram. The |
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627 variable @code{trees} is set to the list @code{(pine oak)} and then the |
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628 variable @code{more-trees} is set to the list @code{(maple birch pine |
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629 oak)}. However, the variable @code{trees} continues to refer to the |
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630 original list: |
6558 | 631 |
632 @smallexample | |
633 @group | |
634 more-trees trees | |
635 | | | |
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636 | --- --- --- --- -> --- --- --- --- |
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637 --> | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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638 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 639 | | | | |
640 | | | | | |
641 --> maple -->birch --> pine --> oak | |
642 @end group | |
643 @end smallexample | |
644 | |
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645 An empty sequence contributes nothing to the value returned by |
6558 | 646 @code{append}. As a consequence of this, a final @code{nil} argument |
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647 forces a copy of the previous argument: |
6558 | 648 |
649 @example | |
650 @group | |
651 trees | |
652 @result{} (pine oak) | |
653 @end group | |
654 @group | |
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655 (setq wood (append trees nil)) |
6558 | 656 @result{} (pine oak) |
657 @end group | |
658 @group | |
659 wood | |
660 @result{} (pine oak) | |
661 @end group | |
662 @group | |
663 (eq wood trees) | |
664 @result{} nil | |
665 @end group | |
666 @end example | |
667 | |
668 @noindent | |
669 This once was the usual way to copy a list, before the function | |
670 @code{copy-sequence} was invented. @xref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}. | |
671 | |
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672 Here we show the use of vectors and strings as arguments to @code{append}: |
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673 |
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674 @example |
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675 @group |
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676 (append [a b] "cd" nil) |
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677 @result{} (a b 99 100) |
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678 @end group |
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679 @end example |
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680 |
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681 With the help of @code{apply} (@pxref{Calling Functions}), we can append |
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682 all the lists in a list of lists: |
6558 | 683 |
684 @example | |
685 @group | |
686 (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil)) | |
687 @result{} (a b c x y z) | |
688 @end group | |
689 @end example | |
690 | |
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691 If no @var{sequences} are given, @code{nil} is returned: |
6558 | 692 |
693 @example | |
694 @group | |
695 (append) | |
696 @result{} nil | |
697 @end group | |
698 @end example | |
699 | |
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700 Here are some examples where the final argument is not a list: |
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701 |
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702 @example |
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703 (append '(x y) 'z) |
12098 | 704 @result{} (x y . z) |
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705 (append '(x y) [z]) |
12098 | 706 @result{} (x y . [z]) |
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707 @end example |
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708 |
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709 @noindent |
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710 The second example shows that when the final argument is a sequence but |
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711 not a list, the sequence's elements do not become elements of the |
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712 resulting list. Instead, the sequence becomes the final @sc{cdr}, like |
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713 any other non-list final argument. |
6558 | 714 |
715 @defun reverse list | |
716 This function creates a new list whose elements are the elements of | |
717 @var{list}, but in reverse order. The original argument @var{list} is | |
718 @emph{not} altered. | |
719 | |
720 @example | |
721 @group | |
722 (setq x '(1 2 3 4)) | |
723 @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
724 @end group | |
725 @group | |
726 (reverse x) | |
727 @result{} (4 3 2 1) | |
728 x | |
729 @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
730 @end group | |
731 @end example | |
732 @end defun | |
733 | |
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734 @defun copy-tree tree &optional vecp |
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735 This function returns a copy of the tree @code{tree}. If @var{tree} is a |
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736 cons cell, this makes a new cons cell with the same @sc{car} and |
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737 @sc{cdr}, then recursively copies the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} in the |
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738 same way. |
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739 |
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740 Normally, when @var{tree} is anything other than a cons cell, |
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741 @code{copy-tree} simply returns @var{tree}. However, if @var{vecp} is |
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742 non-@code{nil}, it copies vectors too (and operates recursively on |
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743 their elements). |
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744 @end defun |
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745 |
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746 @defun number-sequence from &optional to separation |
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747 This returns a list of numbers starting with @var{from} and |
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748 incrementing by @var{separation}, and ending at or just before |
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749 @var{to}. @var{separation} can be positive or negative and defaults |
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750 to 1. If @var{to} is @code{nil} or numerically equal to @var{from}, |
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751 the one element list @code{(from)} is returned. If @var{separation} |
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752 is 0 and @var{to} is neither @code{nil} nor numerically equal to |
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753 @var{from}, an error is signaled. |
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754 |
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755 All arguments can be integers or floating point numbers. However, |
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756 floating point arguments can be tricky, because floating point |
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757 arithmetic is inexact. For instance, depending on the machine, it may |
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758 quite well happen that @code{(number-sequence 0.4 0.6 0.2)} returns |
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759 the one element list @code{(0.4)}, whereas |
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760 @code{(number-sequence 0.4 0.8 0.2)} returns a list with three |
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761 elements. The @var{n}th element of the list is computed by the exact |
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762 formula @code{(+ @var{from} (* @var{n} @var{separation}))}. Thus, if |
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763 one wants to make sure that @var{to} is included in the list, one can |
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764 pass an expression of this exact type for @var{to}. Alternatively, |
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765 one can replace @var{to} with a slightly larger value (or a slightly |
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766 more negative value if @var{separation} is negative). |
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767 |
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768 Some examples: |
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769 |
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770 @example |
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771 (number-sequence 4 9) |
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772 @result{} (4 5 6 7 8 9) |
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773 (number-sequence 9 4 -1) |
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774 @result{} (9 8 7 6 5 4) |
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775 (number-sequence 9 4 -2) |
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776 @result{} (9 7 5) |
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777 (number-sequence 8) |
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778 @result{} (8) |
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779 (number-sequence 8 5) |
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780 @result{} nil |
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781 (number-sequence 5 8 -1) |
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782 @result{} nil |
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783 (number-sequence 1.5 6 2) |
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784 @result{} (1.5 3.5 5.5) |
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785 @end example |
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786 @end defun |
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787 |
6558 | 788 @node Modifying Lists |
789 @section Modifying Existing List Structure | |
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790 @cindex destructive list operations |
6558 | 791 |
792 You can modify the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} contents of a cons cell with the | |
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793 primitives @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr}. We call these ``destructive'' |
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794 operations because they change existing list structure. |
6558 | 795 |
796 @cindex CL note---@code{rplaca} vrs @code{setcar} | |
797 @quotation | |
798 @findex rplaca | |
799 @findex rplacd | |
800 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp uses functions @code{rplaca} and | |
801 @code{rplacd} to alter list structure; they change structure the same | |
802 way as @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr}, but the Common Lisp functions | |
803 return the cons cell while @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr} return the | |
804 new @sc{car} or @sc{cdr}. | |
805 @end quotation | |
806 | |
807 @menu | |
808 * Setcar:: Replacing an element in a list. | |
809 * Setcdr:: Replacing part of the list backbone. | |
810 This can be used to remove or add elements. | |
811 * Rearrangement:: Reordering the elements in a list; combining lists. | |
812 @end menu | |
813 | |
814 @node Setcar | |
815 @subsection Altering List Elements with @code{setcar} | |
816 | |
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817 Changing the @sc{car} of a cons cell is done with @code{setcar}. When |
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818 used on a list, @code{setcar} replaces one element of a list with a |
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819 different element. |
6558 | 820 |
821 @defun setcar cons object | |
822 This function stores @var{object} as the new @sc{car} of @var{cons}, | |
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823 replacing its previous @sc{car}. In other words, it changes the |
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824 @sc{car} slot of @var{cons} to refer to @var{object}. It returns the |
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825 value @var{object}. For example: |
6558 | 826 |
827 @example | |
828 @group | |
829 (setq x '(1 2)) | |
830 @result{} (1 2) | |
831 @end group | |
832 @group | |
833 (setcar x 4) | |
834 @result{} 4 | |
835 @end group | |
836 @group | |
837 x | |
838 @result{} (4 2) | |
839 @end group | |
840 @end example | |
841 @end defun | |
842 | |
843 When a cons cell is part of the shared structure of several lists, | |
844 storing a new @sc{car} into the cons changes one element of each of | |
845 these lists. Here is an example: | |
846 | |
847 @example | |
848 @group | |
849 ;; @r{Create two lists that are partly shared.} | |
850 (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
851 @result{} (a b c) | |
852 (setq x2 (cons 'z (cdr x1))) | |
853 @result{} (z b c) | |
854 @end group | |
855 | |
856 @group | |
857 ;; @r{Replace the @sc{car} of a shared link.} | |
858 (setcar (cdr x1) 'foo) | |
859 @result{} foo | |
860 x1 ; @r{Both lists are changed.} | |
861 @result{} (a foo c) | |
862 x2 | |
863 @result{} (z foo c) | |
864 @end group | |
865 | |
866 @group | |
867 ;; @r{Replace the @sc{car} of a link that is not shared.} | |
868 (setcar x1 'baz) | |
869 @result{} baz | |
870 x1 ; @r{Only one list is changed.} | |
871 @result{} (baz foo c) | |
872 x2 | |
873 @result{} (z foo c) | |
874 @end group | |
875 @end example | |
876 | |
877 Here is a graphical depiction of the shared structure of the two lists | |
878 in the variables @code{x1} and @code{x2}, showing why replacing @code{b} | |
879 changes them both: | |
880 | |
881 @example | |
882 @group | |
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883 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
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884 x1---> | | |----> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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885 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 886 | --> | | |
887 | | | | | |
888 --> a | --> b --> c | |
889 | | |
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890 --- --- | |
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891 x2--> | | |-- |
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892 --- --- |
6558 | 893 | |
894 | | |
895 --> z | |
896 @end group | |
897 @end example | |
898 | |
899 Here is an alternative form of box diagram, showing the same relationship: | |
900 | |
901 @example | |
902 @group | |
903 x1: | |
904 -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
905 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
906 | a | o------->| b | o------->| c | nil | | |
907 | | | -->| | | | | | | |
908 -------------- | -------------- -------------- | |
909 | | |
910 x2: | | |
911 -------------- | | |
912 | car | cdr | | | |
913 | z | o---- | |
914 | | | | |
915 -------------- | |
916 @end group | |
917 @end example | |
918 | |
919 @node Setcdr | |
920 @subsection Altering the CDR of a List | |
921 | |
922 The lowest-level primitive for modifying a @sc{cdr} is @code{setcdr}: | |
923 | |
924 @defun setcdr cons object | |
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925 This function stores @var{object} as the new @sc{cdr} of @var{cons}, |
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926 replacing its previous @sc{cdr}. In other words, it changes the |
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927 @sc{cdr} slot of @var{cons} to refer to @var{object}. It returns the |
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928 value @var{object}. |
6558 | 929 @end defun |
930 | |
931 Here is an example of replacing the @sc{cdr} of a list with a | |
932 different list. All but the first element of the list are removed in | |
933 favor of a different sequence of elements. The first element is | |
934 unchanged, because it resides in the @sc{car} of the list, and is not | |
935 reached via the @sc{cdr}. | |
936 | |
937 @example | |
938 @group | |
939 (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
940 @result{} (1 2 3) | |
941 @end group | |
942 @group | |
943 (setcdr x '(4)) | |
944 @result{} (4) | |
945 @end group | |
946 @group | |
947 x | |
948 @result{} (1 4) | |
949 @end group | |
950 @end example | |
951 | |
952 You can delete elements from the middle of a list by altering the | |
953 @sc{cdr}s of the cons cells in the list. For example, here we delete | |
954 the second element, @code{b}, from the list @code{(a b c)}, by changing | |
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955 the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell: |
6558 | 956 |
957 @example | |
958 @group | |
959 (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
960 @result{} (a b c) | |
961 (setcdr x1 (cdr (cdr x1))) | |
962 @result{} (c) | |
963 x1 | |
964 @result{} (a c) | |
965 @end group | |
966 @end example | |
967 | |
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968 @need 4000 |
6558 | 969 Here is the result in box notation: |
970 | |
971 @example | |
972 @group | |
973 -------------------- | |
974 | | | |
975 -------------- | -------------- | -------------- | |
976 | car | cdr | | | car | cdr | -->| car | cdr | | |
977 | a | o----- | b | o-------->| c | nil | | |
978 | | | | | | | | | | |
979 -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
980 @end group | |
981 @end example | |
982 | |
983 @noindent | |
984 The second cons cell, which previously held the element @code{b}, still | |
985 exists and its @sc{car} is still @code{b}, but it no longer forms part | |
986 of this list. | |
987 | |
988 It is equally easy to insert a new element by changing @sc{cdr}s: | |
989 | |
990 @example | |
991 @group | |
992 (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
993 @result{} (a b c) | |
994 (setcdr x1 (cons 'd (cdr x1))) | |
995 @result{} (d b c) | |
996 x1 | |
997 @result{} (a d b c) | |
998 @end group | |
999 @end example | |
1000 | |
1001 Here is this result in box notation: | |
1002 | |
1003 @smallexample | |
1004 @group | |
1005 -------------- ------------- ------------- | |
1006 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
1007 | a | o | -->| b | o------->| c | nil | | |
1008 | | | | | | | | | | | | |
1009 --------- | -- | ------------- ------------- | |
1010 | | | |
1011 ----- -------- | |
1012 | | | |
1013 | --------------- | | |
1014 | | car | cdr | | | |
1015 -->| d | o------ | |
1016 | | | | |
1017 --------------- | |
1018 @end group | |
1019 @end smallexample | |
1020 | |
1021 @node Rearrangement | |
1022 @subsection Functions that Rearrange Lists | |
1023 @cindex rearrangement of lists | |
1024 @cindex modification of lists | |
1025 | |
1026 Here are some functions that rearrange lists ``destructively'' by | |
1027 modifying the @sc{cdr}s of their component cons cells. We call these | |
1028 functions ``destructive'' because they chew up the original lists passed | |
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1029 to them as arguments, relinking their cons cells to form a new list that |
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1030 is the returned value. |
6558 | 1031 |
27193 | 1032 @ifnottex |
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1033 See @code{delq}, in @ref{Sets And Lists}, for another function |
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1034 that modifies cons cells. |
27193 | 1035 @end ifnottex |
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1036 @iftex |
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1037 The function @code{delq} in the following section is another example |
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1038 of destructive list manipulation. |
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1039 @end iftex |
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1040 |
6558 | 1041 @defun nconc &rest lists |
1042 @cindex concatenating lists | |
1043 @cindex joining lists | |
1044 This function returns a list containing all the elements of @var{lists}. | |
1045 Unlike @code{append} (@pxref{Building Lists}), the @var{lists} are | |
1046 @emph{not} copied. Instead, the last @sc{cdr} of each of the | |
1047 @var{lists} is changed to refer to the following list. The last of the | |
1048 @var{lists} is not altered. For example: | |
1049 | |
1050 @example | |
1051 @group | |
1052 (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
1053 @result{} (1 2 3) | |
1054 @end group | |
1055 @group | |
1056 (nconc x '(4 5)) | |
1057 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
1058 @end group | |
1059 @group | |
1060 x | |
1061 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
1062 @end group | |
1063 @end example | |
1064 | |
1065 Since the last argument of @code{nconc} is not itself modified, it is | |
1066 reasonable to use a constant list, such as @code{'(4 5)}, as in the | |
1067 above example. For the same reason, the last argument need not be a | |
1068 list: | |
1069 | |
1070 @example | |
1071 @group | |
1072 (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
1073 @result{} (1 2 3) | |
1074 @end group | |
1075 @group | |
1076 (nconc x 'z) | |
1077 @result{} (1 2 3 . z) | |
1078 @end group | |
1079 @group | |
1080 x | |
1081 @result{} (1 2 3 . z) | |
1082 @end group | |
1083 @end example | |
1084 | |
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1085 However, the other arguments (all but the last) must be lists. |
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1086 |
6558 | 1087 A common pitfall is to use a quoted constant list as a non-last |
1088 argument to @code{nconc}. If you do this, your program will change | |
1089 each time you run it! Here is what happens: | |
1090 | |
1091 @smallexample | |
1092 @group | |
1093 (defun add-foo (x) ; @r{We want this function to add} | |
1094 (nconc '(foo) x)) ; @r{@code{foo} to the front of its arg.} | |
1095 @end group | |
1096 | |
1097 @group | |
1098 (symbol-function 'add-foo) | |
1099 @result{} (lambda (x) (nconc (quote (foo)) x)) | |
1100 @end group | |
1101 | |
1102 @group | |
1103 (setq xx (add-foo '(1 2))) ; @r{It seems to work.} | |
1104 @result{} (foo 1 2) | |
1105 @end group | |
1106 @group | |
1107 (setq xy (add-foo '(3 4))) ; @r{What happened?} | |
1108 @result{} (foo 1 2 3 4) | |
1109 @end group | |
1110 @group | |
1111 (eq xx xy) | |
1112 @result{} t | |
1113 @end group | |
1114 | |
1115 @group | |
1116 (symbol-function 'add-foo) | |
1117 @result{} (lambda (x) (nconc (quote (foo 1 2 3 4) x))) | |
1118 @end group | |
1119 @end smallexample | |
1120 @end defun | |
1121 | |
1122 @defun nreverse list | |
1123 @cindex reversing a list | |
1124 This function reverses the order of the elements of @var{list}. | |
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1125 Unlike @code{reverse}, @code{nreverse} alters its argument by reversing |
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1126 the @sc{cdr}s in the cons cells forming the list. The cons cell that |
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1127 used to be the last one in @var{list} becomes the first cons cell of the |
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1128 value. |
6558 | 1129 |
1130 For example: | |
1131 | |
1132 @example | |
1133 @group | |
38786 | 1134 (setq x '(a b c)) |
1135 @result{} (a b c) | |
6558 | 1136 @end group |
1137 @group | |
1138 x | |
38786 | 1139 @result{} (a b c) |
6558 | 1140 (nreverse x) |
38786 | 1141 @result{} (c b a) |
6558 | 1142 @end group |
1143 @group | |
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1144 ;; @r{The cons cell that was first is now last.} |
6558 | 1145 x |
38786 | 1146 @result{} (a) |
6558 | 1147 @end group |
1148 @end example | |
1149 | |
1150 To avoid confusion, we usually store the result of @code{nreverse} | |
1151 back in the same variable which held the original list: | |
1152 | |
1153 @example | |
1154 (setq x (nreverse x)) | |
1155 @end example | |
1156 | |
1157 Here is the @code{nreverse} of our favorite example, @code{(a b c)}, | |
1158 presented graphically: | |
1159 | |
1160 @smallexample | |
1161 @group | |
1162 @r{Original list head:} @r{Reversed list:} | |
1163 ------------- ------------- ------------ | |
1164 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
1165 | a | nil |<-- | b | o |<-- | c | o | | |
1166 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
1167 ------------- | --------- | - | -------- | - | |
1168 | | | | | |
1169 ------------- ------------ | |
1170 @end group | |
1171 @end smallexample | |
1172 @end defun | |
1173 | |
1174 @defun sort list predicate | |
1175 @cindex stable sort | |
1176 @cindex sorting lists | |
1177 This function sorts @var{list} stably, though destructively, and | |
1178 returns the sorted list. It compares elements using @var{predicate}. A | |
1179 stable sort is one in which elements with equal sort keys maintain their | |
1180 relative order before and after the sort. Stability is important when | |
1181 successive sorts are used to order elements according to different | |
1182 criteria. | |
1183 | |
1184 The argument @var{predicate} must be a function that accepts two | |
1185 arguments. It is called with two elements of @var{list}. To get an | |
1186 increasing order sort, the @var{predicate} should return @code{t} if the | |
1187 first element is ``less than'' the second, or @code{nil} if not. | |
1188 | |
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1189 The comparison function @var{predicate} must give reliable results for |
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1190 any given pair of arguments, at least within a single call to |
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1191 @code{sort}. It must be @dfn{antisymmetric}; that is, if @var{a} is |
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1192 less than @var{b}, @var{b} must not be less than @var{a}. It must be |
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1193 @dfn{transitive}---that is, if @var{a} is less than @var{b}, and @var{b} |
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1194 is less than @var{c}, then @var{a} must be less than @var{c}. If you |
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1195 use a comparison function which does not meet these requirements, the |
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1196 result of @code{sort} is unpredictable. |
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1197 |
6558 | 1198 The destructive aspect of @code{sort} is that it rearranges the cons |
1199 cells forming @var{list} by changing @sc{cdr}s. A nondestructive sort | |
1200 function would create new cons cells to store the elements in their | |
1201 sorted order. If you wish to make a sorted copy without destroying the | |
1202 original, copy it first with @code{copy-sequence} and then sort. | |
1203 | |
1204 Sorting does not change the @sc{car}s of the cons cells in @var{list}; | |
1205 the cons cell that originally contained the element @code{a} in | |
1206 @var{list} still has @code{a} in its @sc{car} after sorting, but it now | |
1207 appears in a different position in the list due to the change of | |
1208 @sc{cdr}s. For example: | |
1209 | |
1210 @example | |
1211 @group | |
1212 (setq nums '(1 3 2 6 5 4 0)) | |
1213 @result{} (1 3 2 6 5 4 0) | |
1214 @end group | |
1215 @group | |
1216 (sort nums '<) | |
1217 @result{} (0 1 2 3 4 5 6) | |
1218 @end group | |
1219 @group | |
1220 nums | |
1221 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5 6) | |
1222 @end group | |
1223 @end example | |
1224 | |
1225 @noindent | |
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1226 @strong{Warning}: Note that the list in @code{nums} no longer contains |
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1227 0; this is the same cons cell that it was before, but it is no longer |
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1228 the first one in the list. Don't assume a variable that formerly held |
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1229 the argument now holds the entire sorted list! Instead, save the result |
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1230 of @code{sort} and use that. Most often we store the result back into |
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1231 the variable that held the original list: |
6558 | 1232 |
1233 @example | |
1234 (setq nums (sort nums '<)) | |
1235 @end example | |
1236 | |
1237 @xref{Sorting}, for more functions that perform sorting. | |
1238 See @code{documentation} in @ref{Accessing Documentation}, for a | |
1239 useful example of @code{sort}. | |
1240 @end defun | |
1241 | |
1242 @node Sets And Lists | |
1243 @section Using Lists as Sets | |
1244 @cindex lists as sets | |
1245 @cindex sets | |
1246 | |
1247 A list can represent an unordered mathematical set---simply consider a | |
1248 value an element of a set if it appears in the list, and ignore the | |
1249 order of the list. To form the union of two sets, use @code{append} (as | |
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1250 long as you don't mind having duplicate elements). You can remove |
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1251 @code{equal} duplicates using @code{delete-dups}. Other useful |
6558 | 1252 functions for sets include @code{memq} and @code{delq}, and their |
1253 @code{equal} versions, @code{member} and @code{delete}. | |
1254 | |
13229 | 1255 @cindex CL note---lack @code{union}, @code{intersection} |
6558 | 1256 @quotation |
1257 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp has functions @code{union} (which | |
1258 avoids duplicate elements) and @code{intersection} for set operations, | |
1259 but GNU Emacs Lisp does not have them. You can write them in Lisp if | |
1260 you wish. | |
1261 @end quotation | |
1262 | |
1263 @defun memq object list | |
1264 @cindex membership in a list | |
1265 This function tests to see whether @var{object} is a member of | |
1266 @var{list}. If it is, @code{memq} returns a list starting with the | |
1267 first occurrence of @var{object}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
1268 The letter @samp{q} in @code{memq} says that it uses @code{eq} to | |
1269 compare @var{object} against the elements of the list. For example: | |
1270 | |
1271 @example | |
1272 @group | |
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1273 (memq 'b '(a b c b a)) |
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1274 @result{} (b c b a) |
6558 | 1275 @end group |
1276 @group | |
1277 (memq '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are not @code{eq}.} | |
1278 @result{} nil | |
1279 @end group | |
1280 @end example | |
1281 @end defun | |
1282 | |
1283 @defun delq object list | |
1284 @cindex deletion of elements | |
1285 This function destructively removes all elements @code{eq} to | |
1286 @var{object} from @var{list}. The letter @samp{q} in @code{delq} says | |
1287 that it uses @code{eq} to compare @var{object} against the elements of | |
30808 | 1288 the list, like @code{memq} and @code{remq}. |
6558 | 1289 @end defun |
1290 | |
1291 When @code{delq} deletes elements from the front of the list, it does so | |
1292 simply by advancing down the list and returning a sublist that starts | |
1293 after those elements: | |
1294 | |
1295 @example | |
1296 @group | |
1297 (delq 'a '(a b c)) @equiv{} (cdr '(a b c)) | |
1298 @end group | |
1299 @end example | |
1300 | |
1301 When an element to be deleted appears in the middle of the list, | |
1302 removing it involves changing the @sc{cdr}s (@pxref{Setcdr}). | |
1303 | |
1304 @example | |
1305 @group | |
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1306 (setq sample-list '(a b c (4))) |
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1307 @result{} (a b c (4)) |
6558 | 1308 @end group |
1309 @group | |
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1310 (delq 'a sample-list) |
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1311 @result{} (b c (4)) |
6558 | 1312 @end group |
1313 @group | |
1314 sample-list | |
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1315 @result{} (a b c (4)) |
6558 | 1316 @end group |
1317 @group | |
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1318 (delq 'c sample-list) |
11628 | 1319 @result{} (a b (4)) |
6558 | 1320 @end group |
1321 @group | |
1322 sample-list | |
11628 | 1323 @result{} (a b (4)) |
6558 | 1324 @end group |
1325 @end example | |
1326 | |
12098 | 1327 Note that @code{(delq 'c sample-list)} modifies @code{sample-list} to |
1328 splice out the third element, but @code{(delq 'a sample-list)} does not | |
6558 | 1329 splice anything---it just returns a shorter list. Don't assume that a |
1330 variable which formerly held the argument @var{list} now has fewer | |
1331 elements, or that it still holds the original list! Instead, save the | |
1332 result of @code{delq} and use that. Most often we store the result back | |
1333 into the variable that held the original list: | |
1334 | |
1335 @example | |
1336 (setq flowers (delq 'rose flowers)) | |
1337 @end example | |
1338 | |
1339 In the following example, the @code{(4)} that @code{delq} attempts to match | |
1340 and the @code{(4)} in the @code{sample-list} are not @code{eq}: | |
1341 | |
1342 @example | |
1343 @group | |
1344 (delq '(4) sample-list) | |
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1345 @result{} (a c (4)) |
6558 | 1346 @end group |
1347 @end example | |
1348 | |
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1349 @defun remq object list |
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1350 This function returns a copy of @var{list}, with all elements removed |
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1351 which are @code{eq} to @var{object}. The letter @samp{q} in @code{remq} |
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1352 says that it uses @code{eq} to compare @var{object} against the elements |
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1353 of @code{list}. |
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1354 |
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1355 @example |
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1356 @group |
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1357 (setq sample-list '(a b c a b c)) |
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1358 @result{} (a b c a b c) |
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1359 @end group |
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1360 @group |
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1361 (remq 'a sample-list) |
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1362 @result{} (b c b c) |
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1363 @end group |
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1364 @group |
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1365 sample-list |
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1366 @result{} (a b c a b c) |
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1367 @end group |
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1368 @end example |
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1369 @noindent |
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1370 The function @code{delq} offers a way to perform this operation |
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1371 destructively. See @ref{Sets And Lists}. |
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1372 @end defun |
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1373 |
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1374 The following three functions are like @code{memq}, @code{delq} and |
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1375 @code{remq}, but use @code{equal} rather than @code{eq} to compare |
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1376 elements. @xref{Equality Predicates}. |
6558 | 1377 |
1378 @defun member object list | |
1379 The function @code{member} tests to see whether @var{object} is a member | |
1380 of @var{list}, comparing members with @var{object} using @code{equal}. | |
1381 If @var{object} is a member, @code{member} returns a list starting with | |
1382 its first occurrence in @var{list}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
1383 | |
1384 Compare this with @code{memq}: | |
1385 | |
1386 @example | |
1387 @group | |
1388 (member '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are @code{equal}.} | |
1389 @result{} ((2)) | |
1390 @end group | |
1391 @group | |
1392 (memq '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are not @code{eq}.} | |
1393 @result{} nil | |
1394 @end group | |
1395 @group | |
1396 ;; @r{Two strings with the same contents are @code{equal}.} | |
1397 (member "foo" '("foo" "bar")) | |
1398 @result{} ("foo" "bar") | |
1399 @end group | |
1400 @end example | |
1401 @end defun | |
1402 | |
30808 | 1403 @defun delete object sequence |
1404 If @code{sequence} is a list, this function destructively removes all | |
1405 elements @code{equal} to @var{object} from @var{sequence}. For lists, | |
1406 @code{delete} is to @code{delq} as @code{member} is to @code{memq}: it | |
1407 uses @code{equal} to compare elements with @var{object}, like | |
1408 @code{member}; when it finds an element that matches, it removes the | |
1409 element just as @code{delq} would. | |
1410 | |
1411 If @code{sequence} is a vector or string, @code{delete} returns a copy | |
1412 of @code{sequence} with all elements @code{equal} to @code{object} | |
1413 removed. | |
1414 | |
1415 For example: | |
6558 | 1416 |
1417 @example | |
1418 @group | |
1419 (delete '(2) '((2) (1) (2))) | |
13229 | 1420 @result{} ((1)) |
6558 | 1421 @end group |
30808 | 1422 @group |
1423 (delete '(2) [(2) (1) (2)]) | |
1424 @result{} [(1)] | |
1425 @end group | |
1426 @end example | |
1427 @end defun | |
1428 | |
1429 @defun remove object sequence | |
1430 This function is the non-destructive counterpart of @code{delete}. If | |
1431 returns a copy of @code{sequence}, a list, vector, or string, with | |
1432 elements @code{equal} to @code{object} removed. For example: | |
1433 | |
1434 @example | |
1435 @group | |
1436 (remove '(2) '((2) (1) (2))) | |
1437 @result{} ((1)) | |
1438 @end group | |
1439 @group | |
1440 (remove '(2) [(2) (1) (2)]) | |
1441 @result{} [(1)] | |
1442 @end group | |
6558 | 1443 @end example |
1444 @end defun | |
1445 | |
1446 @quotation | |
30808 | 1447 @b{Common Lisp note:} The functions @code{member}, @code{delete} and |
1448 @code{remove} in GNU Emacs Lisp are derived from Maclisp, not Common | |
1449 Lisp. The Common Lisp versions do not use @code{equal} to compare | |
1450 elements. | |
6558 | 1451 @end quotation |
1452 | |
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1453 @defun member-ignore-case object list |
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1454 This function is like @code{member}, except that @var{object} should |
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1455 be a string and that it ignores differences in letter-case and text |
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1456 representation: upper-case and lower-case letters are treated as |
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1457 equal, and unibyte strings are converted to multibyte prior to |
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1458 comparison. |
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1459 @end defun |
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1460 |
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1461 @defun delete-dups list |
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1462 This function destructively removes all @code{equal} duplicates from |
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1463 @var{list}, stores the result in @var{list} and returns it. Of |
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1464 several @code{equal} occurrences of an element in @var{list}, |
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1465 @code{delete-dups} keeps the first one. |
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1466 @end defun |
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1467 |
12098 | 1468 See also the function @code{add-to-list}, in @ref{Setting Variables}, |
1469 for another way to add an element to a list stored in a variable. | |
1470 | |
6558 | 1471 @node Association Lists |
1472 @section Association Lists | |
1473 @cindex association list | |
1474 @cindex alist | |
1475 | |
1476 An @dfn{association list}, or @dfn{alist} for short, records a mapping | |
1477 from keys to values. It is a list of cons cells called | |
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1478 @dfn{associations}: the @sc{car} of each cons cell is the @dfn{key}, and the |
6558 | 1479 @sc{cdr} is the @dfn{associated value}.@footnote{This usage of ``key'' |
1480 is not related to the term ``key sequence''; it means a value used to | |
1481 look up an item in a table. In this case, the table is the alist, and | |
1482 the alist associations are the items.} | |
1483 | |
1484 Here is an example of an alist. The key @code{pine} is associated with | |
1485 the value @code{cones}; the key @code{oak} is associated with | |
1486 @code{acorns}; and the key @code{maple} is associated with @code{seeds}. | |
1487 | |
1488 @example | |
1489 @group | |
38786 | 1490 ((pine . cones) |
1491 (oak . acorns) | |
1492 (maple . seeds)) | |
6558 | 1493 @end group |
1494 @end example | |
1495 | |
1496 The associated values in an alist may be any Lisp objects; so may the | |
1497 keys. For example, in the following alist, the symbol @code{a} is | |
1498 associated with the number @code{1}, and the string @code{"b"} is | |
1499 associated with the @emph{list} @code{(2 3)}, which is the @sc{cdr} of | |
1500 the alist element: | |
1501 | |
1502 @example | |
1503 ((a . 1) ("b" 2 3)) | |
1504 @end example | |
1505 | |
1506 Sometimes it is better to design an alist to store the associated | |
1507 value in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr} of the element. Here is an | |
38786 | 1508 example of such an alist: |
6558 | 1509 |
1510 @example | |
38786 | 1511 ((rose red) (lily white) (buttercup yellow)) |
6558 | 1512 @end example |
1513 | |
1514 @noindent | |
1515 Here we regard @code{red} as the value associated with @code{rose}. One | |
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1516 advantage of this kind of alist is that you can store other related |
6558 | 1517 information---even a list of other items---in the @sc{cdr} of the |
1518 @sc{cdr}. One disadvantage is that you cannot use @code{rassq} (see | |
1519 below) to find the element containing a given value. When neither of | |
1520 these considerations is important, the choice is a matter of taste, as | |
1521 long as you are consistent about it for any given alist. | |
1522 | |
1523 Note that the same alist shown above could be regarded as having the | |
1524 associated value in the @sc{cdr} of the element; the value associated | |
1525 with @code{rose} would be the list @code{(red)}. | |
1526 | |
1527 Association lists are often used to record information that you might | |
1528 otherwise keep on a stack, since new associations may be added easily to | |
1529 the front of the list. When searching an association list for an | |
1530 association with a given key, the first one found is returned, if there | |
1531 is more than one. | |
1532 | |
1533 In Emacs Lisp, it is @emph{not} an error if an element of an | |
1534 association list is not a cons cell. The alist search functions simply | |
1535 ignore such elements. Many other versions of Lisp signal errors in such | |
1536 cases. | |
1537 | |
1538 Note that property lists are similar to association lists in several | |
1539 respects. A property list behaves like an association list in which | |
1540 each key can occur only once. @xref{Property Lists}, for a comparison | |
1541 of property lists and association lists. | |
1542 | |
1543 @defun assoc key alist | |
1544 This function returns the first association for @var{key} in | |
1545 @var{alist}. It compares @var{key} against the alist elements using | |
1546 @code{equal} (@pxref{Equality Predicates}). It returns @code{nil} if no | |
1547 association in @var{alist} has a @sc{car} @code{equal} to @var{key}. | |
1548 For example: | |
1549 | |
1550 @smallexample | |
1551 (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1552 @result{} ((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds)) | |
1553 (assoc 'oak trees) | |
1554 @result{} (oak . acorns) | |
1555 (cdr (assoc 'oak trees)) | |
1556 @result{} acorns | |
1557 (assoc 'birch trees) | |
1558 @result{} nil | |
1559 @end smallexample | |
1560 | |
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1561 Here is another example, in which the keys and values are not symbols: |
6558 | 1562 |
1563 @smallexample | |
1564 (setq needles-per-cluster | |
1565 '((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
1566 (3 "Pitch Pine") | |
1567 (5 "White Pine"))) | |
1568 | |
1569 (cdr (assoc 3 needles-per-cluster)) | |
1570 @result{} ("Pitch Pine") | |
1571 (cdr (assoc 2 needles-per-cluster)) | |
1572 @result{} ("Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
1573 @end smallexample | |
1574 @end defun | |
1575 | |
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1576 The function @code{assoc-string} is much like @code{assoc} except |
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1577 that it ignores certain differences between strings. @xref{Text |
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1578 Comparison}. |
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1579 |
12067 | 1580 @defun rassoc value alist |
1581 This function returns the first association with value @var{value} in | |
1582 @var{alist}. It returns @code{nil} if no association in @var{alist} has | |
1583 a @sc{cdr} @code{equal} to @var{value}. | |
1584 | |
1585 @code{rassoc} is like @code{assoc} except that it compares the @sc{cdr} of | |
1586 each @var{alist} association instead of the @sc{car}. You can think of | |
1587 this as ``reverse @code{assoc}'', finding the key for a given value. | |
1588 @end defun | |
1589 | |
6558 | 1590 @defun assq key alist |
1591 This function is like @code{assoc} in that it returns the first | |
1592 association for @var{key} in @var{alist}, but it makes the comparison | |
1593 using @code{eq} instead of @code{equal}. @code{assq} returns @code{nil} | |
1594 if no association in @var{alist} has a @sc{car} @code{eq} to @var{key}. | |
1595 This function is used more often than @code{assoc}, since @code{eq} is | |
1596 faster than @code{equal} and most alists use symbols as keys. | |
1597 @xref{Equality Predicates}. | |
1598 | |
1599 @smallexample | |
1600 (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1601 @result{} ((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds)) | |
1602 (assq 'pine trees) | |
1603 @result{} (pine . cones) | |
1604 @end smallexample | |
1605 | |
1606 On the other hand, @code{assq} is not usually useful in alists where the | |
1607 keys may not be symbols: | |
1608 | |
1609 @smallexample | |
1610 (setq leaves | |
1611 '(("simple leaves" . oak) | |
1612 ("compound leaves" . horsechestnut))) | |
1613 | |
1614 (assq "simple leaves" leaves) | |
1615 @result{} nil | |
1616 (assoc "simple leaves" leaves) | |
1617 @result{} ("simple leaves" . oak) | |
1618 @end smallexample | |
1619 @end defun | |
1620 | |
1621 @defun rassq value alist | |
1622 This function returns the first association with value @var{value} in | |
1623 @var{alist}. It returns @code{nil} if no association in @var{alist} has | |
1624 a @sc{cdr} @code{eq} to @var{value}. | |
1625 | |
1626 @code{rassq} is like @code{assq} except that it compares the @sc{cdr} of | |
1627 each @var{alist} association instead of the @sc{car}. You can think of | |
1628 this as ``reverse @code{assq}'', finding the key for a given value. | |
1629 | |
1630 For example: | |
1631 | |
1632 @smallexample | |
1633 (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1634 | |
1635 (rassq 'acorns trees) | |
1636 @result{} (oak . acorns) | |
1637 (rassq 'spores trees) | |
1638 @result{} nil | |
1639 @end smallexample | |
1640 | |
1641 Note that @code{rassq} cannot search for a value stored in the @sc{car} | |
1642 of the @sc{cdr} of an element: | |
1643 | |
1644 @smallexample | |
1645 (setq colors '((rose red) (lily white) (buttercup yellow))) | |
1646 | |
1647 (rassq 'white colors) | |
1648 @result{} nil | |
1649 @end smallexample | |
1650 | |
1651 In this case, the @sc{cdr} of the association @code{(lily white)} is not | |
1652 the symbol @code{white}, but rather the list @code{(white)}. This | |
1653 becomes clearer if the association is written in dotted pair notation: | |
1654 | |
1655 @smallexample | |
1656 (lily white) @equiv{} (lily . (white)) | |
1657 @end smallexample | |
1658 @end defun | |
1659 | |
38786 | 1660 @defun assoc-default key alist &optional test default |
22961
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1661 This function searches @var{alist} for a match for @var{key}. For each |
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1662 element of @var{alist}, it compares the element (if it is an atom) or |
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1663 the element's @sc{car} (if it is a cons) against @var{key}, by calling |
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1664 @var{test} with two arguments: the element or its @sc{car}, and |
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1665 @var{key}. The arguments are passed in that order so that you can get |
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1666 useful results using @code{string-match} with an alist that contains |
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1667 regular expressions (@pxref{Regexp Search}). If @var{test} is omitted |
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1668 or @code{nil}, @code{equal} is used for comparison. |
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1669 |
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1670 If an alist element matches @var{key} by this criterion, |
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1671 then @code{assoc-default} returns a value based on this element. |
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1672 If the element is a cons, then the value is the element's @sc{cdr}. |
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1673 Otherwise, the return value is @var{default}. |
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1674 |
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1675 If no alist element matches @var{key}, @code{assoc-default} returns |
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1676 @code{nil}. |
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1677 @end defun |
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1678 |
6558 | 1679 @defun copy-alist alist |
1680 @cindex copying alists | |
1681 This function returns a two-level deep copy of @var{alist}: it creates a | |
1682 new copy of each association, so that you can alter the associations of | |
1683 the new alist without changing the old one. | |
1684 | |
1685 @smallexample | |
1686 @group | |
1687 (setq needles-per-cluster | |
1688 '((2 . ("Austrian Pine" "Red Pine")) | |
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1689 (3 . ("Pitch Pine")) |
7734 | 1690 @end group |
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1691 (5 . ("White Pine")))) |
6558 | 1692 @result{} |
1693 ((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
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1694 (3 "Pitch Pine") |
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1695 (5 "White Pine")) |
6558 | 1696 |
1697 (setq copy (copy-alist needles-per-cluster)) | |
1698 @result{} | |
1699 ((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
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1700 (3 "Pitch Pine") |
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1701 (5 "White Pine")) |
6558 | 1702 |
1703 (eq needles-per-cluster copy) | |
1704 @result{} nil | |
1705 (equal needles-per-cluster copy) | |
1706 @result{} t | |
1707 (eq (car needles-per-cluster) (car copy)) | |
1708 @result{} nil | |
1709 (cdr (car (cdr needles-per-cluster))) | |
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1710 @result{} ("Pitch Pine") |
7734 | 1711 @group |
6558 | 1712 (eq (cdr (car (cdr needles-per-cluster))) |
1713 (cdr (car (cdr copy)))) | |
1714 @result{} t | |
1715 @end group | |
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1716 @end smallexample |
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1717 |
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1718 This example shows how @code{copy-alist} makes it possible to change |
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1719 the associations of one copy without affecting the other: |
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1720 |
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1721 @smallexample |
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1722 @group |
11137 | 1723 (setcdr (assq 3 copy) '("Martian Vacuum Pine")) |
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1724 (cdr (assq 3 needles-per-cluster)) |
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1725 @result{} ("Pitch Pine") |
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1726 @end group |
6558 | 1727 @end smallexample |
1728 @end defun | |
1729 | |
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1730 @defun assq-delete-all key alist |
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1731 @tindex assq-delete-all |
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1732 This function deletes from @var{alist} all the elements whose @sc{car} |
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1733 is @code{eq} to @var{key}, much as if you used @code{delq} to delete |
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1734 each such element one by one. It returns the shortened alist, and |
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1735 often modifies the original list structure of @var{alist}. For |
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1736 correct results, use the return value of @code{assq-delete-all} rather |
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1737 than looking at the saved value of @var{alist}. |
6558 | 1738 |
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1739 @example |
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1740 (setq alist '((foo 1) (bar 2) (foo 3) (lose 4))) |
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1741 @result{} ((foo 1) (bar 2) (foo 3) (lose 4)) |
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1742 (assq-delete-all 'foo alist) |
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1743 @result{} ((bar 2) (lose 4)) |
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1744 alist |
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1745 @result{} ((foo 1) (bar 2) (lose 4)) |
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1746 @end example |
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1747 @end defun |
52401 | 1748 |
1749 @ignore | |
1750 arch-tag: 31fb8a4e-4aa8-4a74-a206-aa00451394d4 | |
1751 @end ignore |