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author | Dave Love <fx@gnu.org> |
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date | Sun, 12 Nov 2000 00:57:08 +0000 |
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6453 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc. | |
4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. | |
5 @setfilename ../info/intro | |
6 | |
29256 | 7 @node Introduction, Lisp Data Types, Top, Top |
6453 | 8 @comment node-name, next, previous, up |
9 @chapter Introduction | |
10 | |
11 Most of the GNU Emacs text editor is written in the programming | |
12 language called Emacs Lisp. You can write new code in Emacs Lisp and | |
13 install it as an extension to the editor. However, Emacs Lisp is more | |
14 than a mere ``extension language''; it is a full computer programming | |
15 language in its own right. You can use it as you would any other | |
16 programming language. | |
17 | |
18 Because Emacs Lisp is designed for use in an editor, it has special | |
19 features for scanning and parsing text as well as features for handling | |
20 files, buffers, displays, subprocesses, and so on. Emacs Lisp is | |
21 closely integrated with the editing facilities; thus, editing commands | |
22 are functions that can also conveniently be called from Lisp programs, | |
23 and parameters for customization are ordinary Lisp variables. | |
24 | |
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25 This manual attempts to be a full description of Emacs Lisp. For a |
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26 beginner's introduction to Emacs Lisp, see @cite{An Introduction to |
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27 Emacs Lisp Programming}, by Bob Chassell, also published by the Free |
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28 Software Foundation. This manual presumes considerable familiarity with |
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29 the use of Emacs for editing; see @cite{The GNU Emacs Manual} for this |
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30 basic information. |
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31 |
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32 Generally speaking, the earlier chapters describe features of Emacs |
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33 Lisp that have counterparts in many programming languages, and later |
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34 chapters describe features that are peculiar to Emacs Lisp or relate |
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35 specifically to editing. |
6453 | 36 |
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37 This is edition 2.6. |
6453 | 38 |
39 @menu | |
40 * Caveats:: Flaws and a request for help. | |
41 * Lisp History:: Emacs Lisp is descended from Maclisp. | |
42 * Conventions:: How the manual is formatted. | |
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43 * Version Info:: Which Emacs version is running? |
6453 | 44 * Acknowledgements:: The authors, editors, and sponsors of this manual. |
45 @end menu | |
46 | |
47 @node Caveats | |
48 @section Caveats | |
49 | |
50 This manual has gone through numerous drafts. It is nearly complete | |
7114 | 51 but not flawless. There are a few topics that are not covered, either |
52 because we consider them secondary (such as most of the individual | |
53 modes) or because they are yet to be written. Because we are not able | |
54 to deal with them completely, we have left out several parts | |
55 intentionally. This includes most information about usage on VMS. | |
6453 | 56 |
57 The manual should be fully correct in what it does cover, and it is | |
58 therefore open to criticism on anything it says---from specific examples | |
59 and descriptive text, to the ordering of chapters and sections. If | |
60 something is confusing, or you find that you have to look at the sources | |
61 or experiment to learn something not covered in the manual, then perhaps | |
62 the manual should be fixed. Please let us know. | |
63 | |
64 @iftex | |
25875 | 65 As you use this manual, we ask that you mark pages with corrections so |
66 you can later look them up and send them to us. If you think of a simple, | |
7114 | 67 real-life example for a function or group of functions, please make an |
6453 | 68 effort to write it up and send it in. Please reference any comments to |
69 the chapter name, section name, and function name, as appropriate, since | |
7114 | 70 page numbers and chapter and section numbers will change and we may have |
71 trouble finding the text you are talking about. Also state the number | |
72 of the edition you are criticizing. | |
6453 | 73 @end iftex |
27193 | 74 @ifnottex |
6453 | 75 |
76 As you use this manual, we ask that you send corrections as soon as you | |
77 find them. If you think of a simple, real life example for a function | |
78 or group of functions, please make an effort to write it up and send it | |
79 in. Please reference any comments to the node name and function or | |
80 variable name, as appropriate. Also state the number of the edition | |
25875 | 81 you are criticizing. |
27193 | 82 @end ifnottex |
6453 | 83 |
84 Please mail comments and corrections to | |
85 | |
86 @example | |
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87 bug-lisp-manual@@gnu.org |
6453 | 88 @end example |
89 | |
90 @noindent | |
91 We let mail to this list accumulate unread until someone decides to | |
92 apply the corrections. Months, and sometimes years, go by between | |
93 updates. So please attach no significance to the lack of a reply---your | |
94 mail @emph{will} be acted on in due time. If you want to contact the | |
95 Emacs maintainers more quickly, send mail to | |
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96 @code{bug-gnu-emacs@@gnu.org}. |
6453 | 97 |
98 @node Lisp History | |
99 @section Lisp History | |
100 @cindex Lisp history | |
101 | |
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102 Lisp (LISt Processing language) was first developed in the late 1950s |
6453 | 103 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for research in artificial |
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104 intelligence. The great power of the Lisp language makes it ideal |
6453 | 105 for other purposes as well, such as writing editing commands. |
106 | |
107 @cindex Maclisp | |
108 @cindex Common Lisp | |
109 Dozens of Lisp implementations have been built over the years, each | |
110 with its own idiosyncrasies. Many of them were inspired by Maclisp, | |
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111 which was written in the 1960s at MIT's Project MAC. Eventually the |
7114 | 112 implementors of the descendants of Maclisp came together and developed a |
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113 standard for Lisp systems, called Common Lisp. In the meantime, Gerry |
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114 Sussman and Guy Steele at MIT developed a simplified but very powerful |
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115 dialect of Lisp, called Scheme. |
6453 | 116 |
117 GNU Emacs Lisp is largely inspired by Maclisp, and a little by Common | |
118 Lisp. If you know Common Lisp, you will notice many similarities. | |
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119 However, many features of Common Lisp have been omitted or |
6453 | 120 simplified in order to reduce the memory requirements of GNU Emacs. |
121 Sometimes the simplifications are so drastic that a Common Lisp user | |
122 might be very confused. We will occasionally point out how GNU Emacs | |
123 Lisp differs from Common Lisp. If you don't know Common Lisp, don't | |
124 worry about it; this manual is self-contained. | |
125 | |
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126 @pindex cl |
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127 A certain amount of Common Lisp emulation is available via the |
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128 @file{cl} library. @xref{Top,, Common Lisp Extension, cl, Common Lisp |
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129 Extensions}. |
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130 |
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131 Emacs Lisp is not at all influenced by Scheme; but the GNU project has |
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132 an implementation of Scheme, called Guile. We use Guile in all new GNU |
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133 software that calls for extensibility. |
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134 |
6453 | 135 @node Conventions |
136 @section Conventions | |
137 | |
138 This section explains the notational conventions that are used in this | |
139 manual. You may want to skip this section and refer back to it later. | |
140 | |
141 @menu | |
142 * Some Terms:: Explanation of terms we use in this manual. | |
143 * nil and t:: How the symbols @code{nil} and @code{t} are used. | |
144 * Evaluation Notation:: The format we use for examples of evaluation. | |
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145 * Printing Notation:: The format we use when examples print text. |
6453 | 146 * Error Messages:: The format we use for examples of errors. |
147 * Buffer Text Notation:: The format we use for buffer contents in examples. | |
148 * Format of Descriptions:: Notation for describing functions, variables, etc. | |
149 @end menu | |
150 | |
151 @node Some Terms | |
152 @subsection Some Terms | |
153 | |
154 Throughout this manual, the phrases ``the Lisp reader'' and ``the Lisp | |
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155 printer'' refer to those routines in Lisp that convert textual |
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156 representations of Lisp objects into actual Lisp objects, and vice |
6453 | 157 versa. @xref{Printed Representation}, for more details. You, the |
158 person reading this manual, are thought of as ``the programmer'' and are | |
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159 addressed as ``you''. ``The user'' is the person who uses Lisp |
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160 programs, including those you write. |
6453 | 161 |
162 @cindex fonts | |
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163 Examples of Lisp code are formatted like this: @code{(list 1 2 3)}. |
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164 Names that represent metasyntactic variables, or arguments to a function |
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165 being described, are formatted like this: @var{first-number}. |
6453 | 166 |
167 @node nil and t | |
168 @subsection @code{nil} and @code{t} | |
169 @cindex @code{nil}, uses of | |
170 @cindex truth value | |
171 @cindex boolean | |
172 @cindex false | |
173 | |
12098 | 174 In Lisp, the symbol @code{nil} has three separate meanings: it |
6453 | 175 is a symbol with the name @samp{nil}; it is the logical truth value |
176 @var{false}; and it is the empty list---the list of zero elements. | |
177 When used as a variable, @code{nil} always has the value @code{nil}. | |
178 | |
179 As far as the Lisp reader is concerned, @samp{()} and @samp{nil} are | |
180 identical: they stand for the same object, the symbol @code{nil}. The | |
181 different ways of writing the symbol are intended entirely for human | |
182 readers. After the Lisp reader has read either @samp{()} or @samp{nil}, | |
183 there is no way to determine which representation was actually written | |
184 by the programmer. | |
185 | |
186 In this manual, we use @code{()} when we wish to emphasize that it | |
187 means the empty list, and we use @code{nil} when we wish to emphasize | |
188 that it means the truth value @var{false}. That is a good convention to use | |
189 in Lisp programs also. | |
190 | |
191 @example | |
192 (cons 'foo ()) ; @r{Emphasize the empty list} | |
193 (not nil) ; @r{Emphasize the truth value @var{false}} | |
194 @end example | |
195 | |
196 @cindex @code{t} and truth | |
197 @cindex true | |
198 In contexts where a truth value is expected, any non-@code{nil} value | |
199 is considered to be @var{true}. However, @code{t} is the preferred way | |
200 to represent the truth value @var{true}. When you need to choose a | |
201 value which represents @var{true}, and there is no other basis for | |
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202 choosing, use @code{t}. The symbol @code{t} always has the value |
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203 @code{t}. |
6453 | 204 |
205 In Emacs Lisp, @code{nil} and @code{t} are special symbols that always | |
206 evaluate to themselves. This is so that you do not need to quote them | |
207 to use them as constants in a program. An attempt to change their | |
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208 values results in a @code{setting-constant} error. The same is true of |
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209 any symbol whose name starts with a colon (@samp{:}). @xref{Constant |
6453 | 210 Variables}. |
211 | |
212 @node Evaluation Notation | |
213 @subsection Evaluation Notation | |
214 @cindex evaluation notation | |
215 @cindex documentation notation | |
216 | |
217 A Lisp expression that you can evaluate is called a @dfn{form}. | |
218 Evaluating a form always produces a result, which is a Lisp object. In | |
219 the examples in this manual, this is indicated with @samp{@result{}}: | |
220 | |
221 @example | |
222 (car '(1 2)) | |
223 @result{} 1 | |
224 @end example | |
225 | |
226 @noindent | |
227 You can read this as ``@code{(car '(1 2))} evaluates to 1''. | |
228 | |
229 When a form is a macro call, it expands into a new form for Lisp to | |
230 evaluate. We show the result of the expansion with | |
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231 @samp{@expansion{}}. We may or may not show the result of the |
6453 | 232 evaluation of the expanded form. |
233 | |
234 @example | |
235 (third '(a b c)) | |
236 @expansion{} (car (cdr (cdr '(a b c)))) | |
237 @result{} c | |
238 @end example | |
239 | |
7114 | 240 Sometimes to help describe one form we show another form that |
6453 | 241 produces identical results. The exact equivalence of two forms is |
242 indicated with @samp{@equiv{}}. | |
243 | |
244 @example | |
245 (make-sparse-keymap) @equiv{} (list 'keymap) | |
246 @end example | |
247 | |
248 @node Printing Notation | |
249 @subsection Printing Notation | |
250 @cindex printing notation | |
251 | |
252 Many of the examples in this manual print text when they are | |
7114 | 253 evaluated. If you execute example code in a Lisp Interaction buffer |
254 (such as the buffer @samp{*scratch*}), the printed text is inserted into | |
255 the buffer. If you execute the example by other means (such as by | |
256 evaluating the function @code{eval-region}), the printed text is | |
26288 | 257 displayed in the echo area. |
6453 | 258 |
259 Examples in this manual indicate printed text with @samp{@print{}}, | |
260 irrespective of where that text goes. The value returned by evaluating | |
261 the form (here @code{bar}) follows on a separate line. | |
262 | |
263 @example | |
264 @group | |
265 (progn (print 'foo) (print 'bar)) | |
266 @print{} foo | |
267 @print{} bar | |
268 @result{} bar | |
269 @end group | |
270 @end example | |
271 | |
272 @node Error Messages | |
273 @subsection Error Messages | |
274 @cindex error message notation | |
275 | |
276 Some examples signal errors. This normally displays an error message | |
277 in the echo area. We show the error message on a line starting with | |
278 @samp{@error{}}. Note that @samp{@error{}} itself does not appear in | |
279 the echo area. | |
280 | |
281 @example | |
282 (+ 23 'x) | |
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283 @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, x |
6453 | 284 @end example |
285 | |
286 @node Buffer Text Notation | |
287 @subsection Buffer Text Notation | |
288 @cindex buffer text notation | |
289 | |
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290 Some examples describe modifications to the contents of a buffer, by |
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291 showing the ``before'' and ``after'' versions of the text. These |
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292 examples show the contents of the buffer in question between two lines |
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293 of dashes containing the buffer name. In addition, @samp{@point{}} |
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294 indicates the location of point. (The symbol for point, of course, is |
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295 not part of the text in the buffer; it indicates the place |
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296 @emph{between} two characters where point is currently located.) |
6453 | 297 |
298 @example | |
299 ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- | |
300 This is the @point{}contents of foo. | |
301 ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- | |
302 | |
303 (insert "changed ") | |
304 @result{} nil | |
305 ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- | |
306 This is the changed @point{}contents of foo. | |
307 ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- | |
308 @end example | |
309 | |
310 @node Format of Descriptions | |
311 @subsection Format of Descriptions | |
312 @cindex description format | |
313 | |
314 Functions, variables, macros, commands, user options, and special | |
315 forms are described in this manual in a uniform format. The first | |
316 line of a description contains the name of the item followed by its | |
317 arguments, if any. | |
27193 | 318 @ifnottex |
6453 | 319 The category---function, variable, or whatever---appears at the |
320 beginning of the line. | |
27193 | 321 @end ifnottex |
6453 | 322 @iftex |
323 The category---function, variable, or whatever---is printed next to the | |
324 right margin. | |
325 @end iftex | |
326 The description follows on succeeding lines, sometimes with examples. | |
327 | |
328 @menu | |
329 * A Sample Function Description:: A description of an imaginary | |
330 function, @code{foo}. | |
331 * A Sample Variable Description:: A description of an imaginary | |
332 variable, | |
333 @code{electric-future-map}. | |
334 @end menu | |
335 | |
336 @node A Sample Function Description | |
337 @subsubsection A Sample Function Description | |
338 @cindex function descriptions | |
339 @cindex command descriptions | |
340 @cindex macro descriptions | |
341 @cindex special form descriptions | |
342 | |
343 In a function description, the name of the function being described | |
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344 appears first. It is followed on the same line by a list of argument |
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345 names. These names are also used in the body of the description, to |
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346 stand for the values of the arguments. |
6453 | 347 |
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348 The appearance of the keyword @code{&optional} in the argument list |
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349 indicates that the subsequent arguments may be omitted (omitted |
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350 arguments default to @code{nil}). Do not write @code{&optional} when |
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351 you call the function. |
6453 | 352 |
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353 The keyword @code{&rest} (which must be followed by a single argument |
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354 name) indicates that any number of arguments can follow. The single |
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355 following argument name will have a value, as a variable, which is a |
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356 list of all these remaining arguments. Do not write @code{&rest} when |
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357 you call the function. |
6453 | 358 |
359 Here is a description of an imaginary function @code{foo}: | |
360 | |
361 @defun foo integer1 &optional integer2 &rest integers | |
362 The function @code{foo} subtracts @var{integer1} from @var{integer2}, | |
363 then adds all the rest of the arguments to the result. If @var{integer2} | |
364 is not supplied, then the number 19 is used by default. | |
365 | |
366 @example | |
367 (foo 1 5 3 9) | |
368 @result{} 16 | |
369 (foo 5) | |
370 @result{} 14 | |
371 @end example | |
372 | |
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373 @need 1500 |
6453 | 374 More generally, |
375 | |
376 @example | |
377 (foo @var{w} @var{x} @var{y}@dots{}) | |
378 @equiv{} | |
379 (+ (- @var{x} @var{w}) @var{y}@dots{}) | |
380 @end example | |
381 @end defun | |
382 | |
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383 Any argument whose name contains the name of a type (e.g., |
6453 | 384 @var{integer}, @var{integer1} or @var{buffer}) is expected to be of that |
385 type. A plural of a type (such as @var{buffers}) often means a list of | |
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386 objects of that type. Arguments named @var{object} may be of any type. |
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387 (@xref{Lisp Data Types}, for a list of Emacs object types.) Arguments |
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388 with other sorts of names (e.g., @var{new-file}) are discussed |
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389 specifically in the description of the function. In some sections, |
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390 features common to the arguments of several functions are described at |
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391 the beginning. |
6453 | 392 |
393 @xref{Lambda Expressions}, for a more complete description of optional | |
394 and rest arguments. | |
395 | |
396 Command, macro, and special form descriptions have the same format, | |
397 but the word `Function' is replaced by `Command', `Macro', or `Special | |
398 Form', respectively. Commands are simply functions that may be called | |
399 interactively; macros process their arguments differently from functions | |
400 (the arguments are not evaluated), but are presented the same way. | |
401 | |
402 Special form descriptions use a more complex notation to specify | |
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403 optional and repeated arguments because they can break the argument |
6453 | 404 list down into separate arguments in more complicated ways. |
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405 @samp{@r{[}@var{optional-arg}@r{]}} means that @var{optional-arg} is |
6453 | 406 optional and @samp{@var{repeated-args}@dots{}} stands for zero or more |
407 arguments. Parentheses are used when several arguments are grouped into | |
408 additional levels of list structure. Here is an example: | |
409 | |
410 @defspec count-loop (@var{var} [@var{from} @var{to} [@var{inc}]]) @var{body}@dots{} | |
411 This imaginary special form implements a loop that executes the | |
412 @var{body} forms and then increments the variable @var{var} on each | |
413 iteration. On the first iteration, the variable has the value | |
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414 @var{from}; on subsequent iterations, it is incremented by one (or by |
6453 | 415 @var{inc} if that is given). The loop exits before executing @var{body} |
416 if @var{var} equals @var{to}. Here is an example: | |
417 | |
418 @example | |
419 (count-loop (i 0 10) | |
420 (prin1 i) (princ " ") | |
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421 (prin1 (aref vector i)) |
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422 (terpri)) |
6453 | 423 @end example |
424 | |
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425 If @var{from} and @var{to} are omitted, @var{var} is bound to |
6453 | 426 @code{nil} before the loop begins, and the loop exits if @var{var} is |
427 non-@code{nil} at the beginning of an iteration. Here is an example: | |
428 | |
429 @example | |
430 (count-loop (done) | |
431 (if (pending) | |
432 (fixit) | |
433 (setq done t))) | |
434 @end example | |
435 | |
436 In this special form, the arguments @var{from} and @var{to} are | |
437 optional, but must both be present or both absent. If they are present, | |
438 @var{inc} may optionally be specified as well. These arguments are | |
439 grouped with the argument @var{var} into a list, to distinguish them | |
440 from @var{body}, which includes all remaining elements of the form. | |
441 @end defspec | |
442 | |
443 @node A Sample Variable Description | |
444 @subsubsection A Sample Variable Description | |
445 @cindex variable descriptions | |
446 @cindex option descriptions | |
447 | |
448 A @dfn{variable} is a name that can hold a value. Although any | |
449 variable can be set by the user, certain variables that exist | |
450 specifically so that users can change them are called @dfn{user | |
451 options}. Ordinary variables and user options are described using a | |
452 format like that for functions except that there are no arguments. | |
453 | |
454 Here is a description of the imaginary @code{electric-future-map} | |
455 variable.@refill | |
456 | |
457 @defvar electric-future-map | |
458 The value of this variable is a full keymap used by Electric Command | |
459 Future mode. The functions in this map allow you to edit commands you | |
460 have not yet thought about executing. | |
461 @end defvar | |
462 | |
463 User option descriptions have the same format, but `Variable' is | |
464 replaced by `User Option'. | |
465 | |
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466 @node Version Info |
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467 @section Version Information |
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468 |
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469 These facilities provide information about which version of Emacs is |
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470 in use. |
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471 |
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472 @deffn Command emacs-version |
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473 This function returns a string describing the version of Emacs that is |
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474 running. It is useful to include this string in bug reports. |
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475 |
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476 @smallexample |
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477 @group |
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478 (emacs-version) |
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479 @result{} "GNU Emacs 20.3.5 (i486-pc-linux-gnulibc1, X toolkit) |
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480 of Sat Feb 14 1998 on psilocin.gnu.org" |
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481 @end group |
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482 @end smallexample |
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483 |
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484 Called interactively, the function prints the same information in the |
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485 echo area. |
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486 @end deffn |
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487 |
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488 @defvar emacs-build-time |
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489 The value of this variable indicates the time at which Emacs was built |
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490 at the local site. It is a list of three integers, like the value |
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491 of @code{current-time} (@pxref{Time of Day}). |
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492 |
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493 @example |
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494 @group |
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495 emacs-build-time |
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496 @result{} (13623 62065 344633) |
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497 @end group |
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498 @end example |
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499 @end defvar |
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500 |
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501 @defvar emacs-version |
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502 The value of this variable is the version of Emacs being run. It is a |
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503 string such as @code{"20.3.1"}. The last number in this string is not |
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504 really part of the Emacs release version number; it is incremented each |
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505 time you build Emacs in any given directory. A value with three numeric |
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506 components, such as @code{"20.3.9.1"}, indicates an unreleased test |
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507 version. |
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508 @end defvar |
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509 |
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510 The following two variables have existed since Emacs version 19.23: |
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511 |
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512 @defvar emacs-major-version |
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513 The major version number of Emacs, as an integer. For Emacs version |
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514 20.3, the value is 20. |
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515 @end defvar |
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516 |
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517 @defvar emacs-minor-version |
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518 The minor version number of Emacs, as an integer. For Emacs version |
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519 20.3, the value is 3. |
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520 @end defvar |
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521 |
6453 | 522 @node Acknowledgements |
523 @section Acknowledgements | |
524 | |
525 This manual was written by Robert Krawitz, Bil Lewis, Dan LaLiberte, | |
526 Richard M. Stallman and Chris Welty, the volunteers of the GNU manual | |
527 group, in an effort extending over several years. Robert J. Chassell | |
528 helped to review and edit the manual, with the support of the Defense | |
529 Advanced Research Projects Agency, ARPA Order 6082, arranged by Warren | |
25875 | 530 A. Hunt, Jr.@: of Computational Logic, Inc. |
6453 | 531 |
532 Corrections were supplied by Karl Berry, Jim Blandy, Bard Bloom, | |
533 Stephane Boucher, David Boyes, Alan Carroll, Richard Davis, Lawrence | |
534 R. Dodd, Peter Doornbosch, David A. Duff, Chris Eich, Beverly | |
535 Erlebacher, David Eckelkamp, Ralf Fassel, Eirik Fuller, Stephen Gildea, | |
536 Bob Glickstein, Eric Hanchrow, George Hartzell, Nathan Hess, Masayuki | |
537 Ida, Dan Jacobson, Jak Kirman, Bob Knighten, Frederick M. Korz, Joe | |
538 Lammens, Glenn M. Lewis, K. Richard Magill, Brian Marick, Roland | |
539 McGrath, Skip Montanaro, John Gardiner Myers, Thomas A. Peterson, | |
540 Francesco Potorti, Friedrich Pukelsheim, Arnold D. Robbins, Raul | |
25875 | 541 Rockwell, Per Starb@"ack, Shinichirou Sugou, Kimmo Suominen, Edward Tharp, |
6453 | 542 Bill Trost, Rickard Westman, Jean White, Matthew Wilding, Carl Witty, |
543 Dale Worley, Rusty Wright, and David D. Zuhn. |