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author | Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org> |
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date | Tue, 19 Aug 2003 23:47:22 +0000 |
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rev | line source |
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6455 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
27189 | 3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999 |
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4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6455 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/functions | |
7 @node Functions, Macros, Variables, Top | |
8 @chapter Functions | |
9 | |
10 A Lisp program is composed mainly of Lisp functions. This chapter | |
11 explains what functions are, how they accept arguments, and how to | |
12 define them. | |
13 | |
14 @menu | |
15 * What Is a Function:: Lisp functions vs. primitives; terminology. | |
16 * Lambda Expressions:: How functions are expressed as Lisp objects. | |
17 * Function Names:: A symbol can serve as the name of a function. | |
18 * Defining Functions:: Lisp expressions for defining functions. | |
19 * Calling Functions:: How to use an existing function. | |
20 * Mapping Functions:: Applying a function to each element of a list, etc. | |
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21 * Anonymous Functions:: Lambda expressions are functions with no names. |
6455 | 22 * Function Cells:: Accessing or setting the function definition |
23 of a symbol. | |
24 * Inline Functions:: Defining functions that the compiler will open code. | |
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25 * Function Safety:: Determining whether a function is safe to call. |
6455 | 26 * Related Topics:: Cross-references to specific Lisp primitives |
27 that have a special bearing on how functions work. | |
28 @end menu | |
29 | |
30 @node What Is a Function | |
31 @section What Is a Function? | |
32 | |
33 In a general sense, a function is a rule for carrying on a computation | |
34 given several values called @dfn{arguments}. The result of the | |
35 computation is called the value of the function. The computation can | |
36 also have side effects: lasting changes in the values of variables or | |
37 the contents of data structures. | |
38 | |
39 Here are important terms for functions in Emacs Lisp and for other | |
40 function-like objects. | |
41 | |
42 @table @dfn | |
43 @item function | |
44 @cindex function | |
45 In Emacs Lisp, a @dfn{function} is anything that can be applied to | |
46 arguments in a Lisp program. In some cases, we use it more | |
47 specifically to mean a function written in Lisp. Special forms and | |
48 macros are not functions. | |
49 | |
50 @item primitive | |
51 @cindex primitive | |
52 @cindex subr | |
53 @cindex built-in function | |
54 A @dfn{primitive} is a function callable from Lisp that is written in C, | |
55 such as @code{car} or @code{append}. These functions are also called | |
56 @dfn{built-in} functions or @dfn{subrs}. (Special forms are also | |
57 considered primitives.) | |
58 | |
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59 Usually the reason we implement a function as a primitive is either |
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60 because it is fundamental, because it provides a low-level interface |
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61 to operating system services, or because it needs to run fast. |
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62 Primitives can be modified or added only by changing the C sources and |
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63 recompiling the editor. See @ref{Writing Emacs Primitives}. |
6455 | 64 |
65 @item lambda expression | |
66 A @dfn{lambda expression} is a function written in Lisp. | |
67 These are described in the following section. | |
27193 | 68 @ifnottex |
6455 | 69 @xref{Lambda Expressions}. |
27193 | 70 @end ifnottex |
6455 | 71 |
72 @item special form | |
73 A @dfn{special form} is a primitive that is like a function but does not | |
74 evaluate all of its arguments in the usual way. It may evaluate only | |
75 some of the arguments, or may evaluate them in an unusual order, or | |
76 several times. Many special forms are described in @ref{Control | |
77 Structures}. | |
78 | |
79 @item macro | |
80 @cindex macro | |
81 A @dfn{macro} is a construct defined in Lisp by the programmer. It | |
82 differs from a function in that it translates a Lisp expression that you | |
83 write into an equivalent expression to be evaluated instead of the | |
12098 | 84 original expression. Macros enable Lisp programmers to do the sorts of |
85 things that special forms can do. @xref{Macros}, for how to define and | |
86 use macros. | |
6455 | 87 |
88 @item command | |
89 @cindex command | |
90 A @dfn{command} is an object that @code{command-execute} can invoke; it | |
91 is a possible definition for a key sequence. Some functions are | |
92 commands; a function written in Lisp is a command if it contains an | |
93 interactive declaration (@pxref{Defining Commands}). Such a function | |
94 can be called from Lisp expressions like other functions; in this case, | |
95 the fact that the function is a command makes no difference. | |
96 | |
97 Keyboard macros (strings and vectors) are commands also, even though | |
98 they are not functions. A symbol is a command if its function | |
99 definition is a command; such symbols can be invoked with @kbd{M-x}. | |
100 The symbol is a function as well if the definition is a function. | |
101 @xref{Command Overview}. | |
102 | |
103 @item keystroke command | |
104 @cindex keystroke command | |
105 A @dfn{keystroke command} is a command that is bound to a key sequence | |
106 (typically one to three keystrokes). The distinction is made here | |
107 merely to avoid confusion with the meaning of ``command'' in non-Emacs | |
108 editors; for Lisp programs, the distinction is normally unimportant. | |
109 | |
110 @item byte-code function | |
111 A @dfn{byte-code function} is a function that has been compiled by the | |
112 byte compiler. @xref{Byte-Code Type}. | |
113 @end table | |
114 | |
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115 @defun functionp object |
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116 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is any kind of function, |
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117 or a special form or macro. |
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118 @end defun |
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119 |
6455 | 120 @defun subrp object |
121 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a built-in function | |
122 (i.e., a Lisp primitive). | |
123 | |
124 @example | |
125 @group | |
126 (subrp 'message) ; @r{@code{message} is a symbol,} | |
127 @result{} nil ; @r{not a subr object.} | |
128 @end group | |
129 @group | |
130 (subrp (symbol-function 'message)) | |
131 @result{} t | |
132 @end group | |
133 @end example | |
134 @end defun | |
135 | |
136 @defun byte-code-function-p object | |
137 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a byte-code | |
138 function. For example: | |
139 | |
140 @example | |
141 @group | |
142 (byte-code-function-p (symbol-function 'next-line)) | |
143 @result{} t | |
144 @end group | |
145 @end example | |
146 @end defun | |
147 | |
33999 | 148 @defun subr-arity subr |
149 @tindex subr-arity | |
150 This function provides information about the argument list of a | |
151 primitive, @var{subr}. The returned value is a pair | |
152 @code{(@var{min} . @var{max})}. @var{min} is the minimum number of | |
153 args. @var{max} is the maximum number or the symbol @code{many}, for a | |
154 function with @code{&rest} arguments, or the symbol @code{unevalled} if | |
155 @var{subr} is a special form. | |
156 @end defun | |
157 | |
6455 | 158 @node Lambda Expressions |
159 @section Lambda Expressions | |
160 @cindex lambda expression | |
161 | |
162 A function written in Lisp is a list that looks like this: | |
163 | |
164 @example | |
165 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{}) | |
166 @r{[}@var{documentation-string}@r{]} | |
167 @r{[}@var{interactive-declaration}@r{]} | |
168 @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
169 @end example | |
170 | |
171 @noindent | |
12098 | 172 Such a list is called a @dfn{lambda expression}. In Emacs Lisp, it |
173 actually is valid as an expression---it evaluates to itself. In some | |
174 other Lisp dialects, a lambda expression is not a valid expression at | |
175 all. In either case, its main use is not to be evaluated as an | |
176 expression, but to be called as a function. | |
6455 | 177 |
178 @menu | |
179 * Lambda Components:: The parts of a lambda expression. | |
180 * Simple Lambda:: A simple example. | |
181 * Argument List:: Details and special features of argument lists. | |
182 * Function Documentation:: How to put documentation in a function. | |
183 @end menu | |
184 | |
185 @node Lambda Components | |
186 @subsection Components of a Lambda Expression | |
187 | |
27193 | 188 @ifnottex |
6455 | 189 |
190 A function written in Lisp (a ``lambda expression'') is a list that | |
191 looks like this: | |
192 | |
193 @example | |
194 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{}) | |
195 [@var{documentation-string}] | |
196 [@var{interactive-declaration}] | |
197 @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
198 @end example | |
27193 | 199 @end ifnottex |
6455 | 200 |
201 @cindex lambda list | |
202 The first element of a lambda expression is always the symbol | |
203 @code{lambda}. This indicates that the list represents a function. The | |
204 reason functions are defined to start with @code{lambda} is so that | |
205 other lists, intended for other uses, will not accidentally be valid as | |
206 functions. | |
207 | |
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208 The second element is a list of symbols---the argument variable names. |
6455 | 209 This is called the @dfn{lambda list}. When a Lisp function is called, |
210 the argument values are matched up against the variables in the lambda | |
211 list, which are given local bindings with the values provided. | |
212 @xref{Local Variables}. | |
213 | |
7193 | 214 The documentation string is a Lisp string object placed within the |
215 function definition to describe the function for the Emacs help | |
216 facilities. @xref{Function Documentation}. | |
6455 | 217 |
218 The interactive declaration is a list of the form @code{(interactive | |
219 @var{code-string})}. This declares how to provide arguments if the | |
220 function is used interactively. Functions with this declaration are called | |
221 @dfn{commands}; they can be called using @kbd{M-x} or bound to a key. | |
222 Functions not intended to be called in this way should not have interactive | |
223 declarations. @xref{Defining Commands}, for how to write an interactive | |
224 declaration. | |
225 | |
226 @cindex body of function | |
227 The rest of the elements are the @dfn{body} of the function: the Lisp | |
228 code to do the work of the function (or, as a Lisp programmer would say, | |
229 ``a list of Lisp forms to evaluate''). The value returned by the | |
230 function is the value returned by the last element of the body. | |
231 | |
232 @node Simple Lambda | |
233 @subsection A Simple Lambda-Expression Example | |
234 | |
235 Consider for example the following function: | |
236 | |
237 @example | |
238 (lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
239 @end example | |
240 | |
241 @noindent | |
242 We can call this function by writing it as the @sc{car} of an | |
243 expression, like this: | |
244 | |
245 @example | |
246 @group | |
247 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
248 1 2 3) | |
249 @end group | |
250 @end example | |
251 | |
252 @noindent | |
253 This call evaluates the body of the lambda expression with the variable | |
254 @code{a} bound to 1, @code{b} bound to 2, and @code{c} bound to 3. | |
255 Evaluation of the body adds these three numbers, producing the result 6; | |
256 therefore, this call to the function returns the value 6. | |
257 | |
258 Note that the arguments can be the results of other function calls, as in | |
259 this example: | |
260 | |
261 @example | |
262 @group | |
263 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
264 1 (* 2 3) (- 5 4)) | |
265 @end group | |
266 @end example | |
267 | |
268 @noindent | |
269 This evaluates the arguments @code{1}, @code{(* 2 3)}, and @code{(- 5 | |
7193 | 270 4)} from left to right. Then it applies the lambda expression to the |
271 argument values 1, 6 and 1 to produce the value 8. | |
6455 | 272 |
273 It is not often useful to write a lambda expression as the @sc{car} of | |
274 a form in this way. You can get the same result, of making local | |
275 variables and giving them values, using the special form @code{let} | |
276 (@pxref{Local Variables}). And @code{let} is clearer and easier to use. | |
277 In practice, lambda expressions are either stored as the function | |
278 definitions of symbols, to produce named functions, or passed as | |
279 arguments to other functions (@pxref{Anonymous Functions}). | |
280 | |
281 However, calls to explicit lambda expressions were very useful in the | |
282 old days of Lisp, before the special form @code{let} was invented. At | |
283 that time, they were the only way to bind and initialize local | |
284 variables. | |
285 | |
286 @node Argument List | |
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287 @subsection Other Features of Argument Lists |
6455 | 288 @kindex wrong-number-of-arguments |
289 @cindex argument binding | |
290 @cindex binding arguments | |
291 | |
292 Our simple sample function, @code{(lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))}, | |
293 specifies three argument variables, so it must be called with three | |
294 arguments: if you try to call it with only two arguments or four | |
295 arguments, you get a @code{wrong-number-of-arguments} error. | |
296 | |
297 It is often convenient to write a function that allows certain | |
298 arguments to be omitted. For example, the function @code{substring} | |
299 accepts three arguments---a string, the start index and the end | |
300 index---but the third argument defaults to the @var{length} of the | |
301 string if you omit it. It is also convenient for certain functions to | |
7193 | 302 accept an indefinite number of arguments, as the functions @code{list} |
6455 | 303 and @code{+} do. |
304 | |
305 @cindex optional arguments | |
306 @cindex rest arguments | |
307 @kindex &optional | |
308 @kindex &rest | |
309 To specify optional arguments that may be omitted when a function | |
310 is called, simply include the keyword @code{&optional} before the optional | |
311 arguments. To specify a list of zero or more extra arguments, include the | |
312 keyword @code{&rest} before one final argument. | |
313 | |
314 Thus, the complete syntax for an argument list is as follows: | |
315 | |
316 @example | |
317 @group | |
318 (@var{required-vars}@dots{} | |
319 @r{[}&optional @var{optional-vars}@dots{}@r{]} | |
320 @r{[}&rest @var{rest-var}@r{]}) | |
321 @end group | |
322 @end example | |
323 | |
324 @noindent | |
325 The square brackets indicate that the @code{&optional} and @code{&rest} | |
326 clauses, and the variables that follow them, are optional. | |
327 | |
328 A call to the function requires one actual argument for each of the | |
329 @var{required-vars}. There may be actual arguments for zero or more of | |
330 the @var{optional-vars}, and there cannot be any actual arguments beyond | |
331 that unless the lambda list uses @code{&rest}. In that case, there may | |
332 be any number of extra actual arguments. | |
333 | |
334 If actual arguments for the optional and rest variables are omitted, | |
7193 | 335 then they always default to @code{nil}. There is no way for the |
6455 | 336 function to distinguish between an explicit argument of @code{nil} and |
7193 | 337 an omitted argument. However, the body of the function is free to |
338 consider @code{nil} an abbreviation for some other meaningful value. | |
339 This is what @code{substring} does; @code{nil} as the third argument to | |
340 @code{substring} means to use the length of the string supplied. | |
6455 | 341 |
342 @cindex CL note---default optional arg | |
343 @quotation | |
344 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp allows the function to specify what | |
345 default value to use when an optional argument is omitted; Emacs Lisp | |
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346 always uses @code{nil}. Emacs Lisp does not support ``supplied-p'' |
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347 variables that tell you whether an argument was explicitly passed. |
6455 | 348 @end quotation |
349 | |
350 For example, an argument list that looks like this: | |
351 | |
352 @example | |
353 (a b &optional c d &rest e) | |
354 @end example | |
355 | |
356 @noindent | |
357 binds @code{a} and @code{b} to the first two actual arguments, which are | |
358 required. If one or two more arguments are provided, @code{c} and | |
359 @code{d} are bound to them respectively; any arguments after the first | |
360 four are collected into a list and @code{e} is bound to that list. If | |
361 there are only two arguments, @code{c} is @code{nil}; if two or three | |
362 arguments, @code{d} is @code{nil}; if four arguments or fewer, @code{e} | |
363 is @code{nil}. | |
364 | |
365 There is no way to have required arguments following optional | |
366 ones---it would not make sense. To see why this must be so, suppose | |
367 that @code{c} in the example were optional and @code{d} were required. | |
39168 | 368 Suppose three actual arguments are given; which variable would the |
369 third argument be for? Would it be used for the @var{c}, or for | |
370 @var{d}? One can argue for both possibilities. Similarly, it makes | |
371 no sense to have any more arguments (either required or optional) | |
372 after a @code{&rest} argument. | |
6455 | 373 |
374 Here are some examples of argument lists and proper calls: | |
375 | |
376 @smallexample | |
377 ((lambda (n) (1+ n)) ; @r{One required:} | |
378 1) ; @r{requires exactly one argument.} | |
379 @result{} 2 | |
380 ((lambda (n &optional n1) ; @r{One required and one optional:} | |
381 (if n1 (+ n n1) (1+ n))) ; @r{1 or 2 arguments.} | |
382 1 2) | |
383 @result{} 3 | |
384 ((lambda (n &rest ns) ; @r{One required and one rest:} | |
385 (+ n (apply '+ ns))) ; @r{1 or more arguments.} | |
386 1 2 3 4 5) | |
387 @result{} 15 | |
388 @end smallexample | |
389 | |
390 @node Function Documentation | |
391 @subsection Documentation Strings of Functions | |
392 @cindex documentation of function | |
393 | |
394 A lambda expression may optionally have a @dfn{documentation string} just | |
395 after the lambda list. This string does not affect execution of the | |
396 function; it is a kind of comment, but a systematized comment which | |
397 actually appears inside the Lisp world and can be used by the Emacs help | |
398 facilities. @xref{Documentation}, for how the @var{documentation-string} is | |
399 accessed. | |
400 | |
12098 | 401 It is a good idea to provide documentation strings for all the |
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402 functions in your program, even those that are called only from within |
12098 | 403 your program. Documentation strings are like comments, except that they |
404 are easier to access. | |
6455 | 405 |
406 The first line of the documentation string should stand on its own, | |
407 because @code{apropos} displays just this first line. It should consist | |
408 of one or two complete sentences that summarize the function's purpose. | |
409 | |
12098 | 410 The start of the documentation string is usually indented in the source file, |
411 but since these spaces come before the starting double-quote, they are not part of | |
6455 | 412 the string. Some people make a practice of indenting any additional |
7193 | 413 lines of the string so that the text lines up in the program source. |
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414 @emph{That is a mistake.} The indentation of the following lines is |
7193 | 415 inside the string; what looks nice in the source code will look ugly |
416 when displayed by the help commands. | |
6455 | 417 |
418 You may wonder how the documentation string could be optional, since | |
419 there are required components of the function that follow it (the body). | |
420 Since evaluation of a string returns that string, without any side effects, | |
421 it has no effect if it is not the last form in the body. Thus, in | |
422 practice, there is no confusion between the first form of the body and the | |
423 documentation string; if the only body form is a string then it serves both | |
424 as the return value and as the documentation. | |
425 | |
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426 The last line of the documentation string can specify calling |
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427 conventions different from the actual function arguments. Write |
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428 text like this: |
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429 |
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430 @example |
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431 (fn @var{arglist}) |
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432 @end example |
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433 |
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434 @noindent |
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435 following a blank line, with no newline following it inside the |
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436 documentation string. This feature is particularly useful for |
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437 macro definitions. |
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438 |
6455 | 439 @node Function Names |
440 @section Naming a Function | |
441 @cindex function definition | |
442 @cindex named function | |
443 @cindex function name | |
444 | |
445 In most computer languages, every function has a name; the idea of a | |
446 function without a name is nonsensical. In Lisp, a function in the | |
447 strictest sense has no name. It is simply a list whose first element is | |
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448 @code{lambda}, a byte-code function object, or a primitive subr-object. |
6455 | 449 |
450 However, a symbol can serve as the name of a function. This happens | |
451 when you put the function in the symbol's @dfn{function cell} | |
452 (@pxref{Symbol Components}). Then the symbol itself becomes a valid, | |
453 callable function, equivalent to the list or subr-object that its | |
454 function cell refers to. The contents of the function cell are also | |
455 called the symbol's @dfn{function definition}. The procedure of using a | |
456 symbol's function definition in place of the symbol is called | |
457 @dfn{symbol function indirection}; see @ref{Function Indirection}. | |
458 | |
459 In practice, nearly all functions are given names in this way and | |
460 referred to through their names. For example, the symbol @code{car} works | |
461 as a function and does what it does because the primitive subr-object | |
462 @code{#<subr car>} is stored in its function cell. | |
463 | |
464 We give functions names because it is convenient to refer to them by | |
465 their names in Lisp expressions. For primitive subr-objects such as | |
466 @code{#<subr car>}, names are the only way you can refer to them: there | |
467 is no read syntax for such objects. For functions written in Lisp, the | |
468 name is more convenient to use in a call than an explicit lambda | |
469 expression. Also, a function with a name can refer to itself---it can | |
470 be recursive. Writing the function's name in its own definition is much | |
471 more convenient than making the function definition point to itself | |
472 (something that is not impossible but that has various disadvantages in | |
473 practice). | |
474 | |
475 We often identify functions with the symbols used to name them. For | |
476 example, we often speak of ``the function @code{car}'', not | |
477 distinguishing between the symbol @code{car} and the primitive | |
478 subr-object that is its function definition. For most purposes, there | |
479 is no need to distinguish. | |
480 | |
481 Even so, keep in mind that a function need not have a unique name. While | |
482 a given function object @emph{usually} appears in the function cell of only | |
483 one symbol, this is just a matter of convenience. It is easy to store | |
484 it in several symbols using @code{fset}; then each of the symbols is | |
485 equally well a name for the same function. | |
486 | |
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487 A symbol used as a function name may also be used as a variable; these |
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488 two uses of a symbol are independent and do not conflict. (Some Lisp |
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489 dialects, such as Scheme, do not distinguish between a symbol's value |
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490 and its function definition; a symbol's value as a variable is also its |
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491 function definition.) If you have not given a symbol a function |
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492 definition, you cannot use it as a function; whether the symbol has a |
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493 value as a variable makes no difference to this. |
6455 | 494 |
495 @node Defining Functions | |
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496 @section Defining Functions |
6455 | 497 @cindex defining a function |
498 | |
499 We usually give a name to a function when it is first created. This | |
500 is called @dfn{defining a function}, and it is done with the | |
501 @code{defun} special form. | |
502 | |
503 @defspec defun name argument-list body-forms | |
504 @code{defun} is the usual way to define new Lisp functions. It | |
505 defines the symbol @var{name} as a function that looks like this: | |
506 | |
507 @example | |
508 (lambda @var{argument-list} . @var{body-forms}) | |
509 @end example | |
510 | |
511 @code{defun} stores this lambda expression in the function cell of | |
512 @var{name}. It returns the value @var{name}, but usually we ignore this | |
513 value. | |
514 | |
515 As described previously (@pxref{Lambda Expressions}), | |
516 @var{argument-list} is a list of argument names and may include the | |
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517 keywords @code{&optional} and @code{&rest}. Also, the first two of the |
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518 @var{body-forms} may be a documentation string and an interactive |
6455 | 519 declaration. |
520 | |
521 There is no conflict if the same symbol @var{name} is also used as a | |
522 variable, since the symbol's value cell is independent of the function | |
523 cell. @xref{Symbol Components}. | |
524 | |
525 Here are some examples: | |
526 | |
527 @example | |
528 @group | |
529 (defun foo () 5) | |
530 @result{} foo | |
531 @end group | |
532 @group | |
533 (foo) | |
534 @result{} 5 | |
535 @end group | |
536 | |
537 @group | |
538 (defun bar (a &optional b &rest c) | |
539 (list a b c)) | |
540 @result{} bar | |
541 @end group | |
542 @group | |
543 (bar 1 2 3 4 5) | |
544 @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5)) | |
545 @end group | |
546 @group | |
547 (bar 1) | |
548 @result{} (1 nil nil) | |
549 @end group | |
550 @group | |
551 (bar) | |
552 @error{} Wrong number of arguments. | |
553 @end group | |
554 | |
555 @group | |
556 (defun capitalize-backwards () | |
557 "Upcase the last letter of a word." | |
558 (interactive) | |
559 (backward-word 1) | |
560 (forward-word 1) | |
561 (backward-char 1) | |
562 (capitalize-word 1)) | |
563 @result{} capitalize-backwards | |
564 @end group | |
565 @end example | |
566 | |
567 Be careful not to redefine existing functions unintentionally. | |
568 @code{defun} redefines even primitive functions such as @code{car} | |
569 without any hesitation or notification. Redefining a function already | |
570 defined is often done deliberately, and there is no way to distinguish | |
571 deliberate redefinition from unintentional redefinition. | |
572 @end defspec | |
573 | |
574 @defun defalias name definition | |
575 This special form defines the symbol @var{name} as a function, with | |
7193 | 576 definition @var{definition} (which can be any valid Lisp function). |
12098 | 577 |
578 The proper place to use @code{defalias} is where a specific function | |
579 name is being defined---especially where that name appears explicitly in | |
580 the source file being loaded. This is because @code{defalias} records | |
581 which file defined the function, just like @code{defun} | |
582 (@pxref{Unloading}). | |
583 | |
584 By contrast, in programs that manipulate function definitions for other | |
585 purposes, it is better to use @code{fset}, which does not keep such | |
586 records. | |
6455 | 587 @end defun |
588 | |
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589 You cannot create a new primitive function with @code{defun} or |
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590 @code{defalias}, but you use them to change the function definition of |
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591 any symbol, even one such as @code{car} or @code{x-popup-menu} whose |
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592 normal definition is a primitive. However, this is risky: for |
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593 instance, it is next to impossible to redefine @code{car} without |
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594 breaking Lisp completely. Redefining an obscure function such as |
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595 @code{x-popup-menu} is less dangerous, but it still may not work as |
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596 you expect. If there are calls to the primitive from C code, they |
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597 call the primitive's C definition directly, so changing the symbol's |
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598 definition will have no effect on them. |
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599 |
12098 | 600 See also @code{defsubst}, which defines a function like @code{defun} |
601 and tells the Lisp compiler to open-code it. @xref{Inline Functions}. | |
602 | |
6455 | 603 @node Calling Functions |
604 @section Calling Functions | |
605 @cindex function invocation | |
606 @cindex calling a function | |
607 | |
608 Defining functions is only half the battle. Functions don't do | |
609 anything until you @dfn{call} them, i.e., tell them to run. Calling a | |
610 function is also known as @dfn{invocation}. | |
611 | |
7193 | 612 The most common way of invoking a function is by evaluating a list. |
613 For example, evaluating the list @code{(concat "a" "b")} calls the | |
614 function @code{concat} with arguments @code{"a"} and @code{"b"}. | |
615 @xref{Evaluation}, for a description of evaluation. | |
6455 | 616 |
617 When you write a list as an expression in your program, the function | |
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618 name it calls is written in your program. This means that you choose |
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619 which function to call, and how many arguments to give it, when you |
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620 write the program. Usually that's just what you want. Occasionally you |
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621 need to compute at run time which function to call. To do that, use the |
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622 function @code{funcall}. When you also need to determine at run time |
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623 how many arguments to pass, use @code{apply}. |
6455 | 624 |
625 @defun funcall function &rest arguments | |
626 @code{funcall} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, and returns | |
627 whatever @var{function} returns. | |
628 | |
629 Since @code{funcall} is a function, all of its arguments, including | |
630 @var{function}, are evaluated before @code{funcall} is called. This | |
631 means that you can use any expression to obtain the function to be | |
632 called. It also means that @code{funcall} does not see the expressions | |
633 you write for the @var{arguments}, only their values. These values are | |
634 @emph{not} evaluated a second time in the act of calling @var{function}; | |
635 @code{funcall} enters the normal procedure for calling a function at the | |
636 place where the arguments have already been evaluated. | |
637 | |
638 The argument @var{function} must be either a Lisp function or a | |
639 primitive function. Special forms and macros are not allowed, because | |
640 they make sense only when given the ``unevaluated'' argument | |
641 expressions. @code{funcall} cannot provide these because, as we saw | |
642 above, it never knows them in the first place. | |
643 | |
644 @example | |
645 @group | |
646 (setq f 'list) | |
647 @result{} list | |
648 @end group | |
649 @group | |
650 (funcall f 'x 'y 'z) | |
651 @result{} (x y z) | |
652 @end group | |
653 @group | |
654 (funcall f 'x 'y '(z)) | |
655 @result{} (x y (z)) | |
656 @end group | |
657 @group | |
658 (funcall 'and t nil) | |
659 @error{} Invalid function: #<subr and> | |
660 @end group | |
661 @end example | |
662 | |
26192 | 663 Compare these examples with the examples of @code{apply}. |
6455 | 664 @end defun |
665 | |
666 @defun apply function &rest arguments | |
667 @code{apply} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, just like | |
668 @code{funcall} but with one difference: the last of @var{arguments} is a | |
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669 list of objects, which are passed to @var{function} as separate |
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670 arguments, rather than a single list. We say that @code{apply} |
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671 @dfn{spreads} this list so that each individual element becomes an |
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672 argument. |
6455 | 673 |
674 @code{apply} returns the result of calling @var{function}. As with | |
675 @code{funcall}, @var{function} must either be a Lisp function or a | |
676 primitive function; special forms and macros do not make sense in | |
677 @code{apply}. | |
678 | |
679 @example | |
680 @group | |
681 (setq f 'list) | |
682 @result{} list | |
683 @end group | |
684 @group | |
685 (apply f 'x 'y 'z) | |
686 @error{} Wrong type argument: listp, z | |
687 @end group | |
688 @group | |
689 (apply '+ 1 2 '(3 4)) | |
690 @result{} 10 | |
691 @end group | |
692 @group | |
693 (apply '+ '(1 2 3 4)) | |
694 @result{} 10 | |
695 @end group | |
696 | |
697 @group | |
698 (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil)) | |
699 @result{} (a b c x y z) | |
700 @end group | |
701 @end example | |
702 | |
703 For an interesting example of using @code{apply}, see the description of | |
704 @code{mapcar}, in @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
705 @end defun | |
706 | |
707 @cindex functionals | |
708 It is common for Lisp functions to accept functions as arguments or | |
709 find them in data structures (especially in hook variables and property | |
710 lists) and call them using @code{funcall} or @code{apply}. Functions | |
711 that accept function arguments are often called @dfn{functionals}. | |
712 | |
12098 | 713 Sometimes, when you call a functional, it is useful to supply a no-op |
714 function as the argument. Here are two different kinds of no-op | |
6455 | 715 function: |
716 | |
717 @defun identity arg | |
718 This function returns @var{arg} and has no side effects. | |
719 @end defun | |
720 | |
721 @defun ignore &rest args | |
722 This function ignores any arguments and returns @code{nil}. | |
723 @end defun | |
724 | |
725 @node Mapping Functions | |
726 @section Mapping Functions | |
727 @cindex mapping functions | |
728 | |
729 A @dfn{mapping function} applies a given function to each element of a | |
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730 list or other collection. Emacs Lisp has several such functions; |
6455 | 731 @code{mapcar} and @code{mapconcat}, which scan a list, are described |
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732 here. @xref{Creating Symbols}, for the function @code{mapatoms} which |
26192 | 733 maps over the symbols in an obarray. @xref{Hash Access}, for the |
734 function @code{maphash} which maps over key/value associations in a | |
735 hash table. | |
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736 |
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737 These mapping functions do not allow char-tables because a char-table |
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738 is a sparse array whose nominal range of indices is very large. To map |
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739 over a char-table in a way that deals properly with its sparse nature, |
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740 use the function @code{map-char-table} (@pxref{Char-Tables}). |
6455 | 741 |
742 @defun mapcar function sequence | |
7193 | 743 @code{mapcar} applies @var{function} to each element of @var{sequence} |
744 in turn, and returns a list of the results. | |
6455 | 745 |
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746 The argument @var{sequence} can be any kind of sequence except a |
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747 char-table; that is, a list, a vector, a bool-vector, or a string. The |
6455 | 748 result is always a list. The length of the result is the same as the |
749 length of @var{sequence}. | |
750 | |
751 @smallexample | |
752 @group | |
753 @exdent @r{For example:} | |
754 | |
755 (mapcar 'car '((a b) (c d) (e f))) | |
756 @result{} (a c e) | |
757 (mapcar '1+ [1 2 3]) | |
758 @result{} (2 3 4) | |
759 (mapcar 'char-to-string "abc") | |
760 @result{} ("a" "b" "c") | |
761 @end group | |
762 | |
763 @group | |
764 ;; @r{Call each function in @code{my-hooks}.} | |
765 (mapcar 'funcall my-hooks) | |
766 @end group | |
767 | |
768 @group | |
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769 (defun mapcar* (function &rest args) |
6455 | 770 "Apply FUNCTION to successive cars of all ARGS. |
771 Return the list of results." | |
772 ;; @r{If no list is exhausted,} | |
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773 (if (not (memq 'nil args)) |
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774 ;; @r{apply function to @sc{car}s.} |
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775 (cons (apply function (mapcar 'car args)) |
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776 (apply 'mapcar* function |
6455 | 777 ;; @r{Recurse for rest of elements.} |
778 (mapcar 'cdr args))))) | |
779 @end group | |
780 | |
781 @group | |
782 (mapcar* 'cons '(a b c) '(1 2 3 4)) | |
783 @result{} ((a . 1) (b . 2) (c . 3)) | |
784 @end group | |
785 @end smallexample | |
786 @end defun | |
787 | |
28556 | 788 @defun mapc function sequence |
789 @tindex mapc | |
790 @code{mapc} is like @code{mapcar} except that @var{function} is used for | |
791 side-effects only---the values it returns are ignored, not collected | |
792 into a list. @code{mapc} always returns @var{sequence}. | |
793 @end defun | |
794 | |
6455 | 795 @defun mapconcat function sequence separator |
796 @code{mapconcat} applies @var{function} to each element of | |
797 @var{sequence}: the results, which must be strings, are concatenated. | |
798 Between each pair of result strings, @code{mapconcat} inserts the string | |
799 @var{separator}. Usually @var{separator} contains a space or comma or | |
800 other suitable punctuation. | |
801 | |
802 The argument @var{function} must be a function that can take one | |
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803 argument and return a string. The argument @var{sequence} can be any |
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804 kind of sequence except a char-table; that is, a list, a vector, a |
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805 bool-vector, or a string. |
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806 |
6455 | 807 @smallexample |
808 @group | |
809 (mapconcat 'symbol-name | |
810 '(The cat in the hat) | |
811 " ") | |
812 @result{} "The cat in the hat" | |
813 @end group | |
814 | |
815 @group | |
816 (mapconcat (function (lambda (x) (format "%c" (1+ x)))) | |
817 "HAL-8000" | |
818 "") | |
819 @result{} "IBM.9111" | |
820 @end group | |
821 @end smallexample | |
822 @end defun | |
823 | |
824 @node Anonymous Functions | |
825 @section Anonymous Functions | |
826 @cindex anonymous function | |
827 | |
828 In Lisp, a function is a list that starts with @code{lambda}, a | |
829 byte-code function compiled from such a list, or alternatively a | |
830 primitive subr-object; names are ``extra''. Although usually functions | |
831 are defined with @code{defun} and given names at the same time, it is | |
832 occasionally more concise to use an explicit lambda expression---an | |
833 anonymous function. Such a list is valid wherever a function name is. | |
834 | |
835 Any method of creating such a list makes a valid function. Even this: | |
836 | |
837 @smallexample | |
838 @group | |
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839 (setq silly (append '(lambda (x)) (list (list '+ (* 3 4) 'x)))) |
6455 | 840 @result{} (lambda (x) (+ 12 x)) |
841 @end group | |
842 @end smallexample | |
843 | |
844 @noindent | |
845 This computes a list that looks like @code{(lambda (x) (+ 12 x))} and | |
846 makes it the value (@emph{not} the function definition!) of | |
847 @code{silly}. | |
848 | |
849 Here is how we might call this function: | |
850 | |
851 @example | |
852 @group | |
853 (funcall silly 1) | |
854 @result{} 13 | |
855 @end group | |
856 @end example | |
857 | |
858 @noindent | |
859 (It does @emph{not} work to write @code{(silly 1)}, because this function | |
860 is not the @emph{function definition} of @code{silly}. We have not given | |
861 @code{silly} any function definition, just a value as a variable.) | |
862 | |
863 Most of the time, anonymous functions are constants that appear in | |
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864 your program. For example, you might want to pass one as an argument to |
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865 the function @code{mapcar}, which applies any given function to each |
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866 element of a list. |
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867 |
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868 Here we define a function @code{change-property} which |
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869 uses a function as its third argument: |
6455 | 870 |
871 @example | |
872 @group | |
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873 (defun change-property (symbol prop function) |
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874 (let ((value (get symbol prop))) |
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875 (put symbol prop (funcall function value)))) |
6455 | 876 @end group |
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877 @end example |
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878 |
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879 @noindent |
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880 Here we define a function that uses @code{change-property}, |
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881 passing it a function to double a number: |
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882 |
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883 @example |
6455 | 884 @group |
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885 (defun double-property (symbol prop) |
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886 (change-property symbol prop '(lambda (x) (* 2 x)))) |
6455 | 887 @end group |
888 @end example | |
889 | |
890 @noindent | |
891 In such cases, we usually use the special form @code{function} instead | |
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892 of simple quotation to quote the anonymous function, like this: |
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893 |
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894 @example |
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895 @group |
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896 (defun double-property (symbol prop) |
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897 (change-property symbol prop |
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898 (function (lambda (x) (* 2 x))))) |
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899 @end group |
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900 @end example |
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901 |
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902 Using @code{function} instead of @code{quote} makes a difference if you |
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903 compile the function @code{double-property}. For example, if you |
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904 compile the second definition of @code{double-property}, the anonymous |
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905 function is compiled as well. By contrast, if you compile the first |
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906 definition which uses ordinary @code{quote}, the argument passed to |
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907 @code{change-property} is the precise list shown: |
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908 |
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909 @example |
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910 (lambda (x) (* x 2)) |
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911 @end example |
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912 |
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913 @noindent |
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914 The Lisp compiler cannot assume this list is a function, even though it |
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915 looks like one, since it does not know what @code{change-property} will |
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916 do with the list. Perhaps it will check whether the @sc{car} of the third |
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917 element is the symbol @code{*}! Using @code{function} tells the |
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918 compiler it is safe to go ahead and compile the constant function. |
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919 |
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920 Nowadays it is possible to omit @code{function} entirely, like this: |
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921 |
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922 @example |
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923 @group |
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924 (defun double-property (symbol prop) |
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925 (change-property symbol prop (lambda (x) (* 2 x)))) |
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926 @end group |
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927 @end example |
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928 |
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929 @noindent |
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930 This is because @code{lambda} itself implies @code{function}. |
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931 |
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932 We sometimes write @code{function} instead of @code{quote} when |
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933 quoting the name of a function, but this usage is just a sort of |
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934 comment: |
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935 |
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936 @example |
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937 (function @var{symbol}) @equiv{} (quote @var{symbol}) @equiv{} '@var{symbol} |
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938 @end example |
6455 | 939 |
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940 @cindex @samp{#'} syntax |
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941 The read syntax @code{#'} is a short-hand for using @code{function}. |
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942 For example, |
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943 |
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944 @example |
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945 #'(lambda (x) (* x x)) |
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946 @end example |
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947 |
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948 @noindent |
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949 is equivalent to |
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950 |
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951 @example |
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952 (function (lambda (x) (* x x))) |
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953 @end example |
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954 |
6455 | 955 @defspec function function-object |
956 @cindex function quoting | |
957 This special form returns @var{function-object} without evaluating it. | |
958 In this, it is equivalent to @code{quote}. However, it serves as a | |
959 note to the Emacs Lisp compiler that @var{function-object} is intended | |
960 to be used only as a function, and therefore can safely be compiled. | |
961 Contrast this with @code{quote}, in @ref{Quoting}. | |
962 @end defspec | |
963 | |
964 See @code{documentation} in @ref{Accessing Documentation}, for a | |
965 realistic example using @code{function} and an anonymous function. | |
966 | |
967 @node Function Cells | |
968 @section Accessing Function Cell Contents | |
969 | |
970 The @dfn{function definition} of a symbol is the object stored in the | |
971 function cell of the symbol. The functions described here access, test, | |
972 and set the function cell of symbols. | |
973 | |
7193 | 974 See also the function @code{indirect-function} in @ref{Function |
975 Indirection}. | |
976 | |
6455 | 977 @defun symbol-function symbol |
978 @kindex void-function | |
979 This returns the object in the function cell of @var{symbol}. If the | |
980 symbol's function cell is void, a @code{void-function} error is | |
981 signaled. | |
982 | |
983 This function does not check that the returned object is a legitimate | |
984 function. | |
985 | |
986 @example | |
987 @group | |
988 (defun bar (n) (+ n 2)) | |
989 @result{} bar | |
990 @end group | |
991 @group | |
992 (symbol-function 'bar) | |
993 @result{} (lambda (n) (+ n 2)) | |
994 @end group | |
995 @group | |
996 (fset 'baz 'bar) | |
997 @result{} bar | |
998 @end group | |
999 @group | |
1000 (symbol-function 'baz) | |
1001 @result{} bar | |
1002 @end group | |
1003 @end example | |
1004 @end defun | |
1005 | |
1006 @cindex void function cell | |
1007 If you have never given a symbol any function definition, we say that | |
1008 that symbol's function cell is @dfn{void}. In other words, the function | |
1009 cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to call such a symbol | |
1010 as a function, it signals a @code{void-function} error. | |
1011 | |
1012 Note that void is not the same as @code{nil} or the symbol | |
1013 @code{void}. The symbols @code{nil} and @code{void} are Lisp objects, | |
1014 and can be stored into a function cell just as any other object can be | |
1015 (and they can be valid functions if you define them in turn with | |
7193 | 1016 @code{defun}). A void function cell contains no object whatsoever. |
6455 | 1017 |
1018 You can test the voidness of a symbol's function definition with | |
1019 @code{fboundp}. After you have given a symbol a function definition, you | |
1020 can make it void once more using @code{fmakunbound}. | |
1021 | |
1022 @defun fboundp symbol | |
1023 This function returns @code{t} if the symbol has an object in its | |
1024 function cell, @code{nil} otherwise. It does not check that the object | |
1025 is a legitimate function. | |
1026 @end defun | |
1027 | |
1028 @defun fmakunbound symbol | |
1029 This function makes @var{symbol}'s function cell void, so that a | |
1030 subsequent attempt to access this cell will cause a @code{void-function} | |
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1031 error. (See also @code{makunbound}, in @ref{Void Variables}.) |
6455 | 1032 |
1033 @example | |
1034 @group | |
1035 (defun foo (x) x) | |
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1036 @result{} foo |
6455 | 1037 @end group |
1038 @group | |
7193 | 1039 (foo 1) |
1040 @result{}1 | |
1041 @end group | |
1042 @group | |
6455 | 1043 (fmakunbound 'foo) |
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1044 @result{} foo |
6455 | 1045 @end group |
1046 @group | |
1047 (foo 1) | |
1048 @error{} Symbol's function definition is void: foo | |
1049 @end group | |
1050 @end example | |
1051 @end defun | |
1052 | |
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1053 @defun fset symbol definition |
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1054 This function stores @var{definition} in the function cell of |
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1055 @var{symbol}. The result is @var{definition}. Normally |
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1056 @var{definition} should be a function or the name of a function, but |
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1057 this is not checked. The argument @var{symbol} is an ordinary evaluated |
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1058 argument. |
6455 | 1059 |
1060 There are three normal uses of this function: | |
1061 | |
1062 @itemize @bullet | |
1063 @item | |
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1064 Copying one symbol's function definition to another---in other words, |
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1065 making an alternate name for a function. (If you think of this as the |
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1066 definition of the new name, you should use @code{defalias} instead of |
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1067 @code{fset}; see @ref{Defining Functions}.) |
6455 | 1068 |
1069 @item | |
1070 Giving a symbol a function definition that is not a list and therefore | |
7193 | 1071 cannot be made with @code{defun}. For example, you can use @code{fset} |
1072 to give a symbol @code{s1} a function definition which is another symbol | |
1073 @code{s2}; then @code{s1} serves as an alias for whatever definition | |
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1074 @code{s2} presently has. (Once again use @code{defalias} instead of |
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1075 @code{fset} if you think of this as the definition of @code{s1}.) |
6455 | 1076 |
1077 @item | |
1078 In constructs for defining or altering functions. If @code{defun} | |
1079 were not a primitive, it could be written in Lisp (as a macro) using | |
1080 @code{fset}. | |
1081 @end itemize | |
1082 | |
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1083 Here are examples of these uses: |
6455 | 1084 |
1085 @example | |
1086 @group | |
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1087 ;; @r{Save @code{foo}'s definition in @code{old-foo}.} |
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1088 (fset 'old-foo (symbol-function 'foo)) |
6455 | 1089 @end group |
1090 | |
1091 @group | |
1092 ;; @r{Make the symbol @code{car} the function definition of @code{xfirst}.} | |
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1093 ;; @r{(Most likely, @code{defalias} would be better than @code{fset} here.)} |
6455 | 1094 (fset 'xfirst 'car) |
1095 @result{} car | |
1096 @end group | |
1097 @group | |
1098 (xfirst '(1 2 3)) | |
1099 @result{} 1 | |
1100 @end group | |
1101 @group | |
1102 (symbol-function 'xfirst) | |
1103 @result{} car | |
1104 @end group | |
1105 @group | |
1106 (symbol-function (symbol-function 'xfirst)) | |
1107 @result{} #<subr car> | |
1108 @end group | |
1109 | |
1110 @group | |
1111 ;; @r{Define a named keyboard macro.} | |
1112 (fset 'kill-two-lines "\^u2\^k") | |
1113 @result{} "\^u2\^k" | |
1114 @end group | |
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1115 |
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1116 @group |
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1117 ;; @r{Here is a function that alters other functions.} |
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1118 (defun copy-function-definition (new old) |
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1119 "Define NEW with the same function definition as OLD." |
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1120 (fset new (symbol-function old))) |
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1121 @end group |
6455 | 1122 @end example |
1123 @end defun | |
1124 | |
1125 When writing a function that extends a previously defined function, | |
12098 | 1126 the following idiom is sometimes used: |
6455 | 1127 |
1128 @example | |
1129 (fset 'old-foo (symbol-function 'foo)) | |
1130 (defun foo () | |
1131 "Just like old-foo, except more so." | |
1132 @group | |
1133 (old-foo) | |
1134 (more-so)) | |
1135 @end group | |
1136 @end example | |
1137 | |
1138 @noindent | |
1139 This does not work properly if @code{foo} has been defined to autoload. | |
1140 In such a case, when @code{foo} calls @code{old-foo}, Lisp attempts | |
1141 to define @code{old-foo} by loading a file. Since this presumably | |
1142 defines @code{foo} rather than @code{old-foo}, it does not produce the | |
1143 proper results. The only way to avoid this problem is to make sure the | |
1144 file is loaded before moving aside the old definition of @code{foo}. | |
1145 | |
12098 | 1146 But it is unmodular and unclean, in any case, for a Lisp file to |
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1147 redefine a function defined elsewhere. It is cleaner to use the advice |
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1148 facility (@pxref{Advising Functions}). |
12098 | 1149 |
6455 | 1150 @node Inline Functions |
1151 @section Inline Functions | |
1152 @cindex inline functions | |
1153 | |
1154 @findex defsubst | |
1155 You can define an @dfn{inline function} by using @code{defsubst} instead | |
1156 of @code{defun}. An inline function works just like an ordinary | |
1157 function except for one thing: when you compile a call to the function, | |
1158 the function's definition is open-coded into the caller. | |
1159 | |
1160 Making a function inline makes explicit calls run faster. But it also | |
1161 has disadvantages. For one thing, it reduces flexibility; if you change | |
1162 the definition of the function, calls already inlined still use the old | |
1163 definition until you recompile them. Since the flexibility of | |
1164 redefining functions is an important feature of Emacs, you should not | |
1165 make a function inline unless its speed is really crucial. | |
1166 | |
1167 Another disadvantage is that making a large function inline can increase | |
1168 the size of compiled code both in files and in memory. Since the speed | |
1169 advantage of inline functions is greatest for small functions, you | |
1170 generally should not make large functions inline. | |
1171 | |
1172 It's possible to define a macro to expand into the same code that an | |
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1173 inline function would execute. (@xref{Macros}.) But the macro would be |
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1174 limited to direct use in expressions---a macro cannot be called with |
6455 | 1175 @code{apply}, @code{mapcar} and so on. Also, it takes some work to |
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1176 convert an ordinary function into a macro. To convert it into an inline |
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1177 function is very easy; simply replace @code{defun} with @code{defsubst}. |
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1178 Since each argument of an inline function is evaluated exactly once, you |
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1179 needn't worry about how many times the body uses the arguments, as you |
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1180 do for macros. (@xref{Argument Evaluation}.) |
6455 | 1181 |
7193 | 1182 Inline functions can be used and open-coded later on in the same file, |
6455 | 1183 following the definition, just like macros. |
1184 | |
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1185 @node Function Safety |
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1186 @section Determining whether a function is safe to call |
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1187 @cindex function safety |
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1188 @cindex safety of functions |
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1189 |
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1190 Some major modes such as SES (@pxref{Top,,,ses}) call functions that |
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1191 are stored in user files. User files sometimes have poor |
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1192 pedigrees---you can get a spreadsheet from someone you've just met, or |
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1193 you can get one through email from someone you've never met. So it is |
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1194 risky to call a function whose source code is stored in a user file |
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1195 until you have determined that it is safe. |
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1196 |
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1197 @defun unsafep form &optional unsafep-vars |
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1198 Returns @code{nil} if @var{form} is a @dfn{safe} lisp expression, or |
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1199 returns a list that describes why it might be unsafe. The argument |
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1200 @var{unsafep-vars} is a list of symbols known to have temporary |
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1201 bindings at this point; it is mainly used for internal recursive |
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1202 calls. The current buffer is an implicit argument, which provides a |
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1203 list of buffer-local bindings. |
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1204 @end defun |
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1205 |
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1206 Being quick and simple, @code{unsafep} does a very light analysis and |
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1207 rejects many Lisp expressions that are actually safe. There are no |
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1208 known cases where @code{unsafep} returns @code{nil} for an unsafe |
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1209 expression. However, a ``safe'' Lisp expression can return a string |
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1210 with a @code{display} property, containing an associated Lisp |
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1211 expression to be executed after the string is inserted into a buffer. |
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1212 This associated expression can be a virus. In order to be safe, you |
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1213 must delete properties from all strings calculated by user code before |
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1214 inserting them into buffers. |
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1215 |
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1216 @ignore |
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1217 What is a safe Lisp expression? Basically, it's an expression that |
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1218 calls only built-in functions with no side effects (or only innocuous |
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1219 ones). Innocuous side effects include displaying messages and |
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1220 altering non-risky buffer-local variables (but not global variables). |
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1221 |
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1222 @table @dfn |
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1223 @item Safe expression |
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1224 @itemize |
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1225 @item |
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1226 An atom or quoted thing. |
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1227 @item |
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1228 A call to a safe function (see below), if all its arguments are |
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1229 safe expressions. |
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1230 @item |
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1231 One of the special forms @code{and}, @code{catch}, @code{cond}, |
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1232 @code{if}, @code{or}, @code{prog1}, @code{prog2}, @code{progn}, |
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1233 @code{while}, and @code{unwind-protect}], if all its arguments are |
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1234 safe. |
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1235 @item |
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1236 A form that creates temporary bindings (@code{condition-case}, |
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1237 @code{dolist}, @code{dotimes}, @code{lambda}, @code{let}, or |
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1238 @code{let*}), if all args are safe and the symbols to be bound are not |
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1239 explicitly risky (see @pxref{File Local Variables}). |
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1240 @item |
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1241 An assignment using @code{add-to-list}, @code{setq}, @code{push}, or |
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1242 @code{pop}, if all args are safe and the symbols to be assigned are |
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1243 not explicitly risky and they already have temporary or buffer-local |
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1244 bindings. |
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1245 @item |
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1246 One of [apply, mapc, mapcar, mapconcat] if the first argument is a |
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1247 safe explicit lambda and the other args are safe expressions. |
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1248 @end itemize |
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1249 |
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1250 @item Safe function |
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1251 @itemize |
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1252 @item |
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1253 A lambda containing safe expressions. |
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1254 @item |
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1255 A symbol on the list @code{safe-functions}, so the user says it's safe. |
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1256 @item |
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1257 A symbol with a non-@code{nil} @code{side-effect-free} property. |
47667
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1258 @item |
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1259 A symbol with a non-@code{nil} @code{safe-function} property. Value t |
47667
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1260 indicates a function that is safe but has innocuous side effects. |
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1261 Other values will someday indicate functions with classes of side |
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1262 effects that are not always safe. |
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1263 @end itemize |
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1264 |
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1265 The @code{side-effect-free} and @code{safe-function} properties are |
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1266 provided for built-in functions and for low-level functions and macros |
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1267 defined in @file{subr.el}. You can assign these properties for the |
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1268 functions you write. |
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1269 @end table |
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1270 @end ignore |
6455 | 1271 |
1272 @node Related Topics | |
1273 @section Other Topics Related to Functions | |
1274 | |
1275 Here is a table of several functions that do things related to | |
1276 function calling and function definitions. They are documented | |
1277 elsewhere, but we provide cross references here. | |
1278 | |
1279 @table @code | |
1280 @item apply | |
1281 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1282 | |
1283 @item autoload | |
1284 See @ref{Autoload}. | |
1285 | |
1286 @item call-interactively | |
1287 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1288 | |
1289 @item commandp | |
1290 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1291 | |
1292 @item documentation | |
1293 See @ref{Accessing Documentation}. | |
1294 | |
1295 @item eval | |
1296 See @ref{Eval}. | |
1297 | |
1298 @item funcall | |
1299 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1300 | |
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1301 @item function |
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1302 See @ref{Anonymous Functions}. |
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1303 |
6455 | 1304 @item ignore |
1305 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1306 | |
1307 @item indirect-function | |
1308 See @ref{Function Indirection}. | |
1309 | |
1310 @item interactive | |
1311 See @ref{Using Interactive}. | |
1312 | |
1313 @item interactive-p | |
1314 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1315 | |
1316 @item mapatoms | |
1317 See @ref{Creating Symbols}. | |
1318 | |
1319 @item mapcar | |
1320 See @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
1321 | |
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1322 @item map-char-table |
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1323 See @ref{Char-Tables}. |
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1324 |
6455 | 1325 @item mapconcat |
1326 See @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
1327 | |
1328 @item undefined | |
1329 See @ref{Key Lookup}. | |
1330 @end table | |
1331 |