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author | Paul Eggert <eggert@twinsun.com> |
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date | Tue, 23 Sep 1997 18:23:17 +0000 |
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6510 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc. | |
4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. | |
5 @setfilename ../info/numbers | |
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6 @node Numbers, Strings and Characters, Lisp Data Types, Top |
6510 | 7 @chapter Numbers |
8 @cindex integers | |
9 @cindex numbers | |
10 | |
11 GNU Emacs supports two numeric data types: @dfn{integers} and | |
12 @dfn{floating point numbers}. Integers are whole numbers such as | |
13 @minus{}3, 0, 7, 13, and 511. Their values are exact. Floating point | |
14 numbers are numbers with fractional parts, such as @minus{}4.5, 0.0, or | |
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15 2.71828. They can also be expressed in exponential notation: |
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16 1.5e2 equals 150; in this example, @samp{e2} stands for ten to the |
6510 | 17 second power, and is multiplied by 1.5. Floating point values are not |
18 exact; they have a fixed, limited amount of precision. | |
19 | |
20 Support for floating point numbers is a new feature in Emacs 19, and it | |
21 is controlled by a separate compilation option, so you may encounter a site | |
22 where Emacs does not support them. | |
23 | |
24 @menu | |
25 * Integer Basics:: Representation and range of integers. | |
26 * Float Basics:: Representation and range of floating point. | |
27 * Predicates on Numbers:: Testing for numbers. | |
28 * Comparison of Numbers:: Equality and inequality predicates. | |
29 * Numeric Conversions:: Converting float to integer and vice versa. | |
30 * Arithmetic Operations:: How to add, subtract, multiply and divide. | |
31 * Rounding Operations:: Explicitly rounding floating point numbers. | |
32 * Bitwise Operations:: Logical and, or, not, shifting. | |
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33 * Math Functions:: Trig, exponential and logarithmic functions. |
6510 | 34 * Random Numbers:: Obtaining random integers, predictable or not. |
35 @end menu | |
36 | |
37 @node Integer Basics | |
38 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
39 @section Integer Basics | |
40 | |
41 The range of values for an integer depends on the machine. The | |
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42 minimum range is @minus{}134217728 to 134217727 (28 bits; i.e., |
6510 | 43 @ifinfo |
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44 -2**27 |
6510 | 45 @end ifinfo |
46 @tex | |
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47 $-2^{27}$ |
6510 | 48 @end tex |
49 to | |
50 @ifinfo | |
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51 2**27 - 1), |
6510 | 52 @end ifinfo |
53 @tex | |
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54 $2^{27}-1$), |
6510 | 55 @end tex |
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56 but some machines may provide a wider range. Many examples in this |
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57 chapter assume an integer has 28 bits. |
6510 | 58 @cindex overflow |
59 | |
60 The Lisp reader reads an integer as a sequence of digits with optional | |
61 initial sign and optional final period. | |
62 | |
63 @example | |
64 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
65 1. ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
66 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} | |
67 -1 ; @r{The integer @minus{}1.} | |
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68 268435457 ; @r{Also the integer 1, due to overflow.} |
6510 | 69 0 ; @r{The integer 0.} |
70 -0 ; @r{The integer 0.} | |
71 @end example | |
72 | |
73 To understand how various functions work on integers, especially the | |
74 bitwise operators (@pxref{Bitwise Operations}), it is often helpful to | |
75 view the numbers in their binary form. | |
76 | |
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77 In 28-bit binary, the decimal integer 5 looks like this: |
6510 | 78 |
79 @example | |
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80 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101 |
6510 | 81 @end example |
82 | |
83 @noindent | |
84 (We have inserted spaces between groups of 4 bits, and two spaces | |
85 between groups of 8 bits, to make the binary integer easier to read.) | |
86 | |
87 The integer @minus{}1 looks like this: | |
88 | |
89 @example | |
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90 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 91 @end example |
92 | |
93 @noindent | |
94 @cindex two's complement | |
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95 @minus{}1 is represented as 28 ones. (This is called @dfn{two's |
6510 | 96 complement} notation.) |
97 | |
98 The negative integer, @minus{}5, is creating by subtracting 4 from | |
99 @minus{}1. In binary, the decimal integer 4 is 100. Consequently, | |
100 @minus{}5 looks like this: | |
101 | |
102 @example | |
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103 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011 |
6510 | 104 @end example |
105 | |
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106 In this implementation, the largest 28-bit binary integer value is |
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107 134,217,727 in decimal. In binary, it looks like this: |
6510 | 108 |
109 @example | |
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110 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 111 @end example |
112 | |
113 Since the arithmetic functions do not check whether integers go | |
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114 outside their range, when you add 1 to 134,217,727, the value is the |
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115 negative integer @minus{}134,217,728: |
6510 | 116 |
117 @example | |
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118 (+ 1 134217727) |
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119 @result{} -134217728 |
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120 @result{} 1000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 |
6510 | 121 @end example |
122 | |
123 Many of the following functions accept markers for arguments as well | |
124 as integers. (@xref{Markers}.) More precisely, the actual arguments to | |
125 such functions may be either integers or markers, which is why we often | |
126 give these arguments the name @var{int-or-marker}. When the argument | |
127 value is a marker, its position value is used and its buffer is ignored. | |
128 | |
129 @ignore | |
130 In version 19, except where @emph{integer} is specified as an | |
131 argument, all of the functions for markers and integers also work for | |
132 floating point numbers. | |
133 @end ignore | |
134 | |
135 @node Float Basics | |
136 @section Floating Point Basics | |
137 | |
138 @cindex @code{LISP_FLOAT_TYPE} configuration macro | |
139 Emacs version 19 supports floating point numbers, if compiled with the | |
140 macro @code{LISP_FLOAT_TYPE} defined. The precise range of floating | |
141 point numbers is machine-specific; it is the same as the range of the C | |
142 data type @code{double} on the machine in question. | |
143 | |
144 The printed representation for floating point numbers requires either | |
145 a decimal point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or | |
146 both. For example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, | |
147 @samp{1.5e3}, and @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point | |
148 number whose value is 1500. They are all equivalent. You can also use | |
149 a minus sign to write negative floating point numbers, as in | |
150 @samp{-1.0}. | |
151 | |
152 @cindex IEEE floating point | |
153 @cindex positive infinity | |
154 @cindex negative infinity | |
155 @cindex infinity | |
156 @cindex NaN | |
157 Most modern computers support the IEEE floating point standard, which | |
158 provides for positive infinity and negative infinity as floating point | |
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159 values. It also provides for a class of values called NaN or |
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160 ``not-a-number''; numerical functions return such values in cases where |
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161 there is no correct answer. For example, @code{(sqrt -1.0)} returns a |
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162 NaN. For practical purposes, there's no significant difference between |
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163 different NaN values in Emacs Lisp, and there's no rule for precisely |
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164 which NaN value should be used in a particular case, so this manual |
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165 doesn't try to distinguish them. Emacs Lisp has no read syntax for NaNs |
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166 or infinities; perhaps we should create a syntax in the future. |
6510 | 167 |
168 You can use @code{logb} to extract the binary exponent of a floating | |
169 point number (or estimate the logarithm of an integer): | |
170 | |
171 @defun logb number | |
172 This function returns the binary exponent of @var{number}. More | |
173 precisely, the value is the logarithm of @var{number} base 2, rounded | |
174 down to an integer. | |
175 @end defun | |
176 | |
177 @node Predicates on Numbers | |
178 @section Type Predicates for Numbers | |
179 | |
180 The functions in this section test whether the argument is a number or | |
181 whether it is a certain sort of number. The functions @code{integerp} | |
182 and @code{floatp} can take any type of Lisp object as argument (the | |
183 predicates would not be of much use otherwise); but the @code{zerop} | |
184 predicate requires a number as its argument. See also | |
185 @code{integer-or-marker-p} and @code{number-or-marker-p}, in | |
186 @ref{Predicates on Markers}. | |
187 | |
188 @defun floatp object | |
189 This predicate tests whether its argument is a floating point | |
190 number and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
191 | |
192 @code{floatp} does not exist in Emacs versions 18 and earlier. | |
193 @end defun | |
194 | |
195 @defun integerp object | |
196 This predicate tests whether its argument is an integer, and returns | |
197 @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
198 @end defun | |
199 | |
200 @defun numberp object | |
201 This predicate tests whether its argument is a number (either integer or | |
202 floating point), and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
203 @end defun | |
204 | |
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205 @defun wholenump object |
6510 | 206 @cindex natural numbers |
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207 The @code{wholenump} predicate (whose name comes from the phrase |
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208 ``whole-number-p'') tests to see whether its argument is a nonnegative |
6510 | 209 integer, and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. 0 is |
210 considered non-negative. | |
211 | |
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212 @findex natnump |
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213 @code{natnump} is an obsolete synonym for @code{wholenump}. |
6510 | 214 @end defun |
215 | |
216 @defun zerop number | |
217 This predicate tests whether its argument is zero, and returns @code{t} | |
218 if so, @code{nil} otherwise. The argument must be a number. | |
219 | |
220 These two forms are equivalent: @code{(zerop x)} @equiv{} @code{(= x 0)}. | |
221 @end defun | |
222 | |
223 @node Comparison of Numbers | |
224 @section Comparison of Numbers | |
225 @cindex number equality | |
226 | |
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227 To test numbers for numerical equality, you should normally use |
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228 @code{=}, not @code{eq}. There can be many distinct floating point |
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229 number objects with the same numeric value. If you use @code{eq} to |
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230 compare them, then you test whether two values are the same |
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231 @emph{object}. By contrast, @code{=} compares only the numeric values |
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232 of the objects. |
6510 | 233 |
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234 At present, each integer value has a unique Lisp object in Emacs Lisp. |
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235 Therefore, @code{eq} is equivalent @code{=} where integers are |
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236 concerned. It is sometimes convenient to use @code{eq} for comparing an |
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237 unknown value with an integer, because @code{eq} does not report an |
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238 error if the unknown value is not a number---it accepts arguments of any |
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239 type. By contrast, @code{=} signals an error if the arguments are not |
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240 numbers or markers. However, it is a good idea to use @code{=} if you |
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241 can, even for comparing integers, just in case we change the |
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242 representation of integers in a future Emacs version. |
6510 | 243 |
244 There is another wrinkle: because floating point arithmetic is not | |
245 exact, it is often a bad idea to check for equality of two floating | |
246 point values. Usually it is better to test for approximate equality. | |
247 Here's a function to do this: | |
248 | |
249 @example | |
250 (defvar fuzz-factor 1.0e-6) | |
251 (defun approx-equal (x y) | |
12098 | 252 (or (and (= x 0) (= y 0)) |
253 (< (/ (abs (- x y)) | |
254 (max (abs x) (abs y))) | |
255 fuzz-factor))) | |
6510 | 256 @end example |
257 | |
258 @cindex CL note---integers vrs @code{eq} | |
259 @quotation | |
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260 @b{Common Lisp note:} Comparing numbers in Common Lisp always requires |
6510 | 261 @code{=} because Common Lisp implements multi-word integers, and two |
262 distinct integer objects can have the same numeric value. Emacs Lisp | |
263 can have just one integer object for any given value because it has a | |
264 limited range of integer values. | |
265 @end quotation | |
266 | |
267 @defun = number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
268 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and | |
269 returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
270 @end defun | |
271 | |
272 @defun /= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
273 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and | |
274 returns @code{t} if they are not, and @code{nil} if they are. | |
275 @end defun | |
276 | |
277 @defun < number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
278 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly less than | |
279 its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
280 @end defun | |
281 | |
282 @defun <= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
283 This function tests whether its first argument is less than or equal | |
284 to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
285 otherwise. | |
286 @end defun | |
287 | |
288 @defun > number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
289 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly greater | |
290 than its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
291 otherwise. | |
292 @end defun | |
293 | |
294 @defun >= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
295 This function tests whether its first argument is greater than or | |
296 equal to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
297 otherwise. | |
298 @end defun | |
299 | |
300 @defun max number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers | |
301 This function returns the largest of its arguments. | |
302 | |
303 @example | |
304 (max 20) | |
305 @result{} 20 | |
306 (max 1 2.5) | |
307 @result{} 2.5 | |
308 (max 1 3 2.5) | |
309 @result{} 3 | |
310 @end example | |
311 @end defun | |
312 | |
313 @defun min number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers | |
314 This function returns the smallest of its arguments. | |
315 | |
316 @example | |
317 (min -4 1) | |
318 @result{} -4 | |
319 @end example | |
320 @end defun | |
321 | |
322 @node Numeric Conversions | |
323 @section Numeric Conversions | |
324 @cindex rounding in conversions | |
325 | |
326 To convert an integer to floating point, use the function @code{float}. | |
327 | |
328 @defun float number | |
329 This returns @var{number} converted to floating point. | |
330 If @var{number} is already a floating point number, @code{float} returns | |
331 it unchanged. | |
332 @end defun | |
333 | |
334 There are four functions to convert floating point numbers to integers; | |
335 they differ in how they round. These functions accept integer arguments | |
336 also, and return such arguments unchanged. | |
337 | |
338 @defun truncate number | |
339 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards | |
340 zero. | |
341 @end defun | |
342 | |
343 @defun floor number &optional divisor | |
344 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding downward | |
345 (towards negative infinity). | |
346 | |
347 If @var{divisor} is specified, @var{number} is divided by @var{divisor} | |
348 before the floor is taken; this is the division operation that | |
349 corresponds to @code{mod}. An @code{arith-error} results if | |
350 @var{divisor} is 0. | |
351 @end defun | |
352 | |
353 @defun ceiling number | |
354 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding upward | |
355 (towards positive infinity). | |
356 @end defun | |
357 | |
358 @defun round number | |
359 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards the | |
12098 | 360 nearest integer. Rounding a value equidistant between two integers |
361 may choose the integer closer to zero, or it may prefer an even integer, | |
362 depending on your machine. | |
6510 | 363 @end defun |
364 | |
365 @node Arithmetic Operations | |
366 @section Arithmetic Operations | |
367 | |
368 Emacs Lisp provides the traditional four arithmetic operations: | |
369 addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Remainder and modulus | |
370 functions supplement the division functions. The functions to | |
371 add or subtract 1 are provided because they are traditional in Lisp and | |
372 commonly used. | |
373 | |
374 All of these functions except @code{%} return a floating point value | |
375 if any argument is floating. | |
376 | |
377 It is important to note that in GNU Emacs Lisp, arithmetic functions | |
12067 | 378 do not check for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 134217727)} may evaluate to |
379 @minus{}134217728, depending on your hardware. | |
6510 | 380 |
381 @defun 1+ number-or-marker | |
382 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} plus 1. | |
383 For example, | |
384 | |
385 @example | |
386 (setq foo 4) | |
387 @result{} 4 | |
388 (1+ foo) | |
389 @result{} 5 | |
390 @end example | |
391 | |
12098 | 392 This function is not analogous to the C operator @code{++}---it does not |
393 increment a variable. It just computes a sum. Thus, if we continue, | |
6510 | 394 |
395 @example | |
396 foo | |
397 @result{} 4 | |
398 @end example | |
399 | |
400 If you want to increment the variable, you must use @code{setq}, | |
401 like this: | |
402 | |
403 @example | |
404 (setq foo (1+ foo)) | |
405 @result{} 5 | |
406 @end example | |
407 @end defun | |
408 | |
409 @defun 1- number-or-marker | |
410 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} minus 1. | |
411 @end defun | |
412 | |
413 @defun abs number | |
414 This returns the absolute value of @var{number}. | |
415 @end defun | |
416 | |
417 @defun + &rest numbers-or-markers | |
418 This function adds its arguments together. When given no arguments, | |
12098 | 419 @code{+} returns 0. |
6510 | 420 |
421 @example | |
422 (+) | |
423 @result{} 0 | |
424 (+ 1) | |
425 @result{} 1 | |
426 (+ 1 2 3 4) | |
427 @result{} 10 | |
428 @end example | |
429 @end defun | |
430 | |
431 @defun - &optional number-or-marker &rest other-numbers-or-markers | |
432 The @code{-} function serves two purposes: negation and subtraction. | |
433 When @code{-} has a single argument, the value is the negative of the | |
434 argument. When there are multiple arguments, @code{-} subtracts each of | |
435 the @var{other-numbers-or-markers} from @var{number-or-marker}, | |
12098 | 436 cumulatively. If there are no arguments, the result is 0. |
6510 | 437 |
438 @example | |
439 (- 10 1 2 3 4) | |
440 @result{} 0 | |
441 (- 10) | |
442 @result{} -10 | |
443 (-) | |
444 @result{} 0 | |
445 @end example | |
446 @end defun | |
447 | |
448 @defun * &rest numbers-or-markers | |
449 This function multiplies its arguments together, and returns the | |
12098 | 450 product. When given no arguments, @code{*} returns 1. |
6510 | 451 |
452 @example | |
453 (*) | |
454 @result{} 1 | |
455 (* 1) | |
456 @result{} 1 | |
457 (* 1 2 3 4) | |
458 @result{} 24 | |
459 @end example | |
460 @end defun | |
461 | |
462 @defun / dividend divisor &rest divisors | |
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463 This function divides @var{dividend} by @var{divisor} and returns the |
6510 | 464 quotient. If there are additional arguments @var{divisors}, then it |
465 divides @var{dividend} by each divisor in turn. Each argument may be a | |
466 number or a marker. | |
467 | |
468 If all the arguments are integers, then the result is an integer too. | |
469 This means the result has to be rounded. On most machines, the result | |
470 is rounded towards zero after each division, but some machines may round | |
471 differently with negative arguments. This is because the Lisp function | |
472 @code{/} is implemented using the C division operator, which also | |
473 permits machine-dependent rounding. As a practical matter, all known | |
474 machines round in the standard fashion. | |
475 | |
476 @cindex @code{arith-error} in division | |
477 If you divide by 0, an @code{arith-error} error is signaled. | |
478 (@xref{Errors}.) | |
479 | |
480 @example | |
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481 @group |
6510 | 482 (/ 6 2) |
483 @result{} 3 | |
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484 @end group |
6510 | 485 (/ 5 2) |
486 @result{} 2 | |
487 (/ 25 3 2) | |
488 @result{} 4 | |
489 (/ -17 6) | |
490 @result{} -2 | |
491 @end example | |
492 | |
493 The result of @code{(/ -17 6)} could in principle be -3 on some | |
494 machines. | |
495 @end defun | |
496 | |
497 @defun % dividend divisor | |
498 @cindex remainder | |
499 This function returns the integer remainder after division of @var{dividend} | |
500 by @var{divisor}. The arguments must be integers or markers. | |
501 | |
502 For negative arguments, the remainder is in principle machine-dependent | |
503 since the quotient is; but in practice, all known machines behave alike. | |
504 | |
505 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. | |
506 | |
507 @example | |
508 (% 9 4) | |
509 @result{} 1 | |
510 (% -9 4) | |
511 @result{} -1 | |
512 (% 9 -4) | |
513 @result{} 1 | |
514 (% -9 -4) | |
515 @result{} -1 | |
516 @end example | |
517 | |
518 For any two integers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor}, | |
519 | |
520 @example | |
521 @group | |
522 (+ (% @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) | |
523 (* (/ @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor})) | |
524 @end group | |
525 @end example | |
526 | |
527 @noindent | |
528 always equals @var{dividend}. | |
529 @end defun | |
530 | |
531 @defun mod dividend divisor | |
532 @cindex modulus | |
533 This function returns the value of @var{dividend} modulo @var{divisor}; | |
534 in other words, the remainder after division of @var{dividend} | |
535 by @var{divisor}, but with the same sign as @var{divisor}. | |
536 The arguments must be numbers or markers. | |
537 | |
538 Unlike @code{%}, @code{mod} returns a well-defined result for negative | |
539 arguments. It also permits floating point arguments; it rounds the | |
540 quotient downward (towards minus infinity) to an integer, and uses that | |
541 quotient to compute the remainder. | |
542 | |
543 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. | |
544 | |
545 @example | |
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546 @group |
6510 | 547 (mod 9 4) |
548 @result{} 1 | |
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549 @end group |
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550 @group |
6510 | 551 (mod -9 4) |
552 @result{} 3 | |
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553 @end group |
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554 @group |
6510 | 555 (mod 9 -4) |
556 @result{} -3 | |
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557 @end group |
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558 @group |
6510 | 559 (mod -9 -4) |
560 @result{} -1 | |
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561 @end group |
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562 @group |
6510 | 563 (mod 5.5 2.5) |
564 @result{} .5 | |
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565 @end group |
6510 | 566 @end example |
567 | |
568 For any two numbers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor}, | |
569 | |
570 @example | |
571 @group | |
572 (+ (mod @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) | |
573 (* (floor @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor})) | |
574 @end group | |
575 @end example | |
576 | |
577 @noindent | |
12098 | 578 always equals @var{dividend}, subject to rounding error if either |
579 argument is floating point. For @code{floor}, see @ref{Numeric | |
580 Conversions}. | |
6510 | 581 @end defun |
582 | |
583 @node Rounding Operations | |
584 @section Rounding Operations | |
585 @cindex rounding without conversion | |
586 | |
8017 | 587 The functions @code{ffloor}, @code{fceiling}, @code{fround} and |
6510 | 588 @code{ftruncate} take a floating point argument and return a floating |
589 point result whose value is a nearby integer. @code{ffloor} returns the | |
8017 | 590 nearest integer below; @code{fceiling}, the nearest integer above; |
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591 @code{ftruncate}, the nearest integer in the direction towards zero; |
6510 | 592 @code{fround}, the nearest integer. |
593 | |
594 @defun ffloor float | |
595 This function rounds @var{float} to the next lower integral value, and | |
596 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
597 @end defun | |
598 | |
8017 | 599 @defun fceiling float |
6510 | 600 This function rounds @var{float} to the next higher integral value, and |
601 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
602 @end defun | |
603 | |
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604 @defun ftruncate float |
6510 | 605 This function rounds @var{float} towards zero to an integral value, and |
606 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
607 @end defun | |
608 | |
609 @defun fround float | |
610 This function rounds @var{float} to the nearest integral value, | |
611 and returns that value as a floating point number. | |
612 @end defun | |
613 | |
614 @node Bitwise Operations | |
615 @section Bitwise Operations on Integers | |
616 | |
617 In a computer, an integer is represented as a binary number, a | |
618 sequence of @dfn{bits} (digits which are either zero or one). A bitwise | |
619 operation acts on the individual bits of such a sequence. For example, | |
620 @dfn{shifting} moves the whole sequence left or right one or more places, | |
621 reproducing the same pattern ``moved over''. | |
622 | |
623 The bitwise operations in Emacs Lisp apply only to integers. | |
624 | |
625 @defun lsh integer1 count | |
626 @cindex logical shift | |
627 @code{lsh}, which is an abbreviation for @dfn{logical shift}, shifts the | |
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628 bits in @var{integer1} to the left @var{count} places, or to the right |
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629 if @var{count} is negative, bringing zeros into the vacated bits. If |
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630 @var{count} is negative, @code{lsh} shifts zeros into the leftmost |
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631 (most-significant) bit, producing a positive result even if |
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632 @var{integer1} is negative. Contrast this with @code{ash}, below. |
6510 | 633 |
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634 Here are two examples of @code{lsh}, shifting a pattern of bits one |
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635 place to the left. We show only the low-order eight bits of the binary |
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636 pattern; the rest are all zero. |
6510 | 637 |
638 @example | |
639 @group | |
640 (lsh 5 1) | |
641 @result{} 10 | |
642 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 10.} | |
643 00000101 @result{} 00001010 | |
644 | |
645 (lsh 7 1) | |
646 @result{} 14 | |
647 ;; @r{Decimal 7 becomes decimal 14.} | |
648 00000111 @result{} 00001110 | |
649 @end group | |
650 @end example | |
651 | |
652 @noindent | |
653 As the examples illustrate, shifting the pattern of bits one place to | |
654 the left produces a number that is twice the value of the previous | |
655 number. | |
656 | |
12098 | 657 Shifting a pattern of bits two places to the left produces results |
658 like this (with 8-bit binary numbers): | |
659 | |
660 @example | |
661 @group | |
662 (lsh 3 2) | |
663 @result{} 12 | |
664 ;; @r{Decimal 3 becomes decimal 12.} | |
665 00000011 @result{} 00001100 | |
666 @end group | |
667 @end example | |
668 | |
669 On the other hand, shifting one place to the right looks like this: | |
670 | |
671 @example | |
672 @group | |
673 (lsh 6 -1) | |
674 @result{} 3 | |
675 ;; @r{Decimal 6 becomes decimal 3.} | |
676 00000110 @result{} 00000011 | |
677 @end group | |
678 | |
679 @group | |
680 (lsh 5 -1) | |
681 @result{} 2 | |
682 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 2.} | |
683 00000101 @result{} 00000010 | |
684 @end group | |
685 @end example | |
686 | |
687 @noindent | |
688 As the example illustrates, shifting one place to the right divides the | |
689 value of a positive integer by two, rounding downward. | |
690 | |
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691 The function @code{lsh}, like all Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions, does |
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692 not check for overflow, so shifting left can discard significant bits |
12067 | 693 and change the sign of the number. For example, left shifting |
694 134,217,727 produces @minus{}2 on a 28-bit machine: | |
6510 | 695 |
696 @example | |
12067 | 697 (lsh 134217727 1) ; @r{left shift} |
6510 | 698 @result{} -2 |
699 @end example | |
700 | |
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701 In binary, in the 28-bit implementation, the argument looks like this: |
6510 | 702 |
703 @example | |
704 @group | |
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705 ;; @r{Decimal 134,217,727} |
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706 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 707 @end group |
708 @end example | |
709 | |
710 @noindent | |
711 which becomes the following when left shifted: | |
712 | |
713 @example | |
714 @group | |
715 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}2} | |
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716 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 |
6510 | 717 @end group |
718 @end example | |
719 @end defun | |
720 | |
721 @defun ash integer1 count | |
722 @cindex arithmetic shift | |
723 @code{ash} (@dfn{arithmetic shift}) shifts the bits in @var{integer1} | |
724 to the left @var{count} places, or to the right if @var{count} | |
725 is negative. | |
726 | |
727 @code{ash} gives the same results as @code{lsh} except when | |
728 @var{integer1} and @var{count} are both negative. In that case, | |
12098 | 729 @code{ash} puts ones in the empty bit positions on the left, while |
730 @code{lsh} puts zeros in those bit positions. | |
6510 | 731 |
732 Thus, with @code{ash}, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right | |
733 looks like this: | |
734 | |
735 @example | |
736 @group | |
737 (ash -6 -1) @result{} -3 | |
738 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal @minus{}3.} | |
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739 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010 |
6510 | 740 @result{} |
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741 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101 |
6510 | 742 @end group |
743 @end example | |
744 | |
745 In contrast, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right with | |
746 @code{lsh} looks like this: | |
747 | |
748 @example | |
749 @group | |
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750 (lsh -6 -1) @result{} 134217725 |
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751 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal 134,217,725.} |
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752 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010 |
6510 | 753 @result{} |
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754 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101 |
6510 | 755 @end group |
756 @end example | |
757 | |
758 Here are other examples: | |
759 | |
760 @c !!! Check if lined up in smallbook format! XDVI shows problem | |
761 @c with smallbook but not with regular book! --rjc 16mar92 | |
762 @smallexample | |
763 @group | |
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764 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 765 |
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766 (lsh 5 2) ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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767 @result{} 20 ; = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001 0100} |
6510 | 768 @end group |
769 @group | |
770 (ash 5 2) | |
771 @result{} 20 | |
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772 (lsh -5 2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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773 @result{} -20 ; = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 1100} |
6510 | 774 (ash -5 2) |
775 @result{} -20 | |
776 @end group | |
777 @group | |
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778 (lsh 5 -2) ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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779 @result{} 1 ; = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001} |
6510 | 780 @end group |
781 @group | |
782 (ash 5 -2) | |
783 @result{} 1 | |
784 @end group | |
785 @group | |
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786 (lsh -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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787 @result{} 4194302 ; = @r{0011 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110} |
6510 | 788 @end group |
789 @group | |
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790 (ash -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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791 @result{} -2 ; = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110} |
6510 | 792 @end group |
793 @end smallexample | |
794 @end defun | |
795 | |
796 @defun logand &rest ints-or-markers | |
797 @cindex logical and | |
798 @cindex bitwise and | |
799 This function returns the ``logical and'' of the arguments: the | |
800 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is | |
801 set in all the arguments. (``Set'' means that the value of the bit is 1 | |
802 rather than 0.) | |
803 | |
804 For example, using 4-bit binary numbers, the ``logical and'' of 13 and | |
805 12 is 12: 1101 combined with 1100 produces 1100. | |
806 In both the binary numbers, the leftmost two bits are set (i.e., they | |
807 are 1's), so the leftmost two bits of the returned value are set. | |
808 However, for the rightmost two bits, each is zero in at least one of | |
809 the arguments, so the rightmost two bits of the returned value are 0's. | |
810 | |
811 @noindent | |
812 Therefore, | |
813 | |
814 @example | |
815 @group | |
816 (logand 13 12) | |
817 @result{} 12 | |
818 @end group | |
819 @end example | |
820 | |
821 If @code{logand} is not passed any argument, it returns a value of | |
822 @minus{}1. This number is an identity element for @code{logand} | |
823 because its binary representation consists entirely of ones. If | |
824 @code{logand} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument. | |
825 | |
826 @smallexample | |
827 @group | |
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828 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 829 |
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830 (logand 14 13) ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
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831 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
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832 @result{} 12 ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
6510 | 833 @end group |
834 | |
835 @group | |
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836 (logand 14 13 4) ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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837 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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838 ; 4 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100} |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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839 @result{} 4 ; 4 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100} |
6510 | 840 @end group |
841 | |
842 @group | |
843 (logand) | |
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844 @result{} -1 ; -1 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111} |
6510 | 845 @end group |
846 @end smallexample | |
847 @end defun | |
848 | |
849 @defun logior &rest ints-or-markers | |
850 @cindex logical inclusive or | |
851 @cindex bitwise or | |
852 This function returns the ``inclusive or'' of its arguments: the @var{n}th bit | |
853 is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is set in at least | |
854 one of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the result is zero, | |
855 which is an identity element for this operation. If @code{logior} is | |
856 passed just one argument, it returns that argument. | |
857 | |
858 @smallexample | |
859 @group | |
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860 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 861 |
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862 (logior 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
863 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
864 @result{} 13 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
6510 | 865 @end group |
866 | |
867 @group | |
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868 (logior 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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parents:
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changeset
|
869 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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parents:
8017
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|
870 ; 7 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
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|
871 @result{} 15 ; 15 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111} |
6510 | 872 @end group |
873 @end smallexample | |
874 @end defun | |
875 | |
876 @defun logxor &rest ints-or-markers | |
877 @cindex bitwise exclusive or | |
878 @cindex logical exclusive or | |
879 This function returns the ``exclusive or'' of its arguments: the | |
7115
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880 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is |
9a9e88e65617
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881 set in an odd number of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the |
9a9e88e65617
*** empty log message ***
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882 result is 0, which is an identity element for this operation. If |
9a9e88e65617
*** empty log message ***
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883 @code{logxor} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument. |
6510 | 884 |
885 @smallexample | |
886 @group | |
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887 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 888 |
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|
889 (logxor 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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diff
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|
890 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
891 @result{} 9 ; 9 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1001} |
6510 | 892 @end group |
893 | |
894 @group | |
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895 (logxor 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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changeset
|
896 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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8017
diff
changeset
|
897 ; 7 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
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diff
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|
898 @result{} 14 ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
6510 | 899 @end group |
900 @end smallexample | |
901 @end defun | |
902 | |
903 @defun lognot integer | |
904 @cindex logical not | |
905 @cindex bitwise not | |
906 This function returns the logical complement of its argument: the @var{n}th | |
907 bit is one in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is zero in | |
908 @var{integer}, and vice-versa. | |
909 | |
910 @example | |
911 (lognot 5) | |
912 @result{} -6 | |
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|
913 ;; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
6510 | 914 ;; @r{becomes} |
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915 ;; -6 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010} |
6510 | 916 @end example |
917 @end defun | |
918 | |
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Don't call the special math functions "transcendental".
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|
919 @node Math Functions |
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920 @section Standard Mathematical Functions |
6510 | 921 @cindex transcendental functions |
922 @cindex mathematical functions | |
923 | |
924 These mathematical functions are available if floating point is | |
925 supported. They allow integers as well as floating point numbers | |
926 as arguments. | |
927 | |
928 @defun sin arg | |
929 @defunx cos arg | |
930 @defunx tan arg | |
931 These are the ordinary trigonometric functions, with argument measured | |
932 in radians. | |
933 @end defun | |
934 | |
935 @defun asin arg | |
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936 The value of @code{(asin @var{arg})} is a number between @minus{}pi/2 |
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937 and pi/2 (inclusive) whose sine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} |
6510 | 938 is out of range (outside [-1, 1]), then the result is a NaN. |
939 @end defun | |
940 | |
941 @defun acos arg | |
942 The value of @code{(acos @var{arg})} is a number between 0 and pi | |
943 (inclusive) whose cosine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} | |
944 is out of range (outside [-1, 1]), then the result is a NaN. | |
945 @end defun | |
946 | |
947 @defun atan arg | |
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948 The value of @code{(atan @var{arg})} is a number between @minus{}pi/2 |
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949 and pi/2 (exclusive) whose tangent is @var{arg}. |
6510 | 950 @end defun |
951 | |
952 @defun exp arg | |
953 This is the exponential function; it returns @i{e} to the power | |
954 @var{arg}. @i{e} is a fundamental mathematical constant also called the | |
955 base of natural logarithms. | |
956 @end defun | |
957 | |
958 @defun log arg &optional base | |
959 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base @var{base}. | |
960 If you don't specify @var{base}, the base @var{e} is used. If @var{arg} | |
961 is negative, the result is a NaN. | |
962 @end defun | |
963 | |
964 @ignore | |
965 @defun expm1 arg | |
966 This function returns @code{(1- (exp @var{arg}))}, but it is more | |
967 accurate than that when @var{arg} is negative and @code{(exp @var{arg})} | |
968 is close to 1. | |
969 @end defun | |
970 | |
971 @defun log1p arg | |
972 This function returns @code{(log (1+ @var{arg}))}, but it is more | |
973 accurate than that when @var{arg} is so small that adding 1 to it would | |
974 lose accuracy. | |
975 @end defun | |
976 @end ignore | |
977 | |
978 @defun log10 arg | |
979 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base 10. If | |
7115
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980 @var{arg} is negative, the result is a NaN. @code{(log10 @var{x})} |
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981 @equiv{} @code{(log @var{x} 10)}, at least approximately. |
6510 | 982 @end defun |
983 | |
984 @defun expt x y | |
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|
985 This function returns @var{x} raised to power @var{y}. If both |
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|
986 arguments are integers and @var{y} is positive, the result is an |
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|
987 integer; in this case, it is truncated to fit the range of possible |
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|
988 integer values. |
6510 | 989 @end defun |
990 | |
991 @defun sqrt arg | |
992 This returns the square root of @var{arg}. If @var{arg} is negative, | |
993 the value is a NaN. | |
994 @end defun | |
995 | |
996 @node Random Numbers | |
997 @section Random Numbers | |
998 @cindex random numbers | |
999 | |
1000 A deterministic computer program cannot generate true random numbers. | |
1001 For most purposes, @dfn{pseudo-random numbers} suffice. A series of | |
1002 pseudo-random numbers is generated in a deterministic fashion. The | |
1003 numbers are not truly random, but they have certain properties that | |
1004 mimic a random series. For example, all possible values occur equally | |
1005 often in a pseudo-random series. | |
1006 | |
1007 In Emacs, pseudo-random numbers are generated from a ``seed'' number. | |
1008 Starting from any given seed, the @code{random} function always | |
1009 generates the same sequence of numbers. Emacs always starts with the | |
1010 same seed value, so the sequence of values of @code{random} is actually | |
1011 the same in each Emacs run! For example, in one operating system, the | |
1012 first call to @code{(random)} after you start Emacs always returns | |
1013 -1457731, and the second one always returns -7692030. This | |
1014 repeatability is helpful for debugging. | |
1015 | |
1016 If you want truly unpredictable random numbers, execute @code{(random | |
1017 t)}. This chooses a new seed based on the current time of day and on | |
1018 Emacs's process @sc{id} number. | |
1019 | |
1020 @defun random &optional limit | |
1021 This function returns a pseudo-random integer. Repeated calls return a | |
1022 series of pseudo-random integers. | |
1023 | |
12067 | 1024 If @var{limit} is a positive integer, the value is chosen to be |
12098 | 1025 nonnegative and less than @var{limit}. |
6510 | 1026 |
1027 If @var{limit} is @code{t}, it means to choose a new seed based on the | |
1028 current time of day and on Emacs's process @sc{id} number. | |
1029 @c "Emacs'" is incorrect usage! | |
1030 | |
1031 On some machines, any integer representable in Lisp may be the result | |
1032 of @code{random}. On other machines, the result can never be larger | |
1033 than a certain maximum or less than a certain (negative) minimum. | |
1034 @end defun |